Psychological System- is a way of conceptualizing and organizing the basic phenomena of psychology.

It is similar to what in advanced sciences Kuhn (1962) called a paradigm. Like a paradigm, a psychological system subsumes under a single umbrella theories that are based on similar assumptions and use a similar language to describe phenomena. Over the history of psychology, four distinct systems have emerged: cognitive, psychodynamic, behavioral, and humanistic psychology {Pear, 2007} COGNITIVE Ulric Neisser, Cognitive Psychology, published in 1967. The term "cognition" refers to all processes by which the sensory input is transformed, reduced, elaborated, stored, recovered, and used. It is concerned with these processes even when they operate in the absence of relevant stimulation, as in images and hallucinations. Given such a sweeping definition, it is apparent that cognition is involved in everything a human being might possibly do; that every psychological phenomenon is a cognitive phenomenon. Some Related Research Titles 1. Toward the Thinking Curriculum: Current Cognitive Researches 2. How College Affects Students: Findings and Insights from Twenty Years of Research 3. The Influence of Bilingualism on Cognitive Growth: A Synthesis of Research Findings and Explanatory Hypotheses. 4. Student Approaches to Learning and Studying: A Research Monograph. 5. Critical Thinking: A Statement of Expert Consensus for Purposes of Educational Assessment and Instruction PSYCHODYNAMIC Psychodynamics, also known as dynamic psychology, in its broadest sense, is an approach to psychology that emphasizes systematic study of the psychological forces that underlie human behavior, feelings, and emotions and how they might relate to early experience. It is especially interested in the dynamic relations between conscious motivation and unconscious motivation. Some Related Research Titles 1. Utilization of psychotherapy research by practicing psychotherapists 2. Making sense of social work : psychodynamics, systems and practice

3. Depression: Theory and research BEHAVIORAL Behaviorism is an approach to psychology that combines elements of philosophy, methodology, and theory .It emerged in the early twentieth century as a reaction to "mentalistic" psychology, which often had difficulty making predictions that could be tested using rigorous experimental methods. The primary tenet of behaviorism, as expressed in the writings of John B. Watson, B. F. Skinner, and others, is that psychology should concern itself with the observable behavior of people and animals, not with unobservable events that take place in their minds. Some Related Research Titles 1. Behavioral Research in HIV/AIDS primary and secondary prevention: Recent advances and future directions 2. Research in Behavior Modification; New Developments and Implications 3. Psychology Citations Revisited: Behavioral Research in the age of electronic resources 4. Judgment in Managerial Decision Making: Behavioral Decision Research HUMANISTIC Humanistic psychology is a psychological perspective which rose to prominence in the mid-20th century in response to Sigmund Freud's psychoanalytic theory and B.F. Skinner's Behaviorism. With its roots running from Socrates through the Renaissance, this approach emphasizes an individual's inherent drive towards self-actualization and creativity. One of humanistic psychology's early sources was the work of Carl Rogers, who was strongly influenced by Otto Rank, who broke with Freud in the mid-1920s. Rogers' focus was to ensure that the developmental processes led to healthier, if not more creative, personality functioning. The term 'actualizing tendency' was also coined by Rogers, and was a concept that eventually led Abraham Maslow to study self-actualization as one of the needs of humans. Rogers and Maslow introduced this positive, humanistic psychology in response to what they viewed as the overly pessimistic view of psychoanalysis. The other sources include the philosophies of existentialism and phenomenology. Some Related Research Titles 1. Humanistic Psychology and Sport: Theory and Application

2. A Humanistic Psychology of Education: Making the School Everybody's House 3. Human Values in Critical Care Medicine PHENOMENA A phenomenon (plural, phenomena) is a general result that has been observed reliably in systematic empirical research. In essence, it is an established answer to a research question. Although an empirical result might be referred to as a phenomenon after being observed only once, this term is more likely to be used for results that have been replicated. REPLICATION Replication means conducting a study againeither exactly as it was originally conducted or with modificationsto be sure that it produces the same results. Individual researchers usually replicate their own studies before publishing them. Many empirical research reports include an initial study and then one or more follow-up studies that replicate the initial study with minor modifications. It doesnt matter how beautiful your theory is, it doesnt matter how smart you are. If it doesnt agree with experiment, its wrong. - Richard P. Feynman

THEORY A theory is a coherent explanation or interpretation of one or more phenomena. Although theories can take a variety of forms, one thing they have in common is that they go beyond the phenomena they explain by including variables, structures, processes, functions, or organizing principles that have not been observed directly. A Theory can be crudely defined as a set of related statements that explains a variety of occurrences. The more the occurrences and the fewer the statements, the better the theory. Some Psychological Theories Cognitive Theories Cognitive theories of psychology are focused on internal states, such as motivation, problem solving, decision-making, thinking, and attention.

1. 4 Explanations for Forgetting 2. Attention 3. Cognitive Dissonance Theory 4. Left Brain vs. Right Brain Dominance 5. Memory 6. Perceptual Organization 7. Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development 8. Theories of Intelligence 9. What Is a Genius IQ Score? 10. What is Cognitive Psychology? Developmental Theories Theories of development provide a framework for thinking about human growth, development, and learning. If you have ever wondered about what motivates human thought and behavior, understanding these theories can provide useful insight into individuals and society. 1. Attachment Theory 2. Erikson's Theory of Psychosocial Development 3. Freud's Theory of Psychosexual Development 4. Kohlberg's Theory of Moral Development 5. Parenting Styles 6. Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development

Humanist Theories Humanistic psychology theories began to grow in popularity during the 1950s. While earlier theories often focused on abnormal behavior and psychological problems, humanist theories instead emphasized the basic goodness of human beings. Some of the major humanist theorists include Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow. 1. A Closer Look at the Needs Hierarchy

2. Characteristics of Self-Actualized People 3. Humanistic Psychology 4. Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs 5. Self-Actualization 6. Self-Efficacy Personality Theories Almost everyday we describe and assess the personalities of the people around us. Whether we realize it or not, these daily musings on how and why people behave as they do are similar to what personality psychologists do. Personality psychology looks at the patterns of thoughts, feelings, and behavior that make a person unique. Some of the best known theories in psychology are devoted to the subject of personality. 1. Defense Mechanisms 2. Erikson's Psychosocial Theory 3. Freud's Psychosexual Theory 4. Jung's Archetypes 5. Murray's Psychogenic Needs Theory 6. Neurotic Needs 7. Psychoanalytic Theory of Personality 8. The "Big Five" Theory of Personality 9. Trait Theory of Personality

Social Psychology Theories Social psychology is focused on helping us understand and explain social behavior. Social theories are generally centered on specific social phenomena, including group behavior, prosocial behavior, social influence, love and much more. 1. Actor-Observer Bias 2. Altruism

3. Bystander Effect 4. Compliance 5. Conformity 6. Halo Effect 7. Heroism 8. Leadership Theories 9. Love 10. Obedience 11. Prosocial Behavior 12. Rule of Reciprocity

In the multistore model of human memory, information from the environment passes through a sensory store on its way to a short-term store, where it can be rehearsed, and then to a long-term store, where it can be stored and retrieved much later. This theory has been extremely successful at organizing old phenomena and predicting new ones. ORGANIZATION One important purpose of scientific theories is to organize phenomena in ways that help people think about them clearly and efficiently.

 In this theory of intelligence, a general mental ability (g) influences each of three more specific mental abilities. Theories of this type help to organize a large number of statistical relationships among tests of various mental abilities. PREDICTION A second purpose of theories is to allow researchers and others to make predictions about what will happen in new situations. For example, a gymnastics coach might wonder whether a students performance is likely to be better or worse during a competition than when practicing alone. Even if this particular question has never been studied empirically, Zajoncs drive theory suggests an answer. If the student generally performs with no mistakes, she is likely to perform better during competition. If she generally performs with many mistakes, she is likely to perform worse. In Clinical psychology, treatment decisions are often guided by theories. Consider, for example, Dissociative Identity disorder (formerly called multiple personality disorder). The prevailing scientific theory of dissociative identity disorder is that people develop multiple personalities (also called alters) because they are familiar with this idea from popular portrayals (e.g., the movie Sybil) and because they are unintentionally encouraged to do so by their clinicians (e.g., by asking to meet an alter). This theory implies that rather than encouraging patients to act out multiple personalities, treatment should involve discouraging them from doing this. GENERATION OF NEW RESEARCH A third purpose of theory is to generate new research by raising new questions. Consider, for example, the theory that people engage in self-injurious behavior such as cutting because it reduces negative emotions such as sadness, anxiety, and anger. This theory immediately suggests several new and interesting questions.

 Is there, in fact, a statistical relationship between cutting and the amount of negative emotions experienced? Is it causal? If so, what is it about cutting that has this effect? Is it the pain, the sight of the injury, or something else? Does cutting affect all negative emotions equally? MULTIPLE THEORIES At any point in time, researchers are usually considering multiple theories for any set of phenomena. One reason is that because human behavior is extremely complex, it is always possible to look at it from different perspectives. EXAMPLE: a biological theory of sexual orientation might focus on the role of sex hormones during critical periods of brain development, while a sociocultural theory might focus on cultural factors that influence how underlying biological tendencies are expressed. Different theories of the same set of phenomena can be complementarywith each one supplying one piece of a larger puzzle. A biological theory of sexual orientation and a sociocultural theory of sexual orientation might accurately describe different aspects of the same complex phenomenon. The fact that there are multiple theories for any set of phenomena does not mean that any theory is as good as any other or that it is impossible to know whether a theory provides an accurate explanation or interpretation. On the contrary, scientists are continually comparing theories in terms of their ability to organize phenomena, predict outcomes in new situations, and generate research.

In theory, there is no difference between theory and practice. In practice there is. -Yogi Berra