1.

0 OVERVIEW OF BATTERY MODELS There are many types of batteries and many factors that affect battery performance. To predict the performance of batteries, many different mathematical models exist. None of these models are completely accurate nor do any include all necessary performanceeffecting factors.

State of charge (SOC) attery storage capacity !ate of charge"discharge Temperature #ge"shelf life 1.1 ELECTROCHEMICAL BATTERY MODELS The simplest models are based solely on electrochemistry. These models ignore thermodynamic and $uantum effects. Conse$uently, %hile these models can predict energy storage they are unable to model phenomena such as the time rate of change of &oltage under load. Nor do they include temperature and age effects. 1.1.1 Peukert Equatio The 'eu(ert relationship states that the discharge current of a battery decreases %ith increasing )constant current) discharge time. Specifically ( umby, *. !., '. +. Clar(e, and ,. -orster, . of /urham (.0), )Computer modelling of the automoti&e energy re$uirements for internal combustion engine and battery electric-po%ered &ehicle), ,11 'roceedings, 2ol 345, 't. #, No. 6, Sept 3786, pp. 596-5:7); I! " Ti # $o %ta t <here

I = discharge current >amp? & = battery constant (n=3.46 for typical lead-acid batteries) Ti = time to discharge at current , >seconds? The 'eu(ert relationship can be %ritten to relate the discharge current at one discharge rate to another combination of current and discharge rate; C1 # C'"(I')I1*!( +1* <here

C = discharge rate Subscripts 1 and ' refer different discharge-rate states -rom this relationship the state of charge (SOC) at a constant discharge rate is; SOC # 1 + (I"TIME*)C -or non-constant discharge rates the abo&e e$uation must be modified and e&aluated in small time steps; De,taSOC # I'"TIMESTEP)-.00)C1"(I')I1*!( +1* ,n the abo&e e$uation, it is assumed that a gi&en combination of current and discharge rate ( C1 andI1) is (no%n. @i&en the current at the present time step (I'), the corresponding discharge rate is calculated using e$uation for C1 and plugged into a incremental form of e$uation for SOC - yielding the abo&e e$uation for De,taSOC. 1.1.' S/e0/er1 Mo1e, Equatio The Shepherd model is perhaps the best (no%n and most often used battery model for +12 analysis. The model describes the electrochemical beha&ior of the battery directly in terms of &oltage and current. ,t is often used in conAunction %ith the 'eu(ert e$uation to obtain battery &oltage and state of charge gi&en po%er dra% &ariations (Boore, Stephen and Berhdad 1shani, Texas #CB, )#n 1mpirically ased 1lectrosource +oriDon Eead-#cid attery Bodel), Strategies in 1lectric and +ybrid 2ehicle /esign, S'3369, 3779, pp.346-348 and .nne%ehr, E. 1. and Nasar, S. #., 1lectric 2ehicle Technology, *ohn <iley, pp. 83-73, 3785); Et # Eo + Ri"I + 2i"(1)(1 + 3** <here

Et = battery terminal &oltage >&olts? Eo = open circuit &oltage of a battery cell %hen fully charged >&olts? Ri = internal (ohmic) resistance of the battery >ohms? 2i = polariDation resistance >ohms? 4 = battery capacity >ampere-hour? I = instantaneous current >amps? 3 = integral of I"1TIME)4o = accumulated ampere-hours di&ided by full battery capacity. The fractional state of charge is then found &ia 'eu(ertFs e$uation. 1.1.- Mo1i3i$atio % to t/e S/e0/er1 Mo1e, Bodifications to the Shepherd model usually consist of adding terms to describe certain aspects of battery performance. The

Eindstorm model adds an impro&ed internal resistance calculation. The <ood model incorporates secondary e$uations to describe o&ercharging and gas generation, along %ith a self-discharge term (Boore 3779). 1.1.5 6 e7e/r 6 i8er%a, Mo1e, Shepherd based his research on constant current discharges at lo% current le&els. +is e$uation tries to find the cut-off point beyond %hich the terminal &oltage decreases &ery rapidly. ,n electric &ehicles, batteries are not usually used at these extreme states of depth of discharge. .nne%ehr and Nasar (.nne%ehr and Nasar, 3785) suggest simplifying the Shepherd e$uation as Et # Eo + Ri"I + 2i"3 The open circuit &oltage or no-load battery terminal &oltage for this model is simply Eo$ # Eo + 2i"3 .nne%ehr and Nasar go on to define an e$ui&alent internal resistance function R # Ro + 2R"3 <here

Ro = total internal resistance of a fully charged battery 2R = experimental constant This e$uation attempts to model the &ariation in Ri %ith respect to SOC. u combining this e$uation %ith Po7er#V"I, one cane create the follo%ing relation to calculate current during discharge; I # (Eo$ + S4RT(Eo$' + 5"R"P** ) ('"R* #nd during charge as; I # (+Eo$ 9 S4RT(Eo$' 9 5"R"P** ) ('"R* The max po%er, P, can be computed as; P:a; # Eo$')(5"R* 1.' E46IVALE&T CIRC6IT BATTERY MODELS 1ngineers ha&e created many e$ui&alent circuit models for batteries. The charge storing capacity of the battery is often represented by a capacitor such as the 0lec(ner (discharge-only model) and the Gimmerman-'eterson models (Boore 3779). Other models employ a capacitor in parallel %ith the )steady state battery) (&oltage source in series %ith a resistor representing the internal resistance) to limit the rate of change of battery &oltage %hich a steady state model %ould not other%ise predict (/obner, /onald *. and 1d%ard *. <oods, @B !esearch Eaboratories, )#n 1lectric 2ehicle /ynamic Simulation), 3785, pp. 3H4-336). ,n such a model the total current is the sum of the steady state current and the )capacitor) current. The steady state battery &oltage as a function of steady state current is obtained from tabulation of measured data. The )capacitor) current is calculated as the product of the capacitance and d2"dT,B1. 1* T/e8e i Batter< Mo1e, This basic e$ui&alent circuit (Salameh, Giyad B., Bargaret #. Casacca and <illiam #. Eynch, . of Eo%ell, )# Bathematical Bodel for Eead-#cid atteries), ,111 Transactions on 1nergy Con&ersions, 2ol. :, No. 3, Barch 3775, pp. 74-7:) consists of a &oltage source (at 2oc) in series %ith a resistor (internal resistance) and a parallel combination of a capacitor and resistor (o&er&oltage model). This model is not &ery accurate since all of its elements can change their &alue depending on the condition and state of the battery. '* Li ear E,e$tri$ Mo1e, The linear electric model is a step abo&e the The&enin battery model (Salameh et al 3775 and #ppelbaum, * and <eiss, !., )1stimation of attery Charge in 'hoto&oltaic Systems), 39th ,111 'hoto&oltaic Specialists Conference, pp. 634-638, 3785). The open circuit &oltage, 2oc, is applied across the &oltage source and a capacitor. ,n series %ith this is a net%or( of 4 capacitors and 4 resistors that models o&ercharge. ,n parallel to all these elements is a self-discharge resistor. #lthough more accurate than the The&enin model, the components must be )replaced) as the state of the battery changes. Other researchers define a )linear) battery model as merely a resistor (internal resistance %hen fully charged) in series %ith a &oltage source. This model, of course, is one step belo% the The&enin model. Of the same complexity as this model is the !andles e$ui&alent circuit used for lithium polymer batteries ( audry, '. et al, )1lectrothermal modelling of polymer lithium batteries for starting period and pulse po%er), *ournal of 'o%er Sources, 2ol 6I, pp. 474-479, 3776). The e$ui&alent circuit consists of a resistor (!el, ohmic resistance of the electrolyte and current collector) is series %ith a parallel combination of a capacitor (Cdl, double-layer capacitance at the cathode"electrolyte and lithium"electrolyte interfaces) and a <arburg complex impedance (arising from diffusion of lithium ions) in series %ith a resistor (!ct, charge-transfer resistance). 1.'.- &o ,i ear E,e$tri$ Mo1e, This model is a nonlinear modification to the Einear 1lectric Bodel (Salameh et al 3775). The ciruit is composed of fi&e sections;

The battery capacity is represented by a capacitor, C= 'arallel to C= is a resistor representing self-discharge, R0 The open circuit &oltage, Vo$, is the &oltage across C= and"or R0 O&er&oltage is modeled by a capacitor-and-resistor-in-parallel-net%or( that is in series %ith C=and R0. The resistor in this net%or(, R1, is modeled as t%o opposing perfect diodes in parallel %ith one another, representing the differing &alues of o&er&oltage resistance during discharge and charge modes.

,nternal resistance is modeled by R1 and by a t%o-diode-in-parallel-net%or(, R%, that is in series %ith the R1-C1-parallel net%or( and the R0-C=-parallel net%or(. The internal resistance is the sum of R1 and R%. R% represents the electrolyte, plate, and fluid resistance %hile R1 represents the resistance created by electrolyte diffusion. #s %ith R1, R% is modeled as being t%o opposing diodes in order to account for &ariations bet%een charge and discharge states. The model is nonlinear in the sense that the elements C=, R%, R0 and R1 are not constants but are modeled as a function of &oltage. #dditionally, R0 has a temperature dependent term multiplying it. Only C1 is constant. The functional forms specifying the &arying resistance and capacitance is determined through a set of experiments. The &oltagedependent functionality is cur&e fit to an e$uation of the follo%ing form; E,e:e t>8a,ue # 2"e;0? @W"(V:+Vo$*A F B <here

2 = constant (gain multiplier) W = %idth factor V: = mean &oltage le&el Vo$ = open circuit &oltage F = flatness factor The temperature dependence multiplier of !p is modeled as; TC # (R)Rre3* (@Tre3+TA)Tre3* <here

TC = temperature compensation factor R = resistance at temperature T Rre3 = resistance at reference temperature This model has been tested successfully in conAunction %ith both lead-acid and Nic(el-Cadmium batteries.

1.' FRACTIO&AL DISCHARCE BATTERY MODELS The fractional discharge model measures the battery incremental state of charge in energy terms as ( umby 3786); De,taSOC # (P1i)E1i*"(TIMESTEP)-.000* E1i # P1i " T1i De,taSOC # (TIMESTEP)T1i*)-.000 <here

P1i = incremental po%er density discharge of the battery E1i = battery energy density at po%er density P1i T1i = time the battery pac( can discharge at the po%er density le&el P1i >hours? The third e$uation is a combination of the first t%o. The relationship bet%een po%er-density and energy-density is usually obtained through experimentation, specifically through a series of constant-po%er discharge tests. The relationship bet%een po%er-density and discharge time, T1i, is then cur&e fit to a $uadratic (%hich can be %ritten t%o different %ays depending %hich &ariable is dependent on the other); P1i # e;0@ A"(, (T1i** ' 9 B",i (T1i* 9 C A T1i # e;0? 0.D"@ +B)A 9 S4RT( (B)A* ' + 5"(C+, (P1i**)A* A B <here A, B and C are determined from the cur&e fit of measured data. -or lead-acid batteries, Chapman and #ston (Chapman, '. and B. #ston, )# generic battery model for electric and hybrid &ehicle simulation performance prediction), 1lectric and +ybrid 2ehciles, S'-5, ,nt. *. 2eh. /esign, 3785, pp. 85-76) suggest that &ariations in C can be used to represent changes in electrolyte temperature; C # Ck 9 , (1 9 0.01'"(Tk + T** <here

C = the constant in P1i and T1i e$uations abo&e at temperature T Ck = the constant in P1i and T1i e$uations at temperature Tk 1.- DY&AMIC L6MPED PARAMETER BATTERY MODEL The dynamic lumped parameter battery model ( ailey, 0. 1. and . 0. 'o%ell, -ord !esearch Eaboratories, )# +ybrid 1lectric 2ehicle 'o%ertrain /ynamic Bodel), 'roceedings of the #merican Control Conference, 3776, pp. 39::-3985) is based on a static battery model that describes the instantaneous terminal &oltage as a function of steady charge"discharge current. To this basic model a first order &oltage transient at incipient-steady-current discharge relation is added as %ell as a polariDation capaciti&e effect. The three underlying e$uations of this model are; Ri t " C0 " 1E0$)1TIME # Vo$ 9 Ri t)R="Et= + (R= 9 Ri t*)R="E0$ R="Ci"1Et=)1TIME # E0$ + R="It= + Et=

Et= # Vo$ + (R= 9 2)SOC*"It= <here

Ri t = battery internal resistance >ohms? C0 = polariDation capacitance E0$ = &oltage drop due to polariDation capacitance Vo$ = battery open circuit &oltage >&olt? R= = battery terminal resistance >ohm? Et= = battery terminal &oltage Ci = incipient terminal capacitance It= = battery discharge current >amps? 2 = a battery constant SOC = battery state of charge -or a lead acid battery, 'o%ell et al ('o%ell, . 0., 0. 1. ailey, and S. !. Ci(ane(, -ord !esearch Eaboratories, )/ynamic Bodeling and Control of +ybrid 1lectric 2ehicle 'o%ertrain Systems), ,111 Control Systems, Oct 3778, pp. 3:-44) replaces the last e$uation abo&e %ith; Vo$ # --E.E " (0.F5'5. 9 0.0DGD5"SOC* Note that in the abo&e e$uation, the constant multiplying SOC is misprinted in the 'o%ell paper (and hence could be H.HH6:6I or some other number). 1.5 OTHER BATTERY MODELS 1ngineers ha&e created other types of battery models, trying to model certain aspects of battery beha&ior. 1.5.1 H<1ro1< a:i$ Mo1e, The hydrodynamic model uses an analogy bet%een the charging and discharging of a battery %ith the hydrodynamic filling and draining of a double tan( reser&oir (Eeontopoulos, C., B .!. 1temad, 0. !. 'ullen and B. .. Eamperth, ,mperial College (Eondon), 'roc. ,nstn. Bech. 1ngrs., 2ol 535, 'art /, 3778, pp. 46:-498). The t%o tan(s are of une$ual siDe, and the input"output to the tan( system lies %ithin the smaller tan(. -luid can flo% bet%een the t%o tan(s based on their separate fluid le&els. ,f the flo% bet%een the t%o tan(s is less than the output demand, the small tan( %ill empty before the large tan(J this simulates a battery being unable to meet high rates of po%er demand. /uring recharging, the &olume of fluid stored in the small tan( %ill define the pressure at the inlet and hence the rate at %hich the battery can be charged. 1.5.' Fi ite E,e:e t T<0e Mo1e,% -inite chemistry and other finite element models ha&e been de&ised for battery simulation. Some di&ide each cell into a number of finite elements %hile others (@u, <. ., C. K. <ang, and . K. Eia%, )The use of computer simulation in the e&aluation of electric &ehicle batteries), *ournal of 'o%er Sources, :6, 3778, pp. 363-393) use each cell as an indi&idual element. These physiochemical models typically model current flo% and potential distributions in the cell, species transport (migration, diffusion and ad&ection), density-dri&en flo% in elctrolyte, electrodes surface passi&ation, and gas e&olution in o&ercharge. These computer simulations are complex and C'.-intensi&e. 1.D 6SI&C TAB6LATED BATTERY DATA Tables of battery performance can be used to predict battery parameters o&er a %ide range of conditions. The follo%ing describe the methods by %hich these tables are used to predict battery performance. ,n their +ybrid 1lectric 2ehicle #nalysis (+12#) code, N#S# Ee%is !esearch Center ma(es use of plots of battery SOC (state of charge) &ersus Vo$ (open circuit &oltage) and SOC &ersus internal resistance. Some researchers use separate SOC &ersus resistance cur&es for charge and discharge (Ber(le, Batthe% #., 377:, )2ariable us 2oltage Bodeling for Series +ybrid 1lectric 2ehicle Simulation), BasterFs Thesis, 2irginia Tech) noting the %ide &ariation bet%een those t%o states. Their method is iterati&e. 1stimates are made of the &oltage at the end of the current time step, V1, based on the &oltage at the start of the time step, V0, and similarly for the internal resistance. Va8H # 0.D"(V0 9 V1* Ra8H # 0.D"(R0 9 R1* IR # (Va8H)')Ra8H* ' + P=at)Ra8H Ia8H # Va8H)')Ra8H + S4RT(IR* if IR I 0 ased on the guess for the current, Ia8H, a ne% &alue for Va8H is calculated as; Va8H> e7 # Va8H + Ia8H"Ra8H SOC1 # SOC0 + P"TIMESTEP)(-.00"C"V* <here

C = battery capacity >amp-hour? TIMESTEP >seconds? The process is repeated %ith the updated &alues of Va8H until the &alue of SOC1 &aries less than H.H3L bet%een iterations.

1.. MODELI&C SPECIFIC FACTORS AFFECTI&C PERFORMA&CE Since many con&entional battery models do not handle all the factors effecting battery performance, researchers ha&e created standalone models to predict the influence of these factors. Bodels for the factors of temperature, age and cycle history ha&e been de&eloped. 1...1 Te:0erature Mo1e, The impact that temperature exerts on battery capacity can be explained %ith a simple model of the battery electrochemistry. #s the temperature increases to%ards the pea(-performance-operating temperature the electrolyte &iscosity decreases, thus allo%ing for increased diffusion of ions and hence increased battery capacity. #s the temperature increases past this pea( point, the battery electrodes begin to corrode - thus leading to a reduced )acti&e) electrode area and thus to fe%er electrode reactions and reduced battery capacity. One model (!oan, 2ernon '. and #nand !aman, . of -lorida, )#n #pproach to ,ncorporating #ge and 1lectrolyte Temperature 1ffects on 'erformance Simulation of 1lectric"+ybrid 2ehicle batteries), #merican Chemical Society, 3774, pp. 5.557-5.54:) that predicts this impact, starts %ith the general e$uation for battery capacity (.nne%hr, E. 1. and S. #. Nasar, 1lectric 2ehicle Technology, *ohn <iley and Sons, 3785); C # C'D"(1 + ALPHA"('D + T** <here

C = battery capacity at temperature T >#h? C'D = battery capacity at 56 C >#h? ALPHA = temperature coefficient >#h"C? T = current battery temperature >C? The temperature coefficient, ALPHA, %hich &aries from battery to battery, is determined empirically from experiments. This coefficient is typically formulated as being a $uadratic function of temperature. 1...' State o3 C/arHe The state of charge (SOC) greatly influences battery performance. The open circuit &oltage ( Vo$) generally decreases - nearly linearly - %ith increasing SOC (2al&o, Bichael, et al, )/e&elopment and #pplication of an ,mpro&ed 1$ui&alent Circuit Bodel of a Eead #cid attery), 3779 43st ,ntersociety 1nergy Con&ersion 1ngineering Conference (,1C1C), 2olume 5, 3779). The internal resistance (Ri*decreases slightly %ith increasing SOC at &ery lo% le&els (MH.4 -ull SOC), then remains relati&ely constant until the SOC approaches its full state (N H.9 -ull SOC) at %hich point it increases rapidly (2al&o, 3779). This Ri &s SOC relationship %as also obser&ed by 1(dunge (1(dunge, 'er, )# simplified model of the lead"acid battery), *ornal of 'o%er Sources, 2ol I9, pp. 563595, 3774) and at 2irginia Tech (Ber(le, 377:). 2al&o represented the relation bet%een internal resistance and SOC%ith a 6th order polynomial. ,n an earlier %or(, -acinelli (-acinelli, <. #., )Bodeling and Simulation of Eead-#cid atteries for 'hotocoltaic Systems), 3784 38st ,ntersociety 1nergy Con&ersion 1ngineering Conference (,1C1C), 2olume I, 3784) employed linear relationships for both Vo$ andRi. -acinelli used different cur&e fit parameters for charging and discharging conditions. 1...- C<$,e Hi%tor< +o% cycle life &aries %ith depth of discharge (/O/) has been modeled (Bc/onald, #lan T., )!educing attery Costs for 1lectric 2ehicles through Optimal /epth-of-/ischarge;, 12C Symposium 2, 'roceedings, 3783) as; LIFE # LIFEJero " e;0(M"DOD* <here

LIFE = number of cycles in life at depth of discharge DOD LIFEJero = number of cycles in life obtained by extrapolating cycle-life data to Dero depth-of-discharge M = slope of plot of natural logarthmic of LIFE)LIFEJero &ersus DOD DOD = depth of discharge #nalysis of experimental data for each battery leads to the determination of E,-1Dero and B. Eogarithmic plots of /O/ &ersus cycles-to-failure (Einden, /a&id, +andboo( of atteries C -uel Cells, Bc@ra%-+ill, 378I, p. 34-37) for &arious battery types (Eead-acid, Nic(el-Cadmium, Nic(el-Ginc, and #l(aline-BnO5) &erify the form of the abo&e relationship. Numerous researchers in other fields, such as photo&oltaic systems (-acinelli, 3784 %ho reports that other photo&oltaic researchers also found the same trend), reports a linear relationship bet%een /O/ and cycles-to-failure. 1...5 Batter< AHe Corrosion is the main component behind decreased battery performance by age. This effect has been modeled (!oan 3774) as being linear. -or instance, if a battery specification states that the battery loses 36L of its operational life by the end of its 6 year calendar life, then one supposes that e&ery month the battery %ill lose H.56L of its cycle-life and its capacity e&ery month (H.56L = 36L"9H months).

#TT1!,1S
The function of the battery in a +12 may be &aried. The battery may be a maAor po%er source, or may be used in conAunction %ith the primary po%er source(s) to le&el out the supply of po%er to the dri&etrain. #s a conse$uence, the amount of battery po%er aboard a +12 may &ary bet%een a single battery to a pac( of many batteries connected together. <hen using batteries as a primary source of po%er, the +12 designer becomes concerned %ith the mass and &olume of the battery pac( re$uired to meet the po%er and energy needs of the &ehicle. The dri&e to achie&e high po%er and energy densities ha&e led the +12 community to in&estigate many types of batteries. These ne% battery types also promise greater cycle depth, po%er and energy capacity.

BATTERY RATI&CS A&D CHARACTERISTICS

The decision as to %hich battery type to use in a +12 application depends on ho% %ell the characteristics of that battery match the needs of the +12 design. The battery characteristics of most concern to the +12 designer are;

CAPACITYK The battery capacity is a measure of ho% much energy the battery can store. atteries do not simply ser&e as a buc(et into %hich one dumps electricity and later extracts it. The amount of energy that can be extracted from a fully charged battery, for instance, depends on temperature, the rate of discharge, battery age, and battery type. Conse$uently it is difficult to specify a batteryFs capacity %ith a single number. There are primarily three ratings that are used to specify the capacity of a battery; A:0ere+/ourK The #mphere-hour (#h) denotes the current at %hich a battery can discharge at a constant rate o&er a specified length of time. -or SE, (starting-lighting-ignition) batteries that are commonly used in cars, the standard is to specify #mpere-hours for a 5H hours discharge. This standard is denoted by the nomenclature of C"5H. # 9H #h C"5H battery %ill produce 9H #h for a 5H hour discharge. This means that the ne% and fully charged battery %ill produce 4 #mps for 5H hours - it does not mean that the battery can produce 9 #mps for 3H hours (that %ould be signified by a C"3H 9H #h rating). Re%er8e Ca0a$it<K The reser&e capacity denotes the length of time, in minutes, that a battery can produce a specified le&el of discharge. # &alue of 46 minutes at 56 #mps for the reser&e capacity for a battery means that the fully charged battery can produce 56 #mps for 46 minutes. kW/ Ca0a$it<K The (<h capacity metric is a measure of the energy (2olt O #mps O Time) re$uired to fully charge a depleted battery. # depleted battery is usually not a fully discharged batteryJ a 35 2 car battery is considered depleted %hen its &oltage drops to 3H.6 2. Similarly, a 92 battery is usually considered depleted %hen its &oltage drops to 6.56 2. None of these capacity ratings completely describe the capacity of a battery. 1ach one is a measure of the capacity under specific conditions. The performance of a battery in an actual application may &ary substantially due to different discharge"recharge rates, battery age, cycle history, and"or temperature.

VOLTACEK y definition a battery consists of t%o or more cells %ired together. # lead-acid type cell produces approximately 5.3 2olts. # three cell lead-acid battery thus produces 9.4 2 (9.4 = 5.3 O 4) and a six cell lead-acid battery produces 35.9 2. -or a battery %ith fill caps, the number of cells can be determined by counting the number of fill caps. The &oltage rating is that of a fully charged batteryJ its &oltage %ill decrease as the battery is discharged.

CYCLE DEPTHK -ully discharging a battery often destroys the battery or, at a minimum, dramatically shortens its life. /eep-cycle lead-acid batteries can be routinely discharged do%n to 36-5HL of its capacity - this represents a depth of discharge (/O/) of 86 to 8HL. These deep-cycle batteries are constructed %ith thic( plates for the cathodes and anodes in order to resist %arping %hereas in a con&entional lead-acid batteries the plates are paper-thin. !egardless of %hether or not the battery is deepcycle or not, deep discharges shorten the life of a battery. # deep-cycle battery that can last 4HH discharge-recharge cycles of 8HL /O/ (depth of discharge) may last 9HH cycles at 6HL /O/.

WEICHT)VOL6MEK The designer must consider the %eight and &olume of the battery pac( during the &ehicle design process. /ifferent battery types %ill pro&ide the designer %ith different energy and po%er capacities per a gi&en %eight or &olume. The (ey ratings to consider are the Specific 'o%er"1nergy and the 'o%er"1nergy densities. These ratings re&eal ho% much po%er or energy the battery %ill pro&ide per gi&en %eight or &olume.

E&ERCY DE&SITY)SPECIFIC E&ERCYK 1nergy density is a measure of ho% much energy can be extracted from a battery per unit of battery %eight or &olume. y default, deep-cycle batteries pro&ide the potential for higher energy densities than non-deep-cycle &arieties since more of the energy in the battery can be extracted (e.g. larger acceptable /O/). POWER DE&SITY)SPECIFIC POWERK 'o%er density is a measure of ho% much po%er can be extracted from a battery per unit of battery %eight or &olume. ,n an analogy to a carFs fuel system, the energy density is analogous to the siDe of the fuel tan( and the po%er density is analogous to the octane of the fuel. OPERATI&C TEMPERAT6REK atteries %or( best %ithin a limited temperature range. Bost %et-cell lead-acid batteries perform best around 86 to 76 -. #t temperatures abo&e 356 -, lead-acid batteries %ill be damaged and, conse$uently, their life shortened. 'erformance of lead-acid batteries suffers at temperatures belo% :5 -J the colder it is the greater the degradation in performance. #s the temperature falls belo% freeDing (45 -), lead-acid batteries %ill act sluggish - the battery has not lost its

energyJ its chemistry restrains it from deli&ering the energy. atteries can also freeDe. # fully charged lead-acid battery can sur&i&e IH to 6H degrees belo% freeDing, but a battery %ith a lo% state of charge (SOC) can freeDe at temperatures as high as 4H -. <hen the %ater in a battery freeDes it expands and can cause unrepairable damage to the cells.

S6LFATIO&K # lo% state of charge (SOC) in a lead acid battery can lead to sulfation that can seriously damage the battery. ,n a lo% SOC state, lead crystals that are formed during discharge can become so large that they resist being dissol&ed during the recharge process. This pre&ents the battery from being recharged. Sulfation can occur %hen the battery is left at a lo% SOC for a long period of time.

SELF+DISCHARCEK # battery that is left alone %ill e&entually discharge itself. This is particularly true of secondary (rechargeable) batteries as opposed to primary (non-rechargeable) batteries.

BATTERY TYPES
There are many types of batteries that are currently being used - or being de&eloped for use - in +12s. The follo%ing table lists these types along %ith their common characteristics. The types are listed in descending order of popularity for use in +12s, %ith the most popular choices at the top of the table. Typically the 1nergy /ensity, sometimes called Specific 1nergy, is rated at the C"4 rate (i.e. 4 hour discharge). Typical conditions for the 'o%er /ensity or Specific 'o%er rating is a 5H second discharge to 8HL /O/. Cycle life is usually measured at 8HL /O/. Self /ischarge Cycle Operating Storage !ate Eife Temp. >C? Temp. >C? >L per month?

attery Type

1nergy 'o%er /ensity /ensity ><h"(g? ><"(g?

Baturity

Current -uture 'rincipal Cost Cost Banuf. >P"(<h? QP"(<h?

2ehicles .sedR,n

Other Notes

Eead-#cid 56 to 46

:6 to 34H

5HH to -38 to S:H ambient IHH

5 to 4

production

3HH to 356

:6

TroAan, C#!T# bus, +a%(er, Solectria 13H 1xide, (sealed) ,nterstate 'otential; /elphi, #udi /uo, @B 66 <h"(g, +oriDon, 123 (2E!#), I6H <"(g, 1lectrosou Solectria -orce and 5HHH rce cycle life

#d&anced 46 to I5 Eead #cid

5IH to I35

6HH to 8HH

production

Nic(elBetal +ydride

6H to 8H

36H to 56H

9HH to 36HH

prototype

656 to 6IH

Toyota !#2I'otential; 12, Toyota 'anasonic 35H 336 to 'rius, Chrysler , O&onic, <h"(g, 4HH 1pic mini&an, S#-T and 55HH +onda 12, cycle life Che&y S-3H 'otential; N<<. 2i(ing 55HH cycle 54 life Nissan #ltra 12 'otential; 3HHH <h"(g

Nic(elCadmium

46 to 6:

6H to 3HHH to -IH to S9H -9H to S9H 3H to 5H 5HH 5HHH

mature

4HH to 9HH

33H

S#-T

Eithium,on Gincromide Eithium 'olymer

3HH to 36H

4HH

IHH to 35HH

laboratory

SONK, S#-T

69 to :H 3HH to 366

3HH 3HH to 436

6HH IHH to 9H to 3HH 9HH 5:H to 46H (4HH optimal) 5IH to I6H IHH

4HH

laboratory

3HH

NaNiCl

7H

3HH

IHH

prototype

#1@ #nglo Ei$uid -uel Etd

Ginc-#ir 2anadium !edox

33H to 5HH 6H

3HH

prototype

4HH

3HH

33H

4HH

# brief description of each battery type follo%s;

Lea1 A$i1K Eo% cost and a&ailable no% &s lo% energy density and only fair cycle life. The lead acid battery is composed of lead plates of grids suspended in an electrolyte solution of sulfuric acid and %ater. These batteries can be ruined by completely discharging them. A18a $e1 Lea1 A$i1K #&ailable no%. Eonger cycle life than con&entional lead acid. 2al&e regulated lead"acid (2E!#) batteries are sho%ing great promise. &i$ke,+Ca1:iu:K +igher energy density than lead acid and a&ailable no% &s cost. memory effect and toxicity. The nic(elcadmium battery is composed of a nic(el hydroxide cathode and a cadmium anode in an al(aline electrolyte solution. ,f these batteries are discharged only partially before recharging, the cells ha&e a tendency to act as if they ha&e a lo%er storage capacity than they actually designed forJ this is the memory effect. Nic(el-cadmium batteries can often be restored to full potential (i.e. )full memory)) %ith a fe% cycles of discharge and recharge. These batteries are often used to po%er small appliances, garden tools, and cellular telephones. atteries made from Ni-Cd cells offer high currents at relati&ely constant &oltage and they are tolerant of physical abuse.

&i$ke,+Meta, H<1ri1eK +igh efficiency and en&ironmentally friendly. The nic(el-metal hydride battery is composed of a hydrogen storage metal alloy, a nic(el oxide cathode, and a potassium hydroxide electrolyte. These batteries can be $uic(ly recharged. They ha&e been used for a long time to po%er flashlights, lap-top computers, and cellular telephones. Lit/iu:+Io K Eithium seems an ideal material for a battery; it is the lightest metal in addition to ha&ing the highest electric potential of all metals. .nfortunately, lithium is an unstable metal, so batteries that use lithium must be made using lithium ions (such as lithium-thionyl chloride). 1&en so, dangers persist %ith lithium-ion batteries. Bany of the inorganic components of the battery and its casing are destroyed by the lithium ions and, on contact %ith %ater, lithium %ill react to create hydrogen %hich can ignite or can create excess pressure in the cell. ,f the lithium melts (melting point is 38H C), it may come into direct contact %ith the cathode, causing &iolent chemical reactions. #s a conse$uence, lithium batteries are often limited to small siDes. 'ortable de&ices, such as noteboo( computers, smart cards, and cellular telephones, are often po%ered by lithium ion batteries. These batteries ha&e no memory effect and do not use poisonous metals, such as lead, mercury or cadmium.

Li $+Bro:i1eK +igh energy density and long cycle life &s complex and toxicity. Ginc-bromine batteries pass t%o oppositely charged li$uids through an ion-exchange membrane to produce electricity. The electrolyte is usually a Dinc bromidepotassium chloride solution. romine, in both li$uid and &apor form, is toxic and a strong irritant. The re$uired pumping system ma(es the system complexity.

Lit/iu: Po,<:erK Eithium-polymer cells ha&e sho%n great promise, at the laboratory scale, for fulfilling the need for a battery of high specific po%er and energy in electric &ehicle applications. # maAor uncertainty is %hether heat generated in Eipolymer batteries during discharge at high po%er can be transported to the outside %ithout excessi&e internal temperatures occurring. # second concern is %hether lithium-polymer batteries can be brought up to operating temperatures in times acceptable to consumers.

So1iu: &i$ke, C/,ori1eK ,n the charged state, the cell consists of a negati&e li$uid sodium electrode and a solid positi&e electrode containing nic(el chloride and nic(el. The electrodes and electrolyte are encapsulated in a steel cell case %hich simultaneously functions as the negati&e pole of the cell. Li $+airK +igh energy density &s short cycle life, lo% po%er density and lo% efficiency. The cathode of this battery is made of porous carbon %hich absorbs oxygen from the air. The Dinc-air battery uses a Dinc anode and the electrolyte is a base (rather than an acid), typically potassium hydroxide. Ginc-air batteries ha&e been used in hearing aids for many years. Va a1iu: Re1o;K +igh efficiency and can be completely discharged %ithout damage &s high cost. The term redox is an abbre&iation of )reduction oxidation). This battery, along %ith the ,ron !edox battery, obtain their po%er %hen one the chemicals is reduced (i.e. gains electrons) %hile the other is oxidiDed (i.e. loses electrons). This battery is still &ery much in the de&elopment stages but sho%s great promise for 12 use. There are se&eral other battery types that researchers ha&e considered for +12s, but their use are not common. These include, listed %ith their maAor strengths and %ea(nesses;

A,u:i u:+air K long shelf-life and high energy density &s complex and lo% efficiency. #luminum-air batteries obtain their energy from the interaction of aluminum %ith air. The incoming air must be filtered, scrubbed of CO5, and dehumidifiedJ the %ater and electrolyte must be pumped and maintained %ithin a narro% temperature range - hence the complexity of the battery. The batteries are not electrically recharged but are )refueled) by replacing the aluminum anodes and the %ater supply.

Iro +air K high energy density &s complex, short cycle life, and high self-discharge rate. The iron-air battery uses electrodes made of iron and carbon. The carbon electrode pro&ides oxygen for the electrochemical reaction. These batteries can be electrically recharged. ,ron-air batteries are significantly effected by temperatureJ they perform poorly belo% H C. Lit/iu:+iro %u,3i1eK high energy density &s high operating temperature. The lithium-iron sulfide battery is composed of a lithium alloy anode and an iron sulfide cathode suspended in an electrolyte molten salt solution. # &ariation of this battery system uses a cathode made of lithium-iron sulfide.

&i$ke,+iro K high energy density and long life &s high cost and high self-discharge rate. Nic(el-iron batteries employ cathodes of nic(el-oxide and anodes of iron in a potassium hydroxide solution. Nic(el-iron batteries ha&e long been used in 1uropean mining operations because of their ability to %ithstand &ibrations, high temperatures and other physical stress. #lso (no%n as the 1dison battery (in&ented by Thomas 1dison in 37H3).

&i$ke,+Ji $K high po%er density &s short cycle life. The nic(el-Dinc battery is composed of a nic(el oxide cathode and a Dinc anode in a small amount of potassium hydroxide electrolyte. !echarging can be tric(y in that Dinc can be redeposited in areas %here it is not desired, leading to the physical %ea(ening and e&entual failure of the electrode.. Si,8er+Ji $K high energy density &s high cost and short cycle life. The cathode in a sil&er-Dinc battery is a sil&er screen pasted %ith sil&er oxide. The anode is a porous plate of Dinc, and the electrolyte is a solution of potassium hydroxide saturated %ith Dinc hydroxide. Their high cost results from the amount of sil&er needed for the construction of these batteries. So1iu:+%u,3urK high energy density and high efficiency &s high operating temperature. .sed in -ord 1costar &an. The -ord Botor Company patented the sodium-sulfur battery in 3796. The battery, unli(e most other batteries, uses a solid electrolyte (beta aluminum) and li$uid electrodes (molten sulfur and sodium). These batteries re$uire to be heated to around 456 C in order to operate because it is at these temperatures that sulfur and sodium %ill melt (i.e. be li$uid).

Li $+$/,ori eK high energy density and long cycle life &s complex, re$uires refrigeration, and toxicity. Similar to the Dincbromide battery (bromine and chlorine are both halogens), the Dinc-chlorine battery is e&en more complex since it re$uires refrigeration during the recharging process to remo&e heat.Chlorine gas is highly lethal. Li $+Ma Ha e%eK Eo% pea( po%er output and short cycle life. Ginc-Banganese /ioxide #l(aline Cells; <hen an al(aline electrolyte--instead of the mildly acidic electrolyte--is used in a regular Dinc-carbon battery, it is called an )al(aline) battery.

FACTORS AFFECTI&C BATTERY PERFORMA&CE

TEMPERAT6RE attery performance is highly dependent on temperature. 1ach type of battery %or(s best %ithin a limited range of temperatures. Concerns related to battery temperature include;

'oor energy and po%er extraction performance for temperatures outside of operating temperature range Thermal runa%ay - during high po%er extraction the temperature of the battery increases %hich ma(es further po%er extraction more difficult %hich causes subse$uent increases in temperature, and so on Eong heat up times before battery reaches operating temperature - this is a concern for ambient temperature batteries such as lead-acid in cold en&ironments and also for batteries such as lithium"polymer-electrolyte %hich re$uires an operating temperature that is ele&ated abo&e ambient The battery temperature can change %ith changing current flo%ing through the internal resistance of the battery. The internal resistance can &ary %ith the changing state of charge (SOC) of the battery. The temperature of battery can also be $uite different bet%een different cells since the cells in the center are more insulated from outside con&ecti&e cooling than the cells at the ends"edges. Conse$uently, the cells in the center may see a higher temperature rise than the ones near the outer boundaries of the battery pac(age. The impact that temperature exerts on battery capacity can be explained %ith a simple model of the battery electrochemistry. #s the temperature increase to%ards the pea(-performance-operating temperature the electrolyte &iscosity decreases, thus allo%ing for increased diffusion of ions and hence increased battery performance. #s the temperature increases past this pea( point, the battery electrodes begin to corrode - thus leading to a reduced )acti&e) electrode area and thus to fe%er electrode reactions and reduced battery capacity. BATTERY ACE)SHELF LIFE Corrosion is the main component behind decreased performance in lead acid type batteries by age. DEPTH OF DISCHARCE atteries are able to maintain their performance longer %hen they are not deeply discharged regularly.