1/30/2009

NOTE THAT The current that flows in a circuit is governed in magnitude and phase by certain circuit parameters (Resistance R, self-inductance L, capacitance C, and the mutual inductance M) and the angular velocity or frequency of the applied voltage. The word angular frequency is an AC circuit parameter. If the circuit parameters are constant, the current that flows will be of the sinusoidal wave form, but will, in general, differ in phase from the sinusoidal applied voltage.

AC Circuit Analysis

IMPEDANCE
The relationship between current and voltage in an AC circuit is known as IMPEDANCE Impedance function must contain two important facts: 1. The ratio of Vm to Im 2. The phsae angle between the waves of voltage and current. The notation used to show impedance is Z angle

Circuit parameters that will be analysed

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. R Branch L Branch C Branch RL Branch RC Branch RLC Branch

Z = ratio of Vm to Im angle = lead of voltage with respect to the current

Purely resistive branches never exist. There is always some inherent inductance present. But for our analysis we will assume a theoretical purely resistive load.

The R Branch
Resistance impedes the motion of electricity and causes an irreversible transformation of electrical energy into heat energy in accordance with Joules Law.

1/30/2009

Impedance of an R Branch The impedance is written as

Power of an R Branch Generated power, p=ei Absorbed power, p=vi We will consider the situation where the source supplies power to the load (that is power is absorbed by the load). This condition will be considered as positive power. (A negative power implies that the reactive elements of the circuit, if any, are generating energy at a rate greater than the rate at which it is being received) Instantaneous power is given by

R 0
According to KVL, if a voltage ,v, is applied to a purely resistive branch

From above we see that Vm/Im = R and the current wave is in time phase with the voltage wave. Thus we may write Z R R 0 The unit of R is in ohms, and therefore, unit of ZR is also in ohms

ZR

R 0

Photographic evidence of v, i, and p

The power expression comprises a time invariant (DC) portion, and a time varying (AC) portion as shown above. The power function is twice the frequency of that of either the voltage or current expression

Apply KVL to a purely inductive branch yields

dt

The L Branch

1/30/2009

ZL

L 90

Impedance of an L Branch Inductance opposes the rate of change of current, and is therefore, known as electrical inertia. As L limits rate of change of current, we may say that L governs the maximum amount of current in an AC circuit that is energized by a voltage of specified angular velocity.

Power of an L Branch As power absorbed by the inductor is, p=vi

From the previous equations it can be seen that Vm/Im = L Also, i lags v by 90
The impedance can be represented as Z L
L 90

L (=Vm/Im) is known as the inductive reactance XL = L = 2fL

Notice that the power is double the frequency of the voltage or current.

Voltage, Current and Power variations in a purely inductive branch

Energy of an L Branch The exact amount of energy given to the inductor can be determined by integrating over 1 quarter of a cycle, that is, from t=T/4 to t=T/2:

Notice that the negative power during the first quarter cycle Power is received during the 2nd quarter cycle and released to the source during the 3rd quarter of the cycle. The average power absorbed is zero.

Voltage, Current and Power variations in a purely inductive branch

The C Branch

1/30/2009

Apply KVL to a purely capacitive branch yields

Impedance of an C Branch The ratio of Vm to Im in a purely capacitive branch is 1/ C. The current leads the applied voltage by 1 quarter of a cycle or 90 The impedance can be represented as Z C 1 / C
90

1/C (=Vm/Im) is known as the capacitive reactance XC = 1/L = 1/2fC Also, an AC series circuit with no capacitor has infinite capacitance and hence zero capacitive reactance.

ZL

L 90

Voltage, Current and Power variations in a purely Capacitive branch Power of an C Branch As power absorbed by the capacitor is, p=vi

Notice that the power is double the frequency of the voltage or current.

Notice that the positive power during the first quarter cycle Power is received during the 1st quarter cycle and released to the source during the 2nd quarter of the cycle. The average power absorbed is zero.

Energy of a C Branch The exact amount of energy given to the inductor can be determined by integrating over 1 quarter of a cycle, that is, from t=0 to t=T/4

Voltage, Current and Power variations in a purely Capacitive branch

WC is the maximum amount of energy stored in the capacitor at any given time

1/30/2009

Special Note

Comparison between the power equation of a purely C branch and the purely L branch

The RL Branch
shows that the capacitive element receives energy from the supplying source during the periods in which the inductive element returns energy to the source, and vice versa. Generally, on an LC branch, energy is exchanged between the components. (energy oscillates within the magnetic fields of LC components)

Energy of an RL Branch Applying a sinusoidal input voltage Vmsint we use KVL to resolve the equation

If we assume a sinusoidal current, i=Imsint flows through the RL branch, then

Instantaneous voltage drop across the resistive element plus the instantaneous voltage drop across the inductive element equals the instantaneous voltage drop across the RL branch

Now, as the sine and cosine waves are 90 out of time phase with respect to each other, the RIm and LIm components may be related as a right angled triangle

From the previous analysis we can conclude that

1/30/2009

Impedance of an RL Branch Numerical ratio of Vm to Im is the square root term (below) Current lags the applied voltage by the angle whos tangent is L/R

Power of an RL Branch The instantaneous power, called the volt-amperes, of an RL branch is given by:

The ratio of Vm to Im in a purely capacitive branch is 1/ C. The current on a capacitive branch leads the applied voltage by 1 quarter of a cycle or 90

The following graph is the representation of the components that make up the expression for power of an RL branch

The average power may also be obtained by integrating

If the average is considered, the cos and sine terms cancel yielding

Real Power and Reactive Power or Reactive Volt-Amperes Analyzing the power expression yields why real and reactive components can be represented as a right angled triangle

Reactive Power The third components of the power expression forms the instantaneous reactive power (or instantaneous quadrature power or instantaneous reactive voltamperes) because the area under

Instantaneous Real Power The first 2 components of the power expression combine to form such that it has no negative values; hence it is called the instantaneous real power

curve represents the energy that oscillates between the driving source and the reactive elements of the receiving circuit.

Instantaneous Real Power, unless specified otherwise, means the average of the real power.

Volt - Amperes Both real power and reactive power are important quantities. Real power is measured using a watt meter (watts), and a varmeter is used to measure reactive power (vars).

1/30/2009

Real and reactive power combine to yield volt-amperes

Relationship between power, reactive volt-amperes and volt-amperes

The RLC Branch

Assuming a sinusoidal current i=I msint is flowing through an RLC branch, we can make the following analysis

Impedance of an RLC Branch Assuming a sinusoidal current i=I msint is flowing through an RLC branch, we can make the following analysis

If L>1/C the RLC branch responds to an impressed voltage just as an RL branch would. the inductive reactance would then be ( L 1/C) If 1/C >L the RLC branch responds to an impressed voltage just as an RC branch would the capacitive reactance would then be (1/ C L) If 1/C =L the RLC branch responds to an impressed voltage just as an purely resistive branch would. The impedance at this situation is minimum.

Power of an RLC Branch

Since i=Imsint and v=Vmsin(t + ), the instantaneous power expression is as before (for the RL branch)

The may take values between 90 and -90 Average power is

Instantaneous reactive volt-amperes is

A positive coefficient of [sin2t] indicates an inductive load, while a negative coefficient indicates a capacitive load. At =0 (that is, L=1/C) the term of energy oscillate between the reactive elements equals zero. Large amounts