(From Topics in Spanish lexical dialectology: folks.

Proceedings of the 42nd Annual Conference of the American Translators Association, Los Angeles, California, U.S.A., October 31-November 3, 2001. Thomas L. West III, comp. American Translators Association, 2001. 268301.)

TOPICS IN SPANISH LEXICAL DIALECTOLOGY: FOLKS Andre Moskowitz

Keywords: Spanish, Regionalisms, Terminology, Dialectology, Lexicography, Sociolinguistics, People, Occupations, Anatomy. Abstract: This paper presents information on the regional Spanish-language names of occupations, anatomy and other people-related phenomena.

INTRODUCTION

People who shine other peoples shoes for money are called either limpiabotas, lustrabotas or lustradores in most Spanish-speaking countries, but they are often called boleros in Mexico and emboladores in Colombia. This study seeks to determine, in each Spanish-speaking region, which terms are commonly used for shoe shine boys and certain other people-related phenomena that have different names in different regions of the Spanish-speaking world. The material in this article is catalogued under three general headings (Occupations, Anatomy and Miscellaneous), and the title of each section is the items common equivalent in United States English, or a description of the item. A) Occupations: 1) waiter / waitress / server, 2) shoe shine boy, 3) plumber. B) Anatomy: 1) bump on ones head, 2) bangs, 3) sleep in your eye (rheum), 4) Adams apple. C) Miscellaneous: 1) blond or fair-skinned, 2) to crack ones knuckles, 3) dental filling, 4) sign or hand signal used to indicate persons height.

Illustrations1 of some of the items are provided, and each section is divided into four subsections: 1) 2) 3) 4) 0.1 Summary Terms by Country Details Real Academia Regional Review Summary

These subsections present a synopsis of the regional variation of each item and highlight the lexical landscapes salient points. Sometimes one or two terms loom large on the i nternational horizon, that is, they are used in many more countries than any of the other terms. When this occurs, these dominant terms are identified. 0.2 Terms by Country

These subsections consist of lexico-geographic tables in which the terms used in the Spanishspeaking regions of peninsular Spain and the nineteen Spanish-speaking countries of the Western Hemisphere are presented. Since the countries are arranged in a geographical order, they often highlight lexico-geographic blocs, or groups of countries that are in geographic proximity and also share the same lexical usage for a given item. Information on most items was collected from between ten and twenty native speakers of Spanish from each country, by one or several of the following methods: 1) through observation in the countries themselves; 2) by showing informants the item, or a picture of the item, or by giving them a description of the item (sometimes using pantomime) and asking them to give the term or phrase most commonly used in their region for it; and, 3) by asking informants who are highly proficient in English to give the equivalents of English-language terms and phrases that are used in their native regions. Following each Spanish-language term, a numerical proportion is given indicating the number of informants out of the total who used a particular term or gave it as their response to a question. Thus, in the first table, WAITER / WAITRESS / SERVER,
CHILE

garzn (12/20), mozo (12/20), mesero (6/20)

is to be interpreted as, Of the twenty Chileans who were observed referring to a waiter or were asked to give the term they used for this item, twelve gave or used the term garzn, twelve gave or used the term mozo, and six the term mesero. In many cases, the people interviewed indicated that more than one term was commonly used in their homeland and, therefore, the sum of the ratios frequently total more than one. In some cases, shibboleths, or distinguishing traits, are pinpointed. For example, if a Spanishspeaker uses the word bolero in the sense of shoe shine boy, then that person is in all likelihood

Mexican, or is someone who, for whatever reason, has decided to adopt this aspect of Mexican usage. Often the shibboleth does not uniquely determine the persons nationality but suggests a group of countries. For instance, if a Spanish speaker uses pollina in the sense of bangs, then he or she probably comes from one of three countries: the Dominican Republic, Puerto Rico or Venezuela. 0.3 Details

In these subsections more detailed information is provided on usage in particular regions or socioeconomic groups. 0.4 Real Academia Regional Review

These subsections present an evaluation of the 1992 edition of the Diccionario de la Lengua Espaola (the Dictionary of the Spanish Royal Academy), henceforth referred to as the Dictionary. Its coverage of the regional usages described in this article is evaluated using the following grading scale: A Corresponding definition, correct regions. This grade is given when the Dictionary defines the term as used in a particular section of this article and correctly indicates the countries and/or regions in which the term is used in this sense. Corresponding definition, incorrect regions. This grade is given when the Dictionary defines the term as used in the section and specifies a region or regions but does not specify them correctly. Its definition either fails to include regions in which the usage occurs or includes regions where the usage does not occur. However, the grade of B is raised to an A if the Dictionarys definition is appropriate, Amr. (Amrica, that is, Spanish-speaking Latin America) is specified in the definition, and the term is used in ten or more (over 50%) of the nineteen Spanish-speaking Latin American countries. Corresponding definition, no regions specified. This grade is given when the Dictionary defines the term as used in the section but does not specify any countries or regions in which the term is used in this sense. In essence, it fails to identify the usage as regional. However, the grade of C is raised to an A if the term is used in at least ten of the twenty Spanish-speaking countries (at least 50% of them). No corresponding definition. This grade is given when the Dictionary does not include in its definition of the term a sense that corresponds to the section. Term not in dictionary. This grade is given when the Dictionary does not list the term at all.

D F

The purpose of this evaluation is to expose gaps and inconsistencies in specific definitions in the hope that they will be modified in future editions of the Dictionary so that they accurately describe usage in the Spanish-speaking world from an international perspective. At the very least, the issues raised should be investigated by the Dictionarys researchers. The same type of test could be applied to other monolingual, Spanish-language dictionaries. * * *

One may ask why the study of Spanish regionalisms is important. In fact, Spanish is a remarkably unified language. The syntactic and phonetic differences between its spoken varieties are not great enough to cause an immediate breakdown in communication between educated speakers from different countries, but because of this, lexical differences often present subtler barriers to communication. Although cases of regional variation such as cerquillo/chasquilla/flequillo/pollina (bangs) constitute only a tiny minority within the Spanish lexicon taken as a whole (the vast majority of which shows no regional differentiation), if ones communication with someone who speaks a different national dialect happens to involve one of these lexical items, communication may very well be inhibited. Having an international perspective on the language and being aware of regional differences in vocabulary not only helps people avoid misunderstandings when communicating with a person from a different country or region, but also helps prevent one from judging anothers use of language based on ones own local (national) standard.2 One may also ask how lexical variation is best studied and analyzed. In this article, language differences are plotted primarily as a function of geography__rather than of socioeconomic class, age, gender or ethnicity. Although this approach was once quite popular, it fell out of favor in academic linguistic circles after about 1950. The following remark by Professor Yakov Malkiel, made in the early 1980s, is indicative of how dialect geography came to be considered less important than sociolinguistics and urban dialectology: Traditionally, among laymen and specialists alike, dialect has referred to some regional ( provincial ) parlance, with the connotations of humility, uncouthness, and lack of sophistication almost inescapably attaching to it: hence the concentration of early investigators __ in the company of folklorists __ on rural varieties. With the advent to influence of urban anthropology and sociolinguistics, it has become fashionable to speak of inner-city and suburban dialects more and more frequently. In a concurrent development, along a related axis, dialect no longer immediately evokes the geographic map, as used to be the case at the height of the fad of linguistic atlases, which owed so much to the technique of cartographic projection based on interviews. At present one speaks just as readily of social dialects __ to contrast the preferences of the educated and the uneducated, or the economically privileged and the impecunious, etc. (Malkiel 53). This study has some things in common with earlier linguistic atlas projects carried out in the first half of the twentieth century. For example, its informants are not a cross-section of the community but just individuals the author had access to. In those earlier studies, however, the subjects were generally older, uneducated, rural men as the following remark made by Professors Jack Chambers and Peter Trudgill in their important book Dialectology indicates: Perhaps the most typical feature shared by all of the major projects in dialect geography is the type of informant selected. No matter how diverse the culture, how discrepant the socioeconomic climate, and how varied the topography, the majority of informants has in all cases consisted of nonmobile, older, rural males. For want of an established term to characterise this population, here and

elsewhere throughout this book we will refer to them as the NORMs, an acronym based on the description given in the preceding sentence. (Chambers and Trudgill 29). In contrast to the NORMs described by Chambers and Trudgill, most of the people interviewed for this study were under the age of fifty. They were also generally from cities __not rural areas__and for the most part were highly educated and cosmopolitan. At the other end of the spectrum, there were also some who were campesinos. Another important difference is the speech that one is attempting to describe. The goal here is not to determine the unique linguistic features that distinguish the speech of, say, elderly, uneducated men from the rural community of Jaripeo, Guanajuato, Mexico, but rather those that unite, for example, a majority of Mexicans from all regions of the country, whether rural or urban, rich or poor, and which may distinguish them from a broad range of speakers from the other nineteen Spanish-speaking countries. In the last chapter of Dialectology, Professors Chambers and Trudgill claim that serious studies on this subject must address urban research and variation theory: Dialectology without sociolinguistics at its core is a relic. No serious perspective on dialectology can grant urban research and variation theory less than a central role. (Chambers and Trudgill 188). Are the claims of these distinguished dialectolgists valid? Let us suppose they are and test them by seeing if the present study is a counter-example: since urban research and variation theory (however these are defined) are not central components of this study, then, according to Chambers and Trudgill, it cannot be serious. And since sociolinguistics is not its primary focus, it is therefore a relic. While urban research and variation theory are undoubtedly important tools in many dialectology research projects, the author of this article would dispute any claim that these or any other technique or framework must be applied in order for a study to be considered valid, important or interesting. He believes, on the contrary, that valuable research on dialects comes in a wide range of shapes and sizes and hopes that further studies will broaden rather than narrow our perspectives and approaches. The reader will judge whether this study is serious and the extent to which its topics are of current interest and usefulness.

A A1 A1.1

OCCUPATIONS WAITER / WAITRESS / SERVER Summary

Mesero and mozo are somewhat dominant: mesero is the most commonly used term in at least ten Spanish American countries, all north of Peru, mozo in at least eight countries (six of which are south of Ecuador), and camarero in two or three countries. Other terms are commonly used in Chile, Costa Rica, Ecuador, Panama, Venezuela and, possibly, Bolivia.

A1.2

Terms by Country (7 terms) camarero (15/15). mesero (15/15). mesero (13/13). mesero (10/10). mesero (11/11). mesero (12/12). mesero (10/14), salonero (9/14). mesero (8/14), witer (7/14), salonero (4/14). camarero (15/15). camarero (11/15), mozo (9/15), mesero (7/15). mesero (16/20), mozo (10/20), camarero (5/20). mesonero (13/13). mesero (15/15). mesero (15/15), salonero (7/15), mozo (4/15). mozo (17/20), mesero (7/20). mozo (14/15), garzn (6/15), mesero (6/15). mozo (13/13). mozo (11/11). mozo (15/15). garzn (12/20), mozo (12/20), mesero (6/20).

SPAIN MEXICO GUATEMALA EL SALVADOR HONDURAS NICARAGUA COSTA RICA PANAMA CUBA DOMIN. REP. PUERTO RICO VENEZUELA COLOMBIA ECUADOR PERU BOLIVIA PARAGUAY URUGUAY ARGENTINA CHILE

A1.3

Details

General: The above terms are used to refer to waiters in indirect address, for example, when referring to their occupation. Some of the above terms are also used in direct address when trying to get a waiters attention, although seor is always more polite. In some Spanish-speaking countries waitresses are not very common and, therefore, words for female servers are seldom heard, but which of the above terms can take the feminine form? Camarera, mesera, mesonera and salonera seem to work fine, but what about la moza, la garzona or la witer? Spanish speakers who know French and English may object to the last two terms, but are they ever used? Where mozo is used, there is some evidence to suggest that for female servers, mesera is more common than moza. Panama: If the anglicism waiter, pronounced as if written witer, is ever accepted as a legitimate word in Panamanian Spanish, which spelling will be preferred? Ecuador: Salonero tends to refer to servers in modest eating establishments (often called salones). Bolivia & Chile: What are peoples attitudes toward the term garzn (which derives from French garon)? Some said they felt garzn was a more refined term than mozo or mesero (terms which they considered pejorative), whereas others stated that garzn is used only in mocking or affected speech.

A1.4

Real Academia Regional Review

Camarero (C), garzn (D), mesero (B), mesonero (D), mozo (D), salonero (F), waiter (F), witer (F). This is how the Dictionary defines the following terms: mozo, 4. m. Hombre que sirve en las casas o al pblico en oficios humildes. Dentase el lugar y el trabajo en que se ocupa por medio de un sustantivo regido por la preposicin de. MOZO DE caf, DE comedor, DE cocina; camarero, 6. Mozo de caf, bar u otro establecimiento semejante; mesero, m. y f. Col., Chile, Ecuad., Guat. y Mj. Camarero o camarera de caf o restaurante. Sense 4 of mozo is both too general and too restrictive to capture the essence of waiter: it includes kitchen workers and other types of food-service employees who are not waiters, and it describes the job as humilde. (Those who wait tables in four-star restaurants do not have a lowstatus occupation and they tend to be anything but humble.) Therefore, an additional sense needs to be added to the Dictionarys definition of mozo. Since the concept of mesero/mozo/camarero is fundamentally linked to that of restaurante (or restauran(t)/restorn as many Spanish speakers pronounce and write it), any definition of the former should include the latter. However, given the fact that mesero is the most widely used term internationally, it should be defined as persona que sirve comidas y bebidas en un restaurante, caf u otro establecimiento semejante and the remaining terms (mozo, camarero, garzn, etc.) should be cross-referenced to mesero with the appropriate regional labels.

A2 A2.1

SHOE SHINE BOY Summary

Limpiabotas and lustrabotas are the dominant terms: one or the other is commonly used in fifteen countries. Other terms are common in Mexico, Guatemala, El Salvador, Nicaragua and Colombia. A2.2 Terms by Country (6 terms plus variants) limpiabotas (15/15). bolero (15/15). lustrador (12/12). lustrador (10/10). lustrabotas (13/15), chaine (5/15), lustrador (5/15). lustrador (12/12). limpiabotas (12/12). limpiabotas (13/13). limpiabotas (12/12). limpiabotas (12/12). limpiabotas (15/15). limpiabotas (14/14). embolador (16/20), lustrabotas (6/20), lustrador (3/20). betunero (6/11), lustrabotas (6/11).

SPAIN MEXICO GUATEMALA EL SALVADOR HONDURAS NICARAGUA COSTA RICA PANAMA CUBA DOMIN. REP. PUERTO RICO VENEZUELA COLOMBIA ECUADOR

PERU BOLIVIA PARAGUAY URUGUAY ARGENTINA CHILE

lustrabotas (7/12), lustrador (5/12). lustrabotas (12/12). lustrabotas (13/13). lustrabotas (9/11), lustrador (4/11), lustrazapatos (1/11). lustrabotas (18/20), lustrador (2/20), lustrn (1/20). lustrabotas (13/13), lustrador (2/13).

A2.3

Details

General: Limpiabotas and lustrabotas are sometimes pronounced (and written) limpiabota and lustrabota, respectively, especially in regions where ss in word-final position tend to be aspirated or deleted such as southern Spain, the Caribbean basin and the River Plate region. Where lustrador is used, the qualifiers de botas or de zapatos are sometimes added for clarification. Honduras: Chaine derives from English shine and also means a shine as in que me d un chaine; the verb chainear means to shine (shoes). Colombia: Some claim embolador is the everyday term but that lustrabotas is used when people want to talk fino (fancy). What are Colombians attitudes regarding embolador vs. lustrabotas? Ecuador: Is betunero used more in the Costa (coastal region) and lustrabotas more in the Sierra (highland region)? There is some evidence to suggest this is the case. Argentina & Chile: The one person who gave lustrn as an equivalent of shoe shine boy was an elderly man from San Juan, Argentina. Is this term commonly used in Chile, in some regions of Argentina, or elsewhere? (See paragraph 3 of section A2.4 below.) A2.4 Real Academia Regional Review

Betunero (C), bolero (A), chaine (F), embolador (A), limpiabotas (A), lustrabotas (B), lustrador (B), lustrn (B?). Betunero is defined as 2. limpiabotas (with no regional specification). Is this term commonly used in Spain or in any Spanish American countries other than Ecuador? Lustrn is defined as Chile. Lustrabotas, limpiabotas. Is this term commonly used in Chile in this sense? The Chileans this author interviewed indicated that a lustrn is the box containing the polish, brushes and other utensils used to shine shoes.

A3 A3.1

PLUMBER Summary

Plomero is the dominant term: it is the most commonly used term in twelve Spanish American countries and competes with another term in at least five more. Fontanero is the preferred term in most if not all of Spain (Andaluca is a possible exception). In much of Hispanic Central America, fontanero and plomero go toe to toe, and Ecuador, Peru and Chile have terms which derive from English gas fitter.

A3.2

Terms by Country (4 terms plus variants) fontanero (19/20), plomero (2/20). plomero (20/20), fontanero (4/20). plomero (12/12). fontanero (12/15), plomero (10/15). fontanero (12/15), plomero (9/15). fontanero (8/12), plomero (7/12). fontanero (10/12), plomero (8/12). plomero (12/12). plomero (15/15). plomero (11/11). plomero (15/15). plomero (15/15). plomero (15/15). gasfitero (9/12), plomero (8/12). gasfitero (12/12). plomero (12/12). plomero (13/13). plomero (10/10). plomero (13/13). gsfiter (13/13).

SPAIN MEXICO GUATEMALA EL SALVADOR HONDURAS NICARAGUA COSTA RICA PANAMA CUBA DOMIN. REP. PUERTO RICO VENEZUELA COLOMBIA ECUADOR PERU BOLIVIA PARAGUAY URUGUAY ARGENTINA CHILE

A3.3

Details

Spain: Is plomero commonly used in Andaluca? The Dictionary implies that it is (see section A3.4 below), yet in this study six of the eight respondents from Andaluca indicated that fontanero is the only term they use (one said he used plomero and one said he used both terms). However, all Andalusians queried were educated, urban persons under the age of fifty. What do elderly, rural and working-class Andalusians say? Given that fontanero is the predominant term in most of Spain, is plomero losing ground to fontanero in southern Spain or is it standing firm or perhaps gaining ground? In Andaluca, is plomero used more by older, rural, and working-class populations, and is fontanero used more by the younger generations and the middle and upper classes? Is the use of plomero considered by some Andalusians to be a shibboleth, a term that shows one is a true Andalusian, an andaluz de pura cepa? In general, what are Andalusians attitudes toward the use of plomero vs. fontanero? If the use of plomero is beginning to die out in southern Spain, when did this process start, and why? If plomero is alive and well in southern Spain, does covert prestige play any role in its survival? Ecuador: Gasfitero is used more in the Costa and the southern highlands (e.g. Cuenca, Loja); plomero more in the rest of the Sierra (Riobamba, Ambato, Quito, Ibarra, etc). Ecuador, Peru & Chile: Gasfitero and gsfter, which are often pronounced as if written gafitero and gfiter, respectively, derive from English gas fitter (defined in the American Heritage Dictionary as one who installs or repairs gas pipes, fixtures, or appliances). Why did gasfitero or gsfter take root in these three countries and not in other Spanishspeaking countries that had comparable British or American influence? Why was the

direct loan-word gsfiter incorporated into Chilean Spanish whereas in Peru and coastal Ecuador the English term was castillianized and became gasfitero? Why did gasfitero take root in Guayaquil and coastal Ecuador but not in Quito and most of the Ecuadoran Highlands? A3.4 Real Academia Regional Review

Fontanero (C), gsfiter (F), gasfitero (F), plomero (A). Plomero is defined as 2. En Andaluca y diversos pases de Amrica, fontanero. Since plomero is by far the most widely used term internationally, one can argue that the Dictionary should give it a full definition and define fontanero as En Espaa y diversos pases de Amrica Central, plomero or Esp. y Amr. Central. Plomero. This leads us to the following question: to what extent does the Spanish Royal Academy seek to produce a dictionary that is international in character and outlook? The fact that the Dictionary defines many terms not used in Spain shows that the Academy does indeed want its dictionary to record word usage throughout the Spanish-speaking world. However, its unwillingness to identify usages found only or primarily in Spain as espaolismos, suggests it still views the Spanish language from a perspective that is Peninsular and Eurocentric, rather than international, and perhaps it always will. To what extent do other monolingual, Spanishlanguage dictionaries view the language from an international perspective?

B B1

ANATOMY BUMP ON ONES HEAD [Illustration in original publication not included]

B1.1

Summary

Chichn is the international standard term and chichn and/or chinchn are the most frequently used terms in over half of the Spanish-speaking countries. However, other terms are common in Mexico, most of Hispanic Central America, Puerto Rico, Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, and Chile. B1.2 Terms by Country (about 15 terms plus variants) chichn (16/20), huevo (5/20), chinchn (3/20), turulo (1/20). chipote (16/20), chichn (12/20). chinchn (10/15), chichn (6/15). chindondo (11/16), chichote (8/16), chichn (5/16). chichote (13/13), chichn (6/13), chinchn (1/13). chichote (13/13), chichn (7/13). chichota (14/14), chichn (4/14), chibola (2/14). chichn (12/13), huevo (4/13). chichn (15/15).

SPAIN MEXICO GUATEMALA EL SALVADOR HONDURAS NICARAGUA COSTA RICA PANAMA CUBA

10

DOMIN. REP. PUERTO RICO VENEZUELA COLOMBIA ECUADOR PERU BOLIVIA PARAGUAY URUGUAY ARGENTINA CHILE

chichn (12/14), chinchn (3/14). chichn (20/20), guabucho (10/20), huevucho/gevucho (6/20). chichn (15/15), tuyuyo (9/15). chichn (20/20), turupe (9/20), huevo (6/20), chibolo (2/20), chicho (1/20), pelota (1/20), torupe (1/20), turupo (1/20). chibolo (16/20), chichn (13/20), chinchn (2/20), huevo (1/20). chichn (12/20), chinchn (12/20), cototo (1/20). chinchn (11/15), chichn (7/15). chichn (11/16), bitoque (6/16), acnd (4/16), chinchn (3/16). chichn (10/11), chinchn (1/11), huevo (1/11). chichn (16/16), huevo (2/16). cototo (12/16), chichn (5/16), huevo (4/16), tococo (3/16).

B1.3

Details

Spain: The person who offered turulo was from Galicia. Honduras & Nicaragua: Several people indicated that chichote is an ordinary-sized bump on the head whereas a chichn is a large one. Puerto Rico: Some claim a guabucho, or its variant huevucho/gevucho, is a larger, more impressive bump than a chichn. Others say a guabucho or its variant refers to bumps on other parts of the body (or elsewhere such as on a tire or inner tube), whereas chichn is specifically a bump on the head. Still others say that a guabucho is any bump, bruise or welt. In light of the fact that guabucho is derived from huevucho, which in turn is derived from huevo, how should guabucho be spelled, guabucho or huavucho? The intermediate spellings guavucho and huabucho were also offered. Colombia: Some Colombians say turupe is a lump or bump anywhere on the body whereas a chichn is specifically one on the head; others say chichn and turupe are synonyms but turupe pertains to a lower speech register. The use of turupe seems to be more common in the interior of the country than in the Costa (Atlantic Coast region) or the Llanos (eastern plains draining to the Orinoco). Ecuador: Chibolo seems to be used more in the Costa and chichn more in the Sierra. Peru: The Peruvian who gave cototo was from Tacna (extreme southern Peru). Paraguay: Acnd is the Guaran term. Chile: All three respondents who gave tococo were from Antofagasta. Does tococo derive from cototo (by metathesis) or vice-versa, and is tococo used in other (northern) regions of Chile? What is the origin of cototo/tococo? B1.4 Real Academia Regional Review

Acand/acnd (F), bitoque (D), cototo (F), chibola (A or B?), chibolo (A or B?), chichn (A), chichota (D), chichote (F), chinchn (A), chindondo (F), chipote (D), guabucho (F), huevo (D), huevucho (F), tococo (F), torupe (F), turupe (F), turupo (F), tuyuyo (F). This is how the Dictionary defines the following terms: bodoque, 8. fig. Guat. y Mj. Chichn, bollo, y en general hinchazn de forma redonda en cualquier parte del cuerpo; brocino, m. porcino, chichn; chibolo and chibola, 2. Amr. Central, Col., Ecuad. y Per. Chichn; porcel, m. Murc. Chichn, porcino; porcino, 4. Chichn, porcel; tolo, m. Ast. y

11

Len. tolondro, chichn; tolondro, 2. m. Bulto o chichn que se levanta en alguna parte del cuerpo, especialmente en la cabeza, de resultas de un golpe; tolondrn, 2. m. Bulto producido en la cabeza por un golpe, chichn, tolo; torondo, m. ant. chichn; torondn, m. ant. Chichn, tolondro; turumbn, m. tolondrn, bulto o chichn. Is bodoque commonly used in this sense in Guatemala and Mexico, or in certain regions of these countries? If so, in which regions? Is porcel used in Murcia? Is tolo used in Asturias and Len? Brocino, porcino, tolondro and turumbn are listed with no regional specification, but clearly they are not common throughout the Spanish-speaking world. Where in Spain (and elsewhere) are these terms frequently used? Where and when were torondo and torondn used in this sense?

B2

BANGS [Illustration in original publication not included]

B2.1

Summary

There is no dominant term. Flequillo, the international standard term, is understood by hair dressers and educated speakers everywhere, yet it is the most commonly used term in only four countries: Spain, Honduras, Paraguay and Argentina. Cerquillo is the most frequently used term in five countries (four of which are in South America), pollina in three countries (all in the Caribbean basin), and fleco and pava in two countries each. El Salvador, Panama, Colombia and Chile have unique usages that are not common in any other country. B2.2 Terms by Country (about 13 terms plus variants) flequillo (15/15). fleco (14/20), tup (7/20), flequillo (3/20). fleco (12/15), flequillo (5/15). cepill(it)o (13/13), fleco (3/13), pavita (1/13), cerquillo (1/13). flequillo (10/16), cepillo (5/16), cerquillo (5/16), fleco (4/16), pavita (1/16), burrita (1/16). pava (13/13), fleco (2/13). pava (15/15), fleco (6/15), flequillo (5/15). gallusa (12/12). cerquillo (15/15). pollina (13/13). pollina (20/20), flequillo (3/20). pollina (15/15), flequillo (5/15), fleco (1/15). capul (15/20), flequillo (7/20), china (6/20), fleco (2/20). cerquillo (15/15). cerquillo (15/15). cerquillo (15/15), flequillo (2/15), jopo (2/15). flequillo (13/13), jopo (4/13).

SPAIN MEXICO GUATEMALA EL SALVADOR HONDURAS NICARAGUA COSTA RICA PANAMA CUBA DOMIN. REP. PUERTO RICO VENEZUELA COLOMBIA ECUADOR PERU BOLIVIA PARAGUAY

12

URUGUAY ARGENTINA CHILE

cerquillo (13/14), flequillo (5/14). flequillo (15/15). chasquilla (15/15).

B2.3

Details

Mexico: Is tup in this sense used more in northern Mexico? There is some evidence to suggest this is the case. Panama: The Panamanian term probably derives from gallo and therefore one can argue that it should be spelled gallusa, but Panamanians also offered the other three possible spellings: galluza, gayusa and gayuza; it seems many educated people are unsure. Colombia: Capul is the predominant term in the interior; china in the Costa (Atlantic Coast) region. What terms are used in the Pacific Coast region and in the Llanos? In the regions where capul is common, who says el capul and who says la capul? Most people queried indicated capul is feminine, but most of them were from Bogot and several from other regions of the interior insisted that the term is masculine. Others believe the difference is generational with la capul being the more traditional, older usage and el capul being used by younger folks. Paraguay: Several Paraguayans indicated that jopo means bangs but one claimed it refers to the hair on the foreheads of horses and mules. How is jopo used in Paraguayan Spanish? (In a related area, several Argentines indicated that a jopo is what other Spanish speakers would call a copete, that is, hair combed up and back over the forehead.) Uruguay: A number of people indicated that cerquillo and flequillo are synonyms. Several Uruguayans, however, made comments to the effect that flequillo is the Argentine term and that real Uruguayans say cerquillo. What are Uruguayans attitudes toward the use of flequillo vs. cerquillo? B2.4 Real Academia Regional Review

Capul (F), cepillo (D), cerquillo (D), chasquilla (A), china (D), fleco (A or C?), flequillo (A), gallusa (F), jopo (D), pava (D), pollina (B), tup (D).

B3 B3.1

SLEEP IN YOUR EYE (RHEUM) Summary

Lagaa is the dominant term: it is the most frequently used term in fourteen countries, all in Spanish America. However, legaa holds sway in Spain and, possibly, Peru. Other terms are common in Colombia and much of Hispanic Central America; in the latter region many people are unfamiliar with either lagaa or legaa. B3.2 Terms by Country (about 10 terms plus variants) legaa (17/20), lagaa (4/20). lagaa (19/20), chinilla (1/20).

SPAIN MEXICO

13

GUATEMALA EL SALVADOR HONDURAS NICARAGUA COSTA RICA PANAMA CUBA DOMIN. REP. PUERTO RICO VENEZUELA COLOMBIA ECUADOR PERU BOLIVIA PARAGUAY URUGUAY ARGENTINA CHILE

chele (11/11). chele (10/10). caca/caquita (7/14), sucio/suciedad (6/14), chele (3/14), cagada (2/14), chelo (2/14), lagaa (2/14), chareca (1/14). chele (4/10), chilicoso (4/10), sucio/suciedad (3/10), lagaa (3/10). lagaa (11/11). lagaa (12/12). lagaa (10/14), legaa (4/14). lagaa (12/12). lagaa (15/15). lagaa (12/12). lagaa (16/18), piche (8/18), picha (1/18). lagaa (9/10), chuncho (1/10). legaa (10/12), lagaa (4/12). lagaa (12/12). lagaa (11/12), resape (6/12). lagaa (11/11). lagaa (10/10). lagaa (12/13), legaa (3/13).

B3.3

Details

General: The item in question is the substance that, when you wake up sometimes, you find has formed in the corner of your eye (hardened rheum). Spain: In what regions, if any, is lagaa more common than legaa? Or is the legaa/lagaa issue a matter of social dialect? If so, is legaa considered more prestigious than lagaa? Some Spaniards indicated that, to their ear, lagaa has a rural ring to it. Honduras: Variants of caca/caquita such as caca de ratn and caquita de ojo were offered which Hondurans stated were vulgar or at best unrefined usages. Many Hondurans, however, were hard-pressed to come up with a more dignified, proper or precise term for this item. Colombia: Piche appears to be used more in the interior and less in the Costa region. Most people who offered the term indicated it is a vulgar equivalent of lagaa, but others stated that piche is a greenish, watery type of lagaa. Peru: Several Peruvians indicated that legaa is the educated form and lagaa the uneducated form. Is this true? Paraguay: Resape is the Guaran term. Chel, chele or chelo: Are all three forms used in parts of Central America? Is the singular form of cheles, chel or chele? Many Guatemalans, Salvadorans, Hondurans and Nicaraguans indicated that they only use the plural form cheles and do not use a singular form. Of those who gave a singular form, most said chele, but a few said chel. To complicate matters further, two Hondurans gave chelos and did not say what the singular form was. In Spanish, could a word chel have a plural form chelos, or would it have to be cheles?

14

B3.4

Real Academia Regional Review

Caca (de ratn) (D), chel (F), chele (B), chilicoso (F), lagaa (A), legaa (C), piche (D), resape (F). ADAMS APPLE [Illustration in original publication not included] B4.1 Summary

B4

Manzana and/or manzana de Adn are the dominant terms: they are the most commonly used terms in at least fourteen countries. In Spain, Cuba, Uruguay and Argentina, nuez and/or nuez de Adn are more common, and in Bolivia, pera competes with manzana (de Adn). In the Dominican Republic and/or Chile, manzana (de Adn) and nuez (de Adn) may be competitors. B4.2
SPAIN MEXICO GUATEMALA EL SALVADOR HONDURAS NICARAGUA COSTA RICA PANAMA CUBA DOMIN. REP. PUERTO RICO VENEZUELA COLOMBIA ECUADOR PERU BOLIVIA PARAGUAY URUGUAY ARGENTINA CHILE

Terms by Country (about 7 terms plus variants) nuez (de Adn) (15/17), manzana (de Adn) (3/17), bocado de Adn (1/17). manzana (de Adn) (17/20), nuez (de Adn) (4/20). manzana (de Adn) (7/10), manzanita (2/10), nuez (de Adn) (2/10), bocado de Adn (1/10), manzanilla (1/10), pera (1/10). manzana (de Adn) (10/13), manzanilla (2/13), almendra (1/13), manzana de No (1/13). manzana (de Adn) (13/13). manzana (de Adn) (10/10). manzana (de Adn) (12/13), manzanilla (1/13). manzana (de Adn) (11/13), nuez (de Adn) (2/13), pera (2/13). nuez (de Adn) (11/16), manzana (de Adn) (3/16), bocado de Adn (1/16), gargantilla (1/16). manzana (de Adn) (7/12), nuez (de Adn) (5/12), galillo (4/12). manzana (de Adn) (15/20), nuez (de Adn) (4/20), manzanilla (1/20), pepa de Adn (1/20). manzana (de Adn) (11/12), nuez (de Adn) (1/12). manzana (de Adn) (17/20), nuez (de Adn) (4/20). manzana (de Adn) (9/11), nuez (de Adn) (2/11). manzana (de Adn) (10/13), pera (2/13), nuez (1/13). manzana (de Adn) (7/14), pera (7/14), manzanilla (1/14), nuez de Adn (1/14). manzana (de Adn) (13/13). nuez (de Adn) (9/11), manzana (2/11). nuez (de Adn) (13/13), manzana (de Adn) (2/13). manzana (de Adn) (13/18), nuez (6/18).

15

B4.3

Details

General: Why is manzana (de Adn) more common in most of Spanish America and nuez (de Adn) more common in Spain, Uruguay, Argentina and Cuba? Cuba: Is manzana (de Adn) more common than nuez (de Adn) in Oriente (eastern Cuba)? Dominican Republic: Galillo is used in el habla popular (uneducated speech) and may also refer to the neck or throat. Adn or no Adn?: Both manzana and manzana de Adn seem to be used interchangeably in a majority of countries. However, in Spain and Chile, nuez is much more common than nuez de Adn. Is this the case in Argentina and Uruguay as well? The four de-Adn forms encountered in this study are manzana de Adn, nuez de Adn, bocado de Adn and pepa de Adn, but one woman from El Salvador offered manzana de No. While one can argue that her knowledge of the Old Testament may be a bit rusty, the question remains as to whether there are large numbers of Spanish speakers in El Salvador (and possibly elsewhere) who are similarly confused. B4.4 Real Academia Regional Review

Bocado de Adn (A or C?), galillo (D), manzana (A), manzana de Adn (A), manzanilla (D), manzanita (D), nuez (A), nuez de Adn (F), pera (D).

C C1 C1.1

MISCELLANEOUS BLOND or FAIR-SKINNED Summary

Thirteen out of nineteen Spanish American countries have regional terms for people who are blond and/or fair-skinned. These regionalisms pertain to a lower, more familiar speech register than rubio or de tez clara and most are commonly used in only one country. In countries with relatively few natural blonds, the terms presented below tend to refer to anyone with light skin color, light hair color, and/or light colored eyes. No regional terms for blond were found in Spain, Cuba, the Dominican Republic, Peru, Paraguay, Uruguay and Argentina. C1.2 Terms by Country (about 15 terms plus variants) no regional term (15/15). gero (20/20), chele (1/20). canche (14/14). chele (13/13). chele (12/12), canche (6/12). chele (11/11). macho (12/12). fulo (13/13). no regional term (15/15).

SPAIN MEXICO GUATEMALA EL SALVADOR HONDURAS NICARAGUA COSTA RICA PANAMA CUBA

16

DOMIN. REP. PUERTO RICO VENEZUELA COLOMBIA ECUADOR PERU BOLIVIA PARAGUAY URUGUAY ARGENTINA CHILE

no regional term (10/10). cano (17/20), jincho (10/20). catire (14/14), catirrucio (4/14). mono (15/15). suco (12/15), colorado (2/15), mico (1/15). no regional term (10/10). choco (9/13), jovero (5/13). no regional term (12/12). no regional term (10/10). no regional term (15/15). rucio (12/12).

C1.3

Details

Mexico: Do Mexicans generally agree that gero, not huero, is the correct spelling? Only a handful of the Mexicans in this study favored huero. The person who used chele was from Chiapas. Puerto Rico: Cano means blond. Jincho means light-skinned and is derogatory: it is often used to refer to people who are viewed as pale, sickly, or who do not tan the way a majority of Puerto Ricans do. A jabao is a light-skinned black person with reddish, kinky hair. Bolivia: There is evidence to suggest that jovero is used more in Cochabamba and Santa Cruz than in La Paz. Is there any consensus among Bolivians regarding which spelling, jovero or jobero, is correct? Chile: The use of rucio in the sense of blond is considered by many to be low-class usage (rubio being the proper term). Gringo: Many people from Peru and Bolivia indicated that gringo is used in the sense of blond (in addition to its meaning of an American, European or other Caucasian-looking person). Gringo in the sense of blond was also given by at least one person from El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, Panama, Cuba, Puerto Rico, Ecuador, Paraguay and Chile. Is it that gringo can mean blond in some of these countries or simply that a blond is sometimes assumed to be American or European? Additional Information: For extensive information on Spanish-language racial and ethnic terminology, see Dictionary of Latin American Racial and Ethnic Terminology by Thomas M. Stephens. A word of caution, however: the work defines thousands of racial and ethnic terms found in fiction and non-fiction writing since 1492, but it does not make clear which terms are in current use. C1.4 Real Academia Regional Review

Canche (F), cano (D), catire (B), catirrucio (F), chele (B), choco (D), fulo (F), gero (A), huero (D), jincho (F), jobero (F), jovero (F), macho (D), mico (D), mono (A), rucio (D), suco (D). This is how the Dictionary defines the following terms: catire Amr. Dcese del individuo rubio, en especial del que tiene el pelo rojizo y ojos verdosos o amarillentos, por lo

17

comn hijo de blanco y mulata, o viceversa; chele adj. C. Rica y El Salv. Dcese de la persona muy blanca o rubia. . t. c. s.; mico maicero (under mico) Col. carablanca. Where in Spanish America is catire commonly used in the sense of rubio, hijo de blanco y mulata and where, other than Venezuela, is the term used in any sense? TO CRACK ONES KNUCKLES Summary

C2 C2.1

There is no dominant phrase. Sonar(se) los dedos or hacerse sonar los dedos, although probably understood in most Spanish-speaking countries, are the most commonly used phrases in only four: Venezuela, Paraguay, Argentina and Chile. In the other sixteen countries a different verb or a set phrase is generally used. In Nicaragua, Colombia, Ecuador and Peru there are unique phrases that are not commonly used in this sense in any other country. C2.2
SPAIN

Terms by Country (about 18 phrases plus variants) crujir los dedos (7/15), chascar(se) los dedos (3/15), restallar los dedos (3/15), sacar novias (2/15), chasquearse los dedos (1/15), estallar los dedos (1/15), sonar los dedos (1/15). tronar(se) los dedos (15/15). tronar(se) los dedos (11/11). tronar(se) los dedos (12/12). tronar(se) los dedos (12/12). sacar(se) pulgas (9/13), tronar(se) los dedos (5/13). sacar(se) mentira(s) (12/15), traquear(se) los dedos (5/15), sonar los dedos (2/15), tronar los dedos (2/15). traquear(se) los dedos (13/13). traquear(se) los dedos (11/14), estrallarse los dedos (2/14), sonar los dedos (1/14), tirarse un peo (1/14). estrallar(se) los dedos (11/11), tronar(se) los dedos (2/11). estrillar(se) los dedos (10/20), tronar(se) los dedos (5/20), sonar los dedos (4/20), trillar los dedos (2/20), estrellar los dedos (1/20), restrillarse los dedos (1/20). sonar(se) los dedos (10/15), traquear(se) los dedos (5/15), tronar(se) los dedos (4/15). sacar(se) las yucas (15/20), traquear(se) los dedos (3/20), tronar(se) los dedos (2/20), sacar novias (1/20). sacar(se) cuy(es)/sacar(se) cuis (16/20), tronar(se) los dedos (3/20), sacarse un chivo (1/20). sacar(se) conejo(s) (16/20), sacar cuy (2/20), sacar chucaques (2/20). sacar(se) mentira(s) (8/12), sacar(se) pecados (5/12), sonar los dedos (2/12). sonar los dedos (7/7). sacar(se) mentiras (10/12), sonar los dedos (2/12), crujir los dedos (2/12).

MEXICO GUATEMALA EL SALVADOR HONDURAS NICARAGUA COSTA RICA PANAMA CUBA DOMIN. REP. PUERTO RICO

VENEZUELA COLOMBIA ECUADOR PERU BOLIVIA PARAGUAY URUGUAY

18

ARGENTINA CHILE

(hacer) sonar los dedos (11/16), sacar(se) mentiras (7/16), crujir los dedos (3/16). sacar(se) mentira(s) (8/15), (hacer) sonar los dedos (7/15).

C2.3

Details

General: The phrases listed above of the form verb + los dedos also frequently take the form verb + los nudillos or verb + los huesos, etc. Thus traquearse los dedos, traquearse los nudillos and traquearse los huesos can be used interchangeably (although this last phrase could refer to other joints). Similarly, in phrases with sacar, the verb is optionally reflexive and direct or indirect objects are also frequently optional. An example of this are the variants sacar yucas, sacarse yucas and sacarse las yucas used in Colombia. Ecuador: Cuy, an Andean rodent somewhat similar to a guinea pig, is pronounced by many people as written, so that it rhymes with uy! (with a y-sound at the end of the diphthong). However, the word is frequently pronounced cui__like the first syllable in cuidado__by people from the Sierra and especially among the indigenous population. The two different pronunciations of cuy/cui are easily perceived in the plural forms, cuyes (two syllables) vs. cuis (one syllable). Cuye is also listed as the singular form in many Spanish-language dictionaries, but was not offered by Ecuadorans in this study. In the Andean region, who says cuy, who says cui and who says cuye? Peru: Two people offered the expression sacar chucaques in the sense of to crack ones knuckles but most Peruvians said it refers to pulling strands of hair in order to relieve headaches and other pain. Paraguay: Although seven Paraguayans offered the expression sonar los dedos, many others interviewed had difficulty answering this question. Some indicated that the Guaran phrase is emopurur nde ku. Is it the case that sonar los dedos is too formal and stiff a phrase to be used in everyday speech and that the Guaran phrase in Paraguay serves the same function as popular Spanish expressions (such as sacarse las yucas, sacarse conejos) do in other Spanish-speaking countries? This could explain the absence of a commonly used, popular Spanish-language expression for this in Paraguay. C2.4 Real Academia Regional Review

Crujir los dedos (F), chascar los dedos (F), chasquear los dedos (F), estallar los dedos (F), estrallar los dedos (F), estrellar los dedos (F), estrillar los dedos (F), restallar los dedos (F), restrillar los dedos (F), sacar conejo(s) (F), sacar cuy(es) (F), sacar mentiras (F), sacar novias (F), sacar pecado(s) (F), sacar pulgas (F), sacar yucas (F), sonar los dedos (F), traquear los dedos (F), trillar los dedos (F), tronar los dedos (F). Should some or all of the above expressions be defined in the Dictionary? In the case of ones such as crujir los dedos, sonar los dedos and tronar los dedos, one can argue that the meaning of the expressions flows directly from the meanings of the verbs crujir, sonar and tronar and the noun dedo. In other words, if you know what crujir, sonar or tronar means, and you know what dedo means, then you should know what the expressions that contain them mean and, therefore, defining them is unnecessary. To what extent is this true? Even if it is, shouldnt these phrases be defined simply because they are regional rather than General Spanish expressions?

19

In the case of a highly regional expression such as sacarse las yucas, its meaning does not appear to be easily derived from its component parts, even if one looks at the phrase from the perspective of Colombian Spanish. It should, therefore, be defined in the Dictionary, unless Colombians would answer the following question in the affirmative: Acaso existe una verdadera yuca que se saque al presionar los nudillos? Similar questions can be asked with regard to other expressions: Cul es la naturaleza de estos conejos, pulgas y mentiras que se sacan? What criteria should be used to determine which expressions are to be defined and which need not be? By way of comparison, the American Heritage Dictionary does not include a definition of to crack ones knuckles. Its editors believe that the meaning of this phrase flows directly from the meanings of the words crack (to cause to make a sharp snapping sound) and knuckle. If this phrase is regionally weighted, however, an argument could be made for defining it based on this fact alone.

C3 C3.1

DENTAL FILLING Summary

There is no single dominant term. Amalgama, empaste and/or relleno are the most commonly used terms in thirteen countries. Most of the remaining terms derive from the verbs calzar, curar and tapar, or from the metals, plata and plomo. In many countries amalgama tends to be used in more formal language and another term is more common in everyday language. However, in the more technical language of dentists, finer distinctions are often made between the different types of fillings, i.e. amalgams vs. composites, etc. Section C3.2 below lists the imprecise, laypersons terms. C3.2 Terms by Country (about 15 terms plus variants) empaste (15/15). relleno (10/20), amalgama (9/20), empaste (3/20), tapadura (2/20). relleno (13/13). relleno (12/12). tapn (7/10), relleno (5/10), tapado (2/10). calza (8/12), calzadura (6/12), relleno (4/12). calza (10/10). calza (11/12), amalgama (2/12), empaste (2/12), relleno (2/12), calzadura (1/12). empaste (12/12). empaste (10/12), relleno (4/12). empaste (14/20), relleno (10/20), empastadura (6/20), platificacin (5/20). amalgama (7/12), empaste (4/12), calza (3/12), relleno (3/12), platino (2/12), emplomado (1/12). calza (15/20), amalgama (4/20), calzadura (1/20), empaste (1/20). calce (7/12), calza (5/12), curacin (2/12), empaste (2/12), amalgama (1/12).

SPAIN MEXICO GUATEMALA EL SALVADOR HONDURAS NICARAGUA COSTA RICA PANAMA CUBA DOMIN. REP. PUERTO RICO VENEZUELA COLOMBIA ECUADOR

20

PERU BOLIVIA PARAGUAY URUGUAY ARGENTINA CHILE

curacin (7/13), amalgama (5/13), relleno (4/13), empaste (2/13), tapadura (1/13). tapadura (9/13), relleno (5/13), amalgama (3/13), calzadura (1/13), empastadura (1/13). emplomadura (11/14), relleno (3/14), amalgama (3/14), pasta (3/14), curacin (1/14). amalgama (7/11), emplomadura (7/11), relleno (4/11), empastadura (3/11). emplomadura (13/20), arreglo (10/20), amalgama (5/20), empastadura (2/20), tapadura (2/20). tapadura (12/12).

C3.3

Details

General: Many people do not use any word for dental filling and simply use a verbal expression such as me arreglaron un diente or me taparon una muela. Arreglo is frequently used loosely by many Argentines in the general sense of dental work but since a filling is the most common type of dental work, this word often refers to a filling. The same can be said of curacin in Peru. A number of Argentines indicated that the use of emplomadura is now old-fashioned and is used more by the older generations. To what extent is the use of emplomadura dying out in Paraguay, Uruguay and Argentina? C3.4 Real Academia Regional Review

Amalgama (D), arreglo (D), calce (D), calza (B), calzadura (D), curacin (D), empastadura (D), empaste (A or C?), emplomadura (B), platificacin (F), platino (D), relleno (D), tapado (D), tapadura (D), tapn (D). Empaste is defined as 2. Pasta con que se llena el hueco hecho por la caries en un diente and calza and emplomadura are defined in terms of empaste: calza, 7. fig. Col., Ecuad. y Pan. Empaste de un diente o muela; emplomadura, 3. Argent. y Urug. Empaste de un diente o una muela. Why does the definition for calza include a fig. (figurative usage) label? Its use in Nicaragua, Costa Rica, Panama, Colombia and Ecuador is no more figurative than that of empaste, emplomadura or any of the other regionally weighted terms in their respective regions. SIGN OR HAND SIGNAL USED TO INDICATE PERSONS HEIGHT [Illustrations in original publication not included] A = Hand held in a horizontal position, palm facing down, fingers extended. The height being indicated corresponds to the palm. B = Hand held in a vertical position, thumb above pinkie, fingers extended. The height being indicated corresponds to the lower edge of the pinkie. C = Hand held in an oblique position, palm facing down; the four fingers other than the thumb are sometimes curved (unlike in the above drawing). The height being indicated corresponds to the tips of the four fingers.

C4

21

D = Hand held in a horizontal or oblique position, palm facing up, index finger extended. The height being indicated corresponds to the tip of the index finger. C4.1 Summary

Sign A appears to be the most commonly used one in Spain and in over half of Spanish America. However, in Mexico, most of Hispanic Central America, and Colombia and Ecuador, other signs (B, C or D) are more common. In most of the latter countries a different sign is generally used to indicate the height of an animal (see section C4.3, below) and it is considered a faux pas not to make the distinction. In a number of countries the sign used may depend, among other factors, on whether a person is from an urban or rural area. C4.2 Signs by Country (at least 4 signs plus variants) A (15/15). D (12/20), A (5/20), C (5/20). C (5/13), A (5/13), C' (3/13). C (10/10). C (8/13), A (4/13), A' (1/13). C (10/10). C (8/10), A (2/10). A (10/11), B (1/11). A (9/10), C (1/10). A (10/10). A (15/15). A (12/12). B (15/15). B (10/10). A (12/12). A (12/12). A (13/13). A (10/10). A (10/10). A (10/10).

SPAIN MEXICO GUATEMALA EL SALVADOR HONDURAS NICARAGUA COSTA RICA PANAMA CUBA DOMIN. REP. PUERTO RICO VENEZUELA COLOMBIA ECUADOR PERU BOLIVIA PARAGUAY URUGUAY ARGENTINA CHILE

C4.3

Details

General: Where signs B, C and D are used, can their use be attributed to an indigenous substratum? If not, what does account for the fact that different signs are used in different regions? In most of the countries where signs B, C and D are used to indicate the height of a person, different signs are used to indicate the height of an animal and using the wrong sign is considered a faux pas, or an indication that the person is uneducated or a foreigner. Mexico: Signs D, A and C were offered for people. Who uses which sign? Several Mexicans indicated sign B was used for animals.

22

Guatemala: Three respondents indicated that for people they use a sign similar to C but with the index and middle fingers extended and the other three bent (like the hand signal for peace in the United States of the 1960s but with the hand tilted forward at an angle). This sign is indicated in section C4.2 above as C'. El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua & Costa Rica: To indicate the height of an animal some people from these countries indicated sign A and others sign B, and others said it depends on the size and type of the animal. (For example, several stated that when they indicate the height of a chicken they are referring to the animals head and the sign they use is with the palm facing down and all five fingers curved whereas when they indicate the height of a cow, it is the animals back that is being referred to and they use sign A.) Honduras: Several Hondurans queried use three signs to indicate height: C for persons, A for animals, and hand in a horizontal position with palm up for plants which we shall call A'. A' was also used by one person to indicate the height of a person (see section C4.2 above). Panama: One Panamanian said sign B was once used for people but has been replaced by sign A. Colombia & Ecuador: Sign A is used to indicate the height of animals and to use it for people is considered a faux pas. Peru, Bolivia & Paraguay: The respondents queried from these countries all indicated sign A was used to indicate peoples height, but almost all were from urban areas. What signs are used for this by the rural and indigenous populations of these three countries?

APPENDIX: ADDITIONAL TOPICS The following is a small selection of additional topics in the field of Spanish lexical dialectology that relate to people. In many cases, only a few informants from each specified country or region have been observed or questioned regarding these issues, and the findings are therefore tentative. No doubt most of the usages presented are used in more regions than those listed; the information provided is based on the data the author was able to collect. Although some information is provided on how the terminology varies by region, the topics are primarily presented to call attention to their existence as possible dialectological issues and to encourage others to research them further. In each entry the referent or a set of referents is indicated, but the connotations associated with them are generally not specified, or are specified only minimally. In order for the terms to be defined in dictionaries their speech registers, connotations and, in some cases, the exact referents themselves will have to be fully investigated. Spelling (and thus etymological) issues such as c vs. s and y vs. ll are also raised. All references to definitions are to those of the 1992 edition of the Diccionario de la Lengua Espaola. Some of the following items involve language that is vulgar, taboo and/or derogatory. The author does not advocate using such language nor is it his intention to offend anyone by including it. He does, however, believe that all words in common usage (including unpleasant terms or ones that express bigotry) should be defined in unabridged, general dictionaries and hopes that many of those presented here will find a home in the major Spanish-language dictionaries.

23

bald. Calvo is the standard term everywhere, but in less formal language the following terms appear to be regionally weighted: pela(d)o (Spain?, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Paraguay, Uruguay, Argentina, Chile); peln (Spain, Mexico, Hispanic Central America, Venezuela, Colombia, Bolivia); coco bolo (Panama); bola de billar (Cuba?); caco pelao (Dominican Republic; see head below); coquipelao (Puerto Rico); ac per or ac per (Paraguay, Guaran term; see head below). Note that both pelado and peln appear to be commonly used in Venezuela, Colombia and Bolivia. belly button (navel). A few regional, infantile and/or informal words for ombligo have been found: botn (Spain); maruto (Venezuela); melic (Alicante, Spain?); mosh/mush (Guatemala; is this a Mayan term?); pupo (Colombia?, Ecuador, Peru?, Bolivia, Uruguay?, Argentina, Chile?; are pupo, pupu and puputi Quechua terms?); pupu (Ecuador, Bolivia); puputi (Peru); pur- or puru- (Paraguay, Guaran term); rinrn (Spain; and other countries?); timbre (Colombia, Argentina? and other countries?). In addition, a respondent from Badajoz, Spain indicated that ombrigo is used there in popular speech. boo-boo or owie (a bruise, scrape or other minor injury in baby talk). The following equivalents have been heard, usually with the verbs tener or hacerse as in se hizo ____ or se hizo un(a) ____ (____ gets replaced by the word given below): achichi or achichuy (Bolivia); nana (Argentina); pupa (Spain); yaya (Cuba, Peru, Chile); yayay (Ecuador). What other regional words are there for this that are used by toddlers and young children, and by adults when talking to them? boyfriend / girlfriend. Novio and novia are the standard terms in most of the Spanish-speaking world, but enamorado and enamorada are more common in Ecuador, Peru and Bolivia. In Chile, pololo/a is used much more often than novio/a in this sense (although it pertains to a more familiar speech register), and appears to be used occasionally in Bolivia. In all countries except Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia and Chile, novio/a is regularly used in the sense of a) boyfriend/girlfriend, b) fianc(e), and c) bride/groom, whereas in these four countries novio/a is used in senses b) and c), but generally not in sense a). The following non-standard terms for boyfriend/girlfriend are also used (many of which mean guy or gal, can be derogatory, and/or suggest a non -serious relationship): cabro/a (Costa Rica); chavo (Mexico); chico or shico (Paraguay, Guaran term); festejante (Paraguay); firmeza or jirmeza (Chile; jirmeza is the popular pronunciation); jeba (Cuba, Dominican Republic, Puerto Rico, Panama, Venezuela); morra (Mexico); pelado/a (Ecuador); pendeja (Paraguay); pocholo (Spain?); pibo/a (Extremadura, Spain); pie (Panama?); ruca (Mexico); traido (Guatemala; note the word is pronounced with two syllables, traido, not trado* with three syllables). Novio/a is defined in the Dictionary as 3. La [persona] que mantiene relaciones amorosas en expectativa de futuro matrimonio. This definition is clearly outdated in the sociocultural contexts of present-day Spain and Latin America where countless novios and novias do not necessarily expect to marry the person they are currently seeing (or anyone at all for that matter). Compare the above definition of novio/a to the American Heritage Dictionarys much more open-ended definitions of boyfriend (A favored male companion or sweetheart) and girlfriend (A favored female companion or sweetheart) which make no reference to matrimonial expectations. The American Heritage Dictionarys definitions do not even refer directly to love or romance although these are perhaps implied by the term sweetheart. Does the Spanish Royal Academy need to

24

be reminded that both the nineteenth and twentieth centuries are over? One can only hope that by the time the twenty-second century rolls around, it will have modernized its definition of novio/a so that it conforms to reality. broke (having no money). The following slang and informal adjectives and expressions, all of the form estar or andar + ____ (____ gets replaced by the word or expression given below), are rough equivalents of (to be) broke: a dos velas (Spain); arranca(d)o (Cuba, Dominican Republic, Puerto Rico); bruja (Cuba; this word appears to be comn de dos, that is, bruja can be both the masculine and feminine form of the adjective); comindo(se) un cable (Cuba, Venezuela); chiro (Ecuador); desperra(d)o (Andaluca and Extremadura, Spain); en carne (Cuba); en el lodre (Venezuela); en la cama de los perros (Panama); en la carraplana (Venezuela); en la chilla, en la quinta chilla or en la vil chilla (Mexico); en la fucata (Cuba); en la lipidia (Guatemala, Costa Rica, Panama); en la liquidia (Nicaragua); en la llaga (Uruguay); en la olla (Dominican Republic, Colombia); en la prngana (Cuba, Puerto Rico); en la tusa (Costa Rica); en la va or en pampa y la va (Argentina); escacha(d)o (Cuba); fundi(d)o (Chile, Uruguay); gafo (Guatemala); hule (Honduras); largado (Bolivia); misio (Peru); palma(d)o (Nicaragua); pato (Paraguay, Uruguay, Argentina, Chile); pelando or pelando bola (Venezuela); plancha(d)o (Chile); seco (Argentina); sin blanca (Spain); sin un duro (Spain); sog or sogue (Paraguay, Guaran term); yesca (Bolivia. Is this an Aymara term? Does it mean dry?). In addition, the following adjectives and phrases which can mean broke appear to be, if not universal, widely used in the Spanish-speaking world: limpio, pela(d)o; quebra(d)o; con una mano adelante y la otra atrs. chancletero. The derogatory and sexist noun/adjective chancletero is used in a number of Spanish American countries to refer to a man who has daughters but no sons. In which countries is the term commonly used in this sense? It derives from chancleta which is defined as 2. fam. y despect. Amr. Mujer, en especial la recin nacida. Is this use of chancleta as common as the use of chancletero? chin. In general language, barbilla is the most commonly used term in most Spanish-speaking countries (although mentn is often heard in the context of boxing). However, the words given below are more regional, provide more local color, and are often used in less formal situations: cumbamba (Colombia); chiva (Puerto Rico); pera (Uruguay, Argentina, Chile); piocha (Mexico). Although technically it refers to the entire jaw, quijada (often pronounced quij) was found to be frequently used in the sense of chin in Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, Panama, Cuba, Dominican Republic, Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia and Paraguay. Finally, barba was found to be used in the sense of chin in Mexico, Honduras, Nicaragua and Cuba. The Dictionary defines barba as Parte de la cara, que est debajo de la boca with no regional specification. Is barba commonly used in the sense of chin everywhere? crazy. The following terms and phrases are used in slang and informal speech in the sense of crazy by people from the following countries: craquea(d)o (Puerto Rico; from crack cocaine); chala(d)o (Spain, Chile); chusemo (Guatemala); desquicia(d)o (Puerto Rico); flipa(d)o (Spain; from English flip, flipped); fu (Dominican Republic?); gallado or a se le galla (Chile); majara and majareta (Spain; these terms are comn de dos); mal de la olla (Spain); le patina el cloch/clutch (Panama); pirado (Spain, Mexico?, Uruguay,

25

Argentina?; is this usage universal?); se le bota la canica (Mexico); sollado (Colombia?, Venezuela?); tabyron (Paraguay?); tarado de la olla or mal de la olla (Spain); tarov (Paraguay, Guaran term); tocado del ala (Spain); tocado del techo (Costa Rica); tiene comejn en la azotea or tiene guayabitos en la azotea (Cuba); tiene un pase (Cuba); tojpi (Bolivia); vola(d)o (Dominican Republic). How universal are the following expressions? Le falta un tornillo, le falta una tuerca, se le afloj el tornillo, se le sali un tornillo, se le cay un tornillo, se le perdi un tornillo, se le zaf un tornillo, tiene los tornillos sueltos, tiene un tornillo suelto, le falta una teja, se le corri una teja, se le corrieron las tejas, tiene los cables cruzados, le patina el coco, se le meti el agua. How universal are chiflado, quemado, rayado, tocado and tostado? Ms loco que una cabra is universal, but are there other ms loco que un(a) ____ phrases that are more regional, where ____ is replaced by some word or phrase other than cabra? driver (chofer vs. chfer). Chofer seems to be the preferred spelling and pronunciation in Spanish America whereas both chfer and chofer seem to be used in Spain. In Spain, is chfer preferred over chofer? It should also be noted that many Argentines pronounce chofer with a sh sound, [sho-FER]. Do any Argentines (and Uruguayans) also write the word with the French spelling, chauffeur? For a truck driver, camionero is the standard term, but troquero is used in Mexico (perhaps more so in northern border speech) and Puerto Rico (and elsewhere?), and gandolero is used in Venezuela. In addition, trailero is frequently used in Mexico and Hispanic Central America (and elsewhere?) to refer to a person who drives a triler (tractor trailer or semi). exclamations. What are all the regional exclamations used to express different feelings and emotions such as surprise, disappointment, pain, etc.? Here are just a handful of examples: In highland Ecuador achachay is used in the sense of qu fro! (brrr) whereas in parts of highland Bolivia alalay is used in this sense; and in highland Ecuador arrarray is used when one gets burned and in some regions of Bolivia, atatay. These terms appear to be quechuismos. To express surprise, Ecuadorans often say chiza! (los serranos) or chuzo! and vesa! (los costeos; vesa may derive from vea esa!). gentilicios (regionales y populares). The following are some regional names for inhabitants of particular countries which are often used in informal speech: catracho = hondureo (in Central America); chapn = guatemalteco (in Central America); chocho, muco or nica = nicaragense (in Central America); guanaco = salvadoreo (in Central America); tico = costarricense; paisa = colombiano (in Ecuador; in Colombia, a paisa is a person from the departments of Antioquia, Caldas, Risaralda or Quindo); mono = ecuatoriano (in Peru; in Ecuador, a mono is a costeo, an Ecuadoran from the coastal region); perucho and veinte y ocho = peruano (in Bolivia); roto = chileno (in Bolivia; in Chile a roto is a poor, lower-class person); gaucho = argentino (in Bolivia); patapila = paraguayo (in Bolivia); gallego = espaol (in Argentina and Uruguay); gachupn = espaol (in Mexico). These are what we may call regional national gentilicios, that is, regionalisms that refer to nationalities. There are also many gentilicios that refer to particular regions within countries (such as paisa in Colombia) or social groups (such as roto in Chile) and which are also regionalisms. A list of these regional regional gentilicios and regional social gentilicios should also be compiled.

26

head. The following terms are used in the sense of cabeza in slang or informal speech (many are humorous terms): ac or ac (Paraguay, Guaran term); ayote (Guatemala, El Salvador); azotea (Spain, Mexico, Argentina; is this usage universal?); bocha and bocho (Argentina, Uruguay); bola (Spain); caco (Dominican Republic; does caco come from casco?); cachueca or catrueca (Puerto Rico); casco (Mexico, Puerto Rico, Venezuela?); cepa (Dominican Republic); coca (Panama); cococha (Ecuador); cocorota (Colombia, Spain); cotarro (Crdoba, Spain); crisma (Puerto Rico?); cucuza or cucuzza (Argentina; from Italian cocuzza, head, or perhaps from a dialect of Italian?); chaveta (Spain, Guatemala?, Puerto Rico?); chiluca (Mexico?); chola (Mexico?, Cuba, Puerto Rico); chompeta (Nuevo Len, Mexico); chmpira (Sonora, Mexico); chontoca or chorontoca (El Salvador); chorla? (Spain); choya or cholla (Mexico, El Salvador; which is the correct spelling?); foco (Paraguay?); giro (Cuba, Venezuela?); jcara (Nicaragua); jupa (Costa Rica); maceta (Mexico, Guatemala, Dominican Republic); magn (Ecuador?, Alicante, Spain); mamerria (Dominican Republic); marote (Paraguay, Uruguay, Argentina); mate (Ecuador, Paraguay, Uruguay, Argentina, Chile); mema (Mexico?, Honduras); mirla (Mlaga, Spain); mitra (Peru); mollera (Spain, Venezuela, Colombia, Bolivia); moropo (Cuba); morra (Guatemala); morro (Honduras); motola (Colombia?); mcura (Colombia?); mula (Colombia); ola (El Salvador); pelota (Spain); perol (Alicante, Spain); piso de ms arriba (Argentina); platabanda (Venezuela); porra (Colombia?); sabiola or zabiola (Argentina, Uruguay; Lunfardo term; how should this word be spelled?); shola (Guatemala; is this a Mayan term?); tarro (Alicante, Spain); tenamaste (Honduras?); terraza (Argentina); testa (Spain, Mexico?, Costa Rica, Venezuela, Colombia, Uruguay, Argentina; is this usage universal?); tetunta (El Salvador); torra (Badajoz, Spain); torre or torre de control (Costa Rica, Venezuela, Colombia); totoca (El Salvador); tusta (Colombia); tutuma (Peru?); zabeca (Argentina; metathesis of cabeza). homosexual. There are many regional, slang terms for male homosexual. Using General Spanish terminology as a reference point, some of the following are as vulgar and offensive as maricn (queer, faggot) while others are more like the milder mariquita (fairy): argolla (Venezuela); ave (Costa Rica?); badea (Guayaquil, Ecuador?); cabro (Peru); ciento ocho (Paraguay; this usage apparently derives from a historical event in which a gay bar in Asuncin was raided and 108 alleged homosexuals were arrested; when did this take place?); colisa or colisn (Chile); cueco (Panama); culero (El Salvador, Honduras, Costa Rica?; is this usage universal?); cochn (Nicaragua); cherna (Cuba); farifo (Puerto Rico); fleto (Chile); fresco (Santa Cruz, Bolivia?); ganso (Cuba); guajolote (Mexico?); hueco (Guatemala, Chile?); joto (Mexico, El Salvador?); loca (Spain?, Mexico, Guatemala, Panama, Cuba, Puerto Rico, Venezuela, Colombia, Peru, Bolivia?, Uruguay?, Argentina, Chile?; this usage seems to be universal; is it?); maraco (Ecuador?, Bolivia?, Chile?); marchatrs (Mexico?, Venezuela?, Uruguay, Argentina. Is this usage universal? If so, how universal is the hand signal used to refer to the fact that someone is gay in which the person imitates the motion of putting a stick-shift car into reverse?); meco (Quito, Ecuador?); pjaro (Costa Rica?, Panama, Cuba, Dominican Republic, Puerto Rico; is this usage universal?); parcha (Venezuela); pargo (Cuba, Puerto Rico?, Venezuela); pargolete (Venezuela); partido (Cuba, Puerto Rico, Venezuela); pato (Mexico, Nicaragua, Panama, Cuba, Puerto Rico, Venezuela, Ecuador?, Peru; is this usage universal?); pltano or platango (Costa Rica?); playo (Costa Rica);

27

pual (Mexico); rosca (Colombia, Peru); rosquete (Peru); sarasa (Barcelona, Spain); soplanuca (Paraguay, Argentina, Chile); trolo or troln (Paraguay, Uruguay, Argentina); volteado (Panama?, Colombia). The phrases del otro equipo and del otro bando seem to be used practically everywhere in the Spanish-speaking world to refer to homosexuals, but the following phrases that were encountered may be more regional: lo mismo raspa que pinta (Puerto Rico); patea con el pie izquierdo (Costa Rica); de rosca izquierda (Colombia); marinero de agua dulce (Puerto Rico); bota la segunda (Venezuela); corre pa tercera (Mexico); de la acera de enfrente (Spain); de mano aguada (Guatemala). Surely, these are only the tip of the iceberg. Which, if any, of these expressions could be considered part of General Spanish? Would all of them be readily understood out of context by many Spanishspeakers everywhere, even if not used everywhere with equal frequency? What are all of the signs or hand signals used to refer to gays? (See marchatrs in the preceding paragraph for one such example.) The term gay, pronounced as if written guey or guei, is widely used (with the same meaning as in English) throughout the Spanish-speaking world and needs to be defined in the Dictionary. How should this word be spelled? Lastly, what are all the regional slang terms for lesbian? Is the use of tortillera in this sense universal or regionally weighted? horny. The following are regional slang terms for sexually aroused: alzado (Argentina?); arrecho (Costa Rica?, Panama, Dominican Republic, Venezuela?, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia); bellaco (Puerto Rico); berrindio (Venezuela); berriondo (Venezuela?); birriondo (Mexico?, Guatemala, El Salvador, Venezuela); cachondo (Spain, Mexico, Venezuela?); cachudo (Venezuela); cuilio (El Salvador?); embramado (El Salvador?, Honduras, Nicaragua); jarioso (Sonora, Mexico; and other regions of Mexico?); quesudo (Venezuela); recho (Dominican Republic); pisn (El Salvador?); salido (Spain); veraneado (Venezuela); vola(d)o (Cuba). Note that Venezuela appears to have the largest number of words for this item of any Spanish-speaking country. Also, the vulgar term arrecho, which means sexually aroused in some countries has other meanings such as angry, annoyed, tough, spirited, difficult or fantastic in other countries. For example, in Venezuela arrecho often means pissed off but the expression qu arrecho! is used to express enthusiastic approval as a vulgar equivalent of qu chvere! (which is more or less equivalent to qu macanudo! in the River Plate region). The Dictionary lists three senses for arrecho and no regional specification for any of them, but it is clear that this term is regionally weighted. missing a limb. Manco is the international standard noun-adjective used to describe persons who are missing a hand or arm, but the following more regional terms also refer to persons who are missing some limb or other: coto (Nicaragua); cucho (Mexico?); cuenco (El Salvador); cullo (Ecuador?); cuto (Guatemala, El Salvador); chenco (Guatemala); chueco (Colombia?, Bolivia, Paraguay, Uruguay?); mocho (Mexico, Costa Rica, Panama, Cuba, Dominican Republic, Colombia, Peru, Bolivia, Chile; is this usage universal?); munco (Mexico, Honduras?, Panama?); eco (Dominican Republic); oco (Dominican Republic, Puerto Rico, Colombia?); tuco (Puerto Rico); tunco (Mexico?, Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua?); zunco (Chile; either hand missing or left hand missing?).

28

Are renco and rengo universally used in the sense of cojo (lame) or are they regional? Choco is defined as 4. Se dice de aquel a quien le falta una pierna o una oreja. Where is this term commonly used in this sense? naked (popular and informal terms and phrases). The phrases estar en cuero(s), estar en pelota(s) and como Dios lo mand (or trajo) al mundo are universal, but the following are more regional ways of saying desnudo in informal speech: bichi or bichicori (Mexico); cala or calancho (Bolivia; from Quechua or Aymara kala?); calato (Peru); chingo (Costa Rica); chin(it)o (Venezuela); chuln (El Salvador); empeloto (Colombia); en bolas (Spain, Guatemala, Uruguay, Argentina; is this usage universal?); en pepas (Ecuador); en porretas (Spain); esn or ern (Puerto Rico; derived from desnudo); llucho (Ecuador, in the Sierra); pilucho (Chile?); viringo (Colombia). ordinario. The following are regional nouns and/or adjectives that are used in the sense of lacking in taste, low-class, ill-mannered or rustic: balurdo (Venezuela); brocha (Colombia; this word is comn de dos); cafre (Puerto Rico); catre (Spain); corriente (Mexico, Guatemala, El Salvador, Costa Rica, Puerto Rico); corroncho (Colombia; this word can also mean costeo and tends to be derogatory in this sense as well); cogu (Paraguay, Guaran term); cutre (Spain); chabacn (Colombia?); chabacano (Spain, Cuba, Venezuela; is this usage universal?); chafo (Mexico?, Guatemala); charro (Puerto Rico); cheo (Cuba); cholero (Guatemala); cholo (Ecuador, Bolivia; this word also refers to certain racial and/or social groups and tends to be derogatory in those senses as well); chopo (Dominican Republic?); grasa (Argentina, Uruguay; term appears to be comn de dos); hortera (Spain; this word is comn de dos); huachafo (Peru); lobo (Colombia); longo (Ecuador, in the Sierra; in the Costa it refers pejoratively to serranos, that is, people from the Sierra); maicero (Costa Rica); mae (Medelln, Colombia?); merdelln (Mlaga, Spain?); mersa (Argentina; this word is comn de dos); moncho (Costa Rica?); montubio/montuvio (Ecuador; means an ignorant rustic; which spelling is considered correct?); naco (Mexico); uco (Medelln, Colombia?); pachanguero (Spain?); pachuco (Costa Rica); pajuerano (Argentina; means rustic; derives from pa fuera); paleto (Spain); palurdo (Spain); pico (Cuba; from picudo); polo (Costa Rica); rasca (Paraguay; this word appears to be comn de dos); ranchu(d)o (Venezuela); roto or roteque (Chile); runa (Ecuador, in the Sierra; this word, from Quechua/Quichua, is comn de dos); runcho (Panama); shumo (Guatemala; is this a Mayan term?); terraja (Uruguay; is it comn de dos?); tierro (Puerto Rico); vairo (Paraguay?); valle (Paraguay). What are all of the phrases of the type ms ordinario que... that are used to refer to low-class people or behavior and to what extent is each regional? For example, in Colombia, the phrase ms ordinario que un hipoptamo con sudadera, (literally, more common/low class than a hippopotamus wearing a sweatshirt), is commonly used to refer to the low-class nature of a person or his or her clothing, behavior, etc. parents (mom and dad). Many Mexicans use jefa for mom and jefe for dad. What are the characteristics of those Mexicans who use these terms in these senses? Less educated Mexicans? Rural Mexicans? Mexicans from certain states? Are there other regional words for mom and dad in other countries? See twins below. What about the speech registers that correspond to madre/mam/mami and padre/pap/papi? Do these terms have everywhere the same values on the formalityinformality axis? In which speech communities are the phrases tu madre/su madre

29

scrupulously avoided and substituted by tu mam/su mam when referring to your/his/her/their mother in a neutral sense? The strong insult tu madre! (which is more or less equivalent to the inner city phrase yo mothuh) appears to be universal, and yet in certain regions, or among certain speech communities, any phrase with madre and tu/su seems to get associated with the insult. Where? penis. (slang terms). The following terms have been offered as rough equivalents of dick and cock. However, their speech registers range from being very vulgar at one end of the spectrum to being mild and humorous at the other: barraganete (Ecuador?); bicho (Cuba?, Puerto Rico); bichola (Mexico?); binbn (Dominican Republic); catso (Argentina?); cipote (Spain?); chile (Mexico, Guatemala); choto (Argentina); diuca (Chile?); garcha (Uruguay?); hierro (Puerto Rico); huachalote and hualo (Chile?); macana (Mexico?); machete (Venezuela); mamerro (Puerto Rico?); mangarria (Chile?); mond (Colombia); moronga (Cuba?); morronga (Guatemala?); pjaro (Mexico, Guatemala, Puerto Rico, Venezuela?, Colombia, Peru, Bolivia?, Argentina?; is this usage universal?); paloma (Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, Panama, Venezuela, Bolivia?; is this usage universal?); penca (Chile); pendorcha (Argentina); pico (Chile; for this reason one may want to avoid phrases like en una hora y pico when in Chile); picha (Spain, Costa Rica, Panama); pichi (Bolivia); pichula (Peru, Argentina?, Chile); pija (Spain, Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, Paraguay, Uruguay, Argentina; is this usage universal?); piln (Venezuela?); pincho (Peru); pindonga (Argentina?); pinga (Costa Rica, Panama, Cuba, Dominican Republic, Puerto Rico, Venezuela, Colombia?, Peru, Bolivia, Uruguay; is this usage universal?); pingo (Puerto Rico, Colombia?, Bolivia?, Argentina); pipe (Guatemala); pirul or pirulina (Barcelona, Spain); pito (Spain, Mexico, Panama, Cuba, Paraguay, Argentina; is this usage universal?); pizarrn (Mexico); polla (Spain); popeta (Puerto Rico?); poronga or puronga (Uruguay?, Argentina); ripio (Dominican Republic?); tanate (Guatemala?); tiln (Mexico); tolete (Dominican Republic?). vagina. (slang terms). The following terms have been offered as rough equivalents of cunt and/or pussy: almeja (Spain, Panama?, Argentina?); amapola (Spain?); araa (Mexico, Puerto Rico); arepa (Colombia); argolla (Argentina); bisagra (Panama?); bollo (Cuba, Venezuela); cachucha (Nicaragua, Chile?); cajeta (Argentina?); castaa (Salamanca, Spain?); cocho (Bolivia); concha (Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Paraguay, Uruguay, Argentina, Chile); conejo (Spain); coo (Spain, Venezuela?, Argentina?); cotorra (Uruguay); crica (Puerto Rico); cruca (Chile); cuca (Mexico?, Guatemala, El Salvador, Panama?, Dominican Republic?, Venezuela, Colombia; is this usage universal?); cuchara (Guatemala, Venezuela); cuchufleta (Guatemala, Venezuela); chepa (Ecuador?); chimba (Colombia?); chirla (Spain?); chocha (Mexico, Cuba, Puerto Rico, Colombia); chocho (Spain, Mexico, Puerto Rico, Venezuela?); chorra (Mexico?); chucha (Panama, Venezuela?, Colombia, Ecuador?, Peru, Bolivia, Chile); chumi (Mexico?); chumino (Spain?); chupila (Bolivia?); empanada (Costa Rica?); figa (Alicante, Spain?); mejilln (Spain; this appears to be a spin-off of almeja); mico (Guatemala?, El Salvador?, Honduras?); micha (Panama); nini (Spain?); pjara (Puerto Rico); pan (Guatemala, Colombia?); panocha (Mexico, Costa Rica?); papa (Peru); papaya (Mexico, Cuba, Colombia?); papo (Cuba?, Venezuela?); parrocha (Spain?); pay/pie (Panama; pronounced like English pie); pepa (Mexico, Honduras, Costa Rica); pochocha (Venezuela); pucha (Mexico?); pupusa (Guatemala?, El Salvador?, Honduras?); pusa

30

(Guatemala); raja (Venezuela?); sapo (Costa Rica, Peru?); tamal (Mexico?); tat (Paraguay; is this a Guaran term?); tontn (Panama?); tortuga (Guatemala?); tota (Puerto Rico); toto (Dominican Republic, Puerto Rico, Venezuela); totona (Venezuela). police officer (slang terms). There are many slang terms for police officer. To say they are rough equivalents of U.S. English cop, however, is problematic because police officers are generally not as professional or highly regarded in Spanish-speaking countries as they are in the United States. Hopefully, police forces everywhere will become increasingly professionalized. If and when they do in Spanish-speaking countries, many of the following terms will be replaced by others, or their negative associations will change (some are already historical as regimes and police uniform colors have been replaced): aguacate (Colombia); azul (Spain, Mexico); azulejo (Maracaibo, Venezuela); cachaco (Peru. This last term refers primarily to a member of the armed forces but is sometimes used to refer to police officers as well. In many countries, the distinction between the police and the armed forces is often hazy in any case.); cana (Bolivia, Paraguay, Uruguay, Argentina); cerdo (Puerto Rico, derogatory; probably from U.S. English pig); cuico (Mexico); cuilio (El Salvador, Honduras); chabolay (Paraguay, Guaran term); chafa (Honduras); chapa (Ecuador); chepo (Honduras); chonte (Guatemala, Honduras); chota (El Salvador); chupa (Colombia); gandul (Puerto Rico); gris (Spain); jacho or jachu (Bolivia, derogatory; from Quechua or Aymara?); jocote cocido (Nicaragua); macutero (Dominican Republic, derogatory); madero (Spain); marrn (Spain); milico (Uruguay; often used as a general term to refer to both police and military); mordeln (Mexico, derogatory; the term derives from mordida, bribe in Mexican Spanish, which arguably is something a large percentage of police officers in most Spanish-speaking countries accept or demand); paco (Costa Rica, Venezuela, Ecuador, Bolivia, Chile); pantanero (Maracaibo, Venezuela); perro (Spain?, Mexico?, Puerto Rico, derogatory); piricuaco (Nicaragua); picoleto (Spain); pitufo (Spain, Mexico?, Guatemala); polizonte (Spain, Mexico); sapo (Colombia); tajash or tajach (Paraguay, Guaran term); tamarindo (Mexico); tecolote or teco (Mexico); tombo (Costa Rica, Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru); tongo (Panama); verde (Colombia); zorro gris (Paraguay; one Argentine said this used to refer specifically to a member of the parking police). The following terms are used informally in the sense of the police (collectively): la cana (Paraguay, Uruguay, Argentina); la chota (Mexico, Guatemala, El Salvador); la chonta (Guatemala); la jara (Cuba, Puerto Rico); la fiana (Cuba); el nmero (Paraguay?); la pasma (Spain, especially during the Franco regime); la poli (Spain; is this abbreviation for polica commonly used throughout the Spanish-speaking world?). prostitute (slang terms). The following terms (some more humorous, some more vulgar) have been offered as rough equivalents of whore and/or hooker: colla (Atlantic Coast region, Colombia); cuarenta (Costa Rica); cuera (Puerto Rico); cuero (Dominican Republic, Puerto Rico); cua jecovai (Paraguay, Guaran term); chuchuneca (Peru?); fichera (Mexico, Venezuela); flauta (Bolivia?); fleje (Puerto Rico); fletera (Cuba); fufurufa (Colombia?); fulana (Spain, Cuba); furcia (Galicia, Spain); gila (Mexico); jinetera (Cuba); loca (Bolivia?, Argentina?); mamabicho (Puerto Rico); mnade (Guatemala); patn (Chile); pepa or peperecha (Guatemala); perra (Panama, Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru; is this usage universal?); piruja (Mexico); resbalosa (Mexico, Guatemala); sobr (Puerto Rico; from sobrada); trotona (Spain); yira/shira or yiro/shiro

31

(Argentina, Uruguay); zorra (Spain, Mexico, Costa Rica, Panama, Dominican Republic, Puerto Rico, Venezuela, Colombia; is this usage universal?). pimp. The following terms have been offered: cabrn (Venezuela?, Colombia?, Ecuador?, Peru?, Chile); cafiche (Peru, Uruguay?, Chile); caficho or cafishio or cafiso (Paraguay, Uruguay, Argentina?; from Italian?); cafiolo (Argentina, Uruguay); chivo (El Salvador?, Costa Rica); chulo (Spain, Panama, Cuba, Dominican Republic, Puerto Rico, Venezuela, Colombia); fiolo (Uruguay?); pachuco (Mexico?); padrote (Mexico); to (Mexico?). Words for madame (woman who runs a house of prostitution) that have been offered are the following: doa (Mexico, Puerto Rico); madama (Puerto Rico); madam(e) (Spain, Mexico, Guatemala, Venezuela); madrota (Mexico); maipriora or maipriola (Puerto Rico?); matrona (Guatemala, Panama, Cuba). stingy. Agarrado, amarrado, apretado, codo, duro and rooso appear to be universal informal equivalents of tacao, but the following terms are more regional: agarrete (El Salvador, Bolivia); amarrete (Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Paraguay, Uruguay, Argentina, Chile; is this usage universal?); amarro (Argentina); apretado (Chile); caleta (Venezuela?); cataln (Spain; people from Catalua are, deservedly or not, considered by many from other regions of Spain to be stingy); comesolo (Dominican Republic?); coete (Peru, Chile); coo (Peru?, highland Ecuador); cua (El Salvador?, Honduras); chucho (El Salvador); gaa (Cdiz, Spain?); garrapo (Barcelona, Spain?); jacate or jacate- (Paraguay, Guaran term = mezquino; last syllable nasalized); yop or yop (Paraguay, Guaran term, with a nasalized i); judo (Spain?, Guatemala?, Peru?; is this usage universal?); maceta (Puerto Rico); machete (Uruguay); marro? (Mexico); micha or mitcha (Bolivia; Quechua term used in highland Bolivian Spanish); mirado (Spain); pichicato (Honduras); pichirre (Venezuela); pijotero (Argentina); pinche (Nicaragua, Costa Rica); rasco (Cdiz, Spain?); rata (Spain, Uruguay, Argentina; term is comn de dos); socado (Honduras?); samaocas (Bolivia?); ticuizo (El Salvador); truuno (Colombia?); truuo (Panama); turco (Panama?, Venezuela; and elsewhere? Turco is widely used in Spanish America to refer to people of Middle Eastern or Arab descent.); vasco (Argentina); zapatoca (Santander, Colombia; this term is comn de dos; Zapatoca is a town in the department of Santander where people, deservedly or not, are considered to be stingy). In addition, the following phrases meaning stingy have been heard by people from the following countries: alejandro en puo (Nicaragua); baila la jota con los codos (para no gastar los zapatos) (Spain); camina con los codos (Panama, Puerto Rico, Venezuela; is this phrase universal?); calcaal de indgena and carne de callo (Cuba); codito de oro (Argentina); del codo duro or no dobla el codo (Panama); devoto de la virgen del codo (Panama); devoto de or (devoto a) la virgen del puo, de la virgen del puo or de la cofrada del puo (Paraguay, Peru, Spain); de puo cerrado (Spain); es como un azadn (slo para dentro) (El Salvador); ms agarrado que un tango (Spain); ms agarrado que un chotis en un ladrillo (Spain); ms apretado que un pedo de mula (Colombia); ms duro que un mojn de guayaba (Puerto Rico); le dan en el codo y brinca a la caja colombiana de ahorros (Colombia). [Illustration in original publication not included]

32

The hand signal or sign shown above has been found to be commonly used in all Spanish-speaking countries to refer to someone who is stingy with the exception of Spain and, possibly, Chile. Is this sign regional or part of General Spanish? Finally, people from the following regions or cities are stereotyped as being stingy: Galicia and, especially, Catalua (in Spain); Cceres (in Extremadura, Spain); Monterrey (in Mexico); Chalatenango? (in El Salvador); Len? (in Nicaragua); Fajardo? (in Puerto Rico); people from the highlands or Andean region in general (in Venezuela, Colombia and Ecuador); Arequipa (in Peru); Cochabamba (and also Sucre?) (in Bolivia). stupid or ignorant. In what regions of each country are people stereotyped as being foolish and ignorant (to the extent that jokes are often told that portray them as such)? The following places have been offered: Lepe (Spain); Pasto (Colombia); Pinar del Ro (Cuba); Guair (Paraguay); Santiago del Estero (Argentina). What about foreigners? In which countries are there particular foreign groups that are thought of us dumb, and who are they? twin. Many Mexicans use cuate in the sense of gemelo or mellizo (in addition to its use in the sense of friend, buddy) and Guatemalans use cuache in the sense of twin. Are there other regional words for twins in other countries? See parents (mom and dad) above.

NOTES 1. The author would like to thank Dasha Hlavenka for kindly providing the illustrations that appear in this article, and Francisco Gonzlez and Lucrecia Hug for editing earlier drafts and making a number of valuable suggestions. In addition, he would like to express his appreciation to Andrew Hurley and Leland Wright for going out of their way to put him in contact with many informants/respondents for this study. Last but not least, he would like to thank all of the native speakers of Spanish who generously gave of their time to answer questions on usage. 2. For more information on the authors views on language, dialects, lexicography, linguistic identity and linguistics, see the following works: Talking with Andre Moskowitz by Kirk Anderson and Andre Moskowitz in The ATA Chronicle (the monthly magazine of the American Translators Association), volume XXVIII, number 10, October 1999, p. 61-63. Contribucin al estudio del espaol ecuatoriano. The authors unpublished M.A. thesis. Department of Romance Languages and Literatures, University of Florida. Gainesville, Florida, United States. 1995.

REFERENCES Chambers, Jack and Peter Trudgill. 1998. Dialectology. 2nd edition. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. Malkiel, Yakov. 1984. A Linguists View of the Standardization of a Dialect in The Emergence of National Languages. Aldo Scaglione, ed. Ravenna, Italy: A. Longo Editore.

33

Pickett, Joseph P., ed. 2000. The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language. Boston, United States: Houghton Mifflin Company. Real Academia Espaola. 1992. Diccionario de la Lengua Espaola. 21st Edition. Madrid, Spain: Espasa-Calpe, S.A. Stephens, Thomas M. 1999. Dictionary of Latin American Racial and Ethnic Terminology. 2nd edition. Gainesville, Florida, United States: University Press of Florida.

34