Data Link Layer Basics

Byte Stuffing Also referred to as character stuffing. ASCII characters are used as framing delimiters (e.g. DLE STX and DLE ETX The !ro"lem occurs #hen these character !atterns occur #ithin the $trans!arent%data. Solution& sender stuffs an e'tra DLE into the data stream (ust "efore each occurrence of an )accidental* DLE in the data stream. The data lin+ layer on the recei,ing end unstuffs the DLE "efore gi,ing the data to the net#or+ layer. Bit Stuffing Each frame "egins and ends #ith a s!ecial "it !attern called a flag "yte -.//////.0 .12ote this is 3E in he'4 5hene,er sender data lin+ layer encounters fi,e consecuti,e ones in the data stream6 it automatically stuffs a . "it into the outgoing stream. 5hen the recei,er sees fi,e consecuti,e incoming ones follo#ed "y a . "it6 it automatically dyestuffs the . "it "efore sending the data to the net#or+ layer

Ethernet Cables

Category 3 UTP 10 Mbps

16 MHz Category 5 UTP 10/100 Mbps 100 MHz Category 5 e UTP 1000 Mbps 100 MHz Category 6 UTP or STP 1000 Mbps 250 MHz Category 6 a STP 10,000 Mbps 500 MHz Category 7 SSTP 10,000 Mbps
DNS COMPONENTS& The D2S consists of three com!onents. The first is a 72ame S!ace7 that esta"lishes the syntactical rules for creating and structuring legal D2S names. The second is a 78lo"ally Distri"uted Data"ase7 im!lemented on a net#or+ of 72ame Ser,ers7. The third is 79esol,er7 soft#are6 #hich understands ho# to formulate a D2S :uery and is "uilt into !ractically e,ery Internet;ca!a"le a!!lication. (A 2ame S!ace& The D2S 72ame S!ace7 is the familiar in,erted tree hierarchy #ith a null node named 77 at the to!. The child nodes of the root node are the To! Le,el Domains (TLDs ;.com6 .net6 .org6 .go,6 .mil;and the country code TLDs6 including .(!6 .u+6 .us6 .ca6 and so forth. 2ode names6 +no#n as

la"els6 can "e as many as <= characters long6 #ith u!!er; and lo#er;case al!ha"etical letters6 numerals6 and the hy!hen sym"ol constituting the com!lete list of legal characters. La"els cannot "egin #ith a hy!hen. >!!er; and lo#er;case letters are treated e:ui,alently. A la"el can a!!ear in multi!le !laces #ithin the name s!ace6 "ut no t#o nodes #ith the same la"el can ha,e the

Advantages of SNMP: -Ability to collect information on many types Trap agents in the network management station and notification of the occurrence of specific events -!"change of information between the management group into managers of the facility management #version $% -&enerate relatively little traffic through -Agent software takes very little memory and resources the use of '(P

-Protocol allows controlling the amount of data sent to the network and the waiting time for response e)uipment* -+ompatibility of different versions of databases with different versions of SNMP with few e"ceptions -,uite a good safety system using primarily known encryption algorithms #mainly the SNMP version -%*

(isadvantages of SNMP:

-.uilding comple" software Agent -/educing network bandwidth -Problem with support for very large networks because of the low efficiency of management in a polling mode -there are no ade)uate mechanisms to guarantee security #mainly version 0 and $% -1t is not possible to accept receipt of a warning sent by the Agent #resulting from the construction of the '(P protocol - no confirmation during data transmission%

Hamming Distance
In order to dete t or orre t trans!"ss"on or storage errors, so!e add"t"ona#, red$ndant b"ts, a##ed % &e ' b"ts%, an be added to a n$!ber o( data b"ts to onstr$ t a codeword)
Hamming Distance

T&e n$!ber o( orrespond"ng b"ts t&at d"((er bet*een t*o ode*ords "s t&e Hamming distance o( t&ose t*o ode*ords) +See ,)-) Ha!!"ng, %.rror /ete t"ng and .rror Corre t"ng Codes,% Bell System Technical Journal, 0o#) 21, pp) 1273160, 4pr"# 1150)5 6or e7a!p#e, t&e Ha!!"ng d"stan e bet*een t&e ode*ords 1001 and 0101 "s 2) T&e Ha!!"ng d"stan e o( t*o ode*ords an be a# $#ated as t&e n$!ber o( 1 b"ts "n t&e b"t*"se e7 #$s"0e3or o( t&e t*o ode*ords8 1001 7or 0101 9 1100) 4 code "s t&e set o( a## ode*ords o( a g"0en #engt& t&at are onstr$ ted by add"ng a spe "("ed n$!ber o( &e ' d"g"ts "n a spe "("ed *ay to a spe "("ed n$!ber o( data b"ts) T&e minimum Hamming distance o( a ode "s t&e !"n"!$! o( t&e Ha!!"ng d"stan e bet*een a## poss"b#e pa"rs o( ode*ords o( t&at ode) ,e!ote Mon"tor"ng +,M:;5 "s a standard !on"tor"ng spe "(" at"on t&at enab#es 0ar"o$s net*or' !on"tors and onso#e syste!s to e7 &ange net*or'3!on"tor"ng data) ,M:; pro0"des net*or' ad!"n"strators *"t& !ore (reedo! "n se#e t"ng net*or'3!on"tor"ng probes and onso#es *"t& (eat$res t&at !eet t&e"r part" $#ar net*or'"ng needs) 4n ,M:; "!p#e!entat"on typ" a##y operates "n a #"ent/ser0er !ode#) Mon"tor"ng de0" es + o!!on#y a##ed %probes% "n t&"s onte7t5 onta"n ,M:; so(t*are agents t&at o##e t "n(or!at"on and ana#yze pa 'ets) T&ese probes a t as ser0ers and t&e ;et*or' Manage!ent app#" at"ons t&at o!!$n" ate *"t& t&e! a t as #"ents) -&"#e bot& agent on("g$rat"on and data o##e t"on $se S;MP, ,M:; "s des"gned to operate d"((erent#y t&an ot&er S;MP3based syste!s8

Probes &a0e !ore respons"b"#"ty (or data o##e t"on and pro ess"ng, *&" & red$ es S;MP tra((" and t&e pro ess"ng #oad o( t&e #"ents) In(or!at"on "s on#y trans!"tted to t&e !anage!ent app#" at"on *&en re<$"red, "nstead o( ont"n$o$s po##"ng)

In s&ort, ,M:; "s des"gned (or %(#o*3based% !on"tor"ng, *&"#e S;MP "s o(ten $sed (or %de0" e3based% !anage!ent) ,M:; "s s"!"#ar to ot&er (#o*3based !on"tor"ng te &no#og"es s$ & as ;et6#o* and S6#o* be a$se t&e data o##e ted dea#s !a"n#y *"t& tra((" patterns rat&er t&an t&e stat$s o( "nd"0"d$a# de0" es) :ne d"sad0antage o( t&"s syste! "s t&at re!ote de0" es s&o$#der !ore o( t&e !anage!ent b$rden, and re<$"re !ore reso$r es to do so) So!e de0" es ba#an e t&"s trade3o(( by "!p#e!ent"ng on#y a s$bset o( t&e ,M:; MI= gro$ps +see be#o*5) 4 !"n"!a# ,M:; agent "!p#e!entat"on o$#d s$pport on#y stat"st" s, &"story, a#ar!, and e0ent)

Definition: QoS +>$a#"ty o( Ser0" e5 re(ers to a broad o##e t"on o( net*or'"ng te &no#og"es and te &n"<$es) T&e goa# o( >oS "s to pro0"de g$arantees on t&e ab"#"ty o( a net*or' to de#"0er pred" tab#e res$#ts) .#e!ents o( net*or' per(or!an e *"t&"n t&e s ope o( >oS o(ten "n #$de a0a"#ab"#"ty +$pt"!e5, band*"dt& +t&ro$g&p$t5, #aten y +de#ay5, and error rate) >oS "n0o#0es pr"or"t"zat"on o( net*or' tra((" ) >oS an be targeted at a net*or' "nter(a e, to*ard a g"0en ser0er or ro$ter?s per(or!an e, or "n ter!s o( spe "(" app#" at"ons) 4 net*or' !on"tor"ng syste! !$st typ" a##y be dep#oyed as part o( >oS, to "ns$re t&at net*or's are per(or!"ng at t&e des"red #e0e#) >oS "s espe "a##y "!portant (or t&e ne* generat"on o( Internet app#" at"ons s$ & as @oIP, 0"deo3on3 de!and and ot&er ons$!er ser0" es) So!e ore net*or'"ng te &no#og"es #"'e .t&ernet *ere not des"gned to s$pport pr"or"t"zed tra((" or g$aranteed per(or!an e #e0e#s, !a'"ng "t !$ & !ore d"((" $#t to "!p#e!ent >oS so#$t"ons a ross t&e Internet)

Technique to improve QoS: T&ere are !any te &n"<$es $sed to "!pro0e t&e <$a#"ty o( ser0" e) So!e o!!on !et&ods are, Scheduling: Pa 'ets (ro! d"((erent (#o*s arr"0e at a s*"t & or ro$ter (or pro ess"ng) 4 good s &ed$#"ng te &n"<$e treats t&e d"((erent (#o*s "n a (a"r and appropr"ate !anner) So!e o( t&e s &ed$#"ng te &n"<$es $sed to "!pro0e >oS are,

6I6: >$e$"ng8 In t&"s <$e$"ng te &n"<$e, t&e arr"0a# pa 'ets are stored "n First Come First Serve bas"s) I( t&e arr"0a# rate "s #ess t&an t&e pro ess"ng rate, t&en t&e <$e$e *"## ("## $p and t&e ne* arr"0"ng pa 'ets *"## not &a0e any spa e to store "n t&e <$e$e and gets d"s arded)

Traffic Shaping: Tra((" s&ap"ng "s a !e &an"s! to ontro# t&e a!o$nt and t&e rate o( t&e tra((" sent to t&e net*or') T&ere are t*o te &n"<$es $nder t&"s !e &an"s!)

Aea'y =$ 'et B I( t&e tra((" ons"sts o( ("7ed s"ze pa 'ets, t&e pro ess re!o0es a ("7ed n$!ber o( pa 'ets (ro! t&e <$e$es) I( t&e tra((" ons"sts o( 0ar"ab#e #engt& pa 'ets, t&e ("7ed o$tp$t rate !$st be based on t&e n$!ber o( bytes or b"ts) To'en =$ 'et B Aea'y b$ 'et a#gor"t&! o$tp$ts t&e data "n a0erage rate (ro! t&e b$rst data, b$t "t does not ta'en t&e t"!e *&en t&e &ost *as "d#e, "nto a o$nt)

=$t, t&e To'en =$ 'et a#gor"t&! a##o*s "d#e &osts to a $!$#ate red"t (or t&e ($t$re "n t&e (or! o( to'ens) 6or ea & t" ' o( t&e #o ', t&e syste! sends CnD to'en to t&e b$ 'et) T&e syste! re!o0es one to'en (or e0ery e## +or byte5 o( data sent) Admission Control: It "s a !e &an"s! $sed by t&e net*or'"ng de0" e #"'e ro$ter and s*"t &es to a ept or reEe t a (#o* based on prede("ned para!eters a##ed (#o* spe "(" at"on) =e(ore a ro$ter a epts a (#o* (or pro ess"ng, "t &e 's t&e (#o* spe "(" at"on to see "( "ts apa "ty and "ts pre0"o$s o!!"t!ents to ot&er (#o*s an &and#e t&e ne* (#o*) Resource reservation: 4 (#o* o( data needs reso$r e s$ & as b$((er band*"dt&, CPU t"!e and so on) T&e >oS "s "!pro0ed "( t&ese reso$r es are reser0ed be(ore&and)