Fundamentals of CAD

Introduction

CAD can be defined as the use of computer systems to assist in the creation, modification, analysis, or optimization of a design. Also known as CADD (Computer Aided Design and Drafting)

Introduction..

Computer Aided Design (CAD) package has three components: a) Design b) Analysis and c) Visualization

Introduction..
a) Design: Design refers to geometric modeling, i.e., 2-D and 3-D modeling, including, drafting, part creation, creation of drawings with various views of the part, assemblies of the parts, etc. b) Analysis: Analysis refers to finite element analysis and optimization. In general, a geometric model is first created and then the model is analyzed for loads, stresses, moment of inertia, and volume, etc. c) Visualization: Visualization refers to computer graphics, which includes: rendering a model, creation of pie charts, contour plots, shading a model, sizing, animation, etc.

Various Disciplines of CAD

Typical Product Life Cycle The Design Process

Design needs Design definitions, specifications, and requirements Collecting relevant design information and feasibility study

Synthesis
Design conceptualization

Analysis
Design documentation and communication Design evaluation Design optimization

The CAD Process

Design analysis Design modeling and simulation

Production planning Design and procurement of new tools Order materials NC, CNC, DNC programming

The Manufacturing Process The CAM Process

Production Quality control Packaging Shipping

Process planning

Marketing

Advantages/Reason for Implementing CAD

1. Easier creation and correction of drawings- Once we create 3D model , any type of view can generated very quickly and efficiently. 2. Better visualization of drawings- For the same object CAD system allow different types of projection views. Due to provision of rendering and shading effects, realistic appearance of 3D objects can be obtained. 3. Parametric Approach- Due to parametric approach lot of time is saved in doing repetitive work. 4. Automation of repeated tasks- Most frequently used designs and drawing symbols such asgears, nut-bolts, washers, screws etc. can be stored in the library and can be recalled whenever required.

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5. Increased accuracy- Using computer, the excellent and error free drawings can be produced very easily. 6. Bi-directional associativity - Any change in the drawing is reflected in the 3D model/ assembly and vice versa. 7. Improved filing system- Drawings can be more conveniently filed, retrieved and transmitted on disks.

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8. Data exchange format- Nowadays numerious software are available for CAD/CAM applications. Every software has its own standard with the increase in number of CAD/CAM systems there is a desire for increased mobility of data both internally within a company and externally to and from other companies. Thus to integrate various activities in the organization data must be exchanged and this can be only possible by introducing translator amongst various CAD/CAM softwares .. For this we use this standard file format is known as neutral file format. Some of the standard formats are IOES, DXF, STL, STEP etc.

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9. Multitask application- Once 3D model is prepared, it can be used for numerous down streams applications of CAD which includes Computer aided Manufacturing (CAM), Finite element analysis (FEA), Computer aided process planning (CAPP), Computer aided quality control (CAQC\ Robot programming, MRP system, simulations etc. 10. Quick design analysis- It is possible to make various types of analysis which includes mass properties, tolerance stacking, collision between parts etc.

Disadvantages - CAD
1. Equipment is expensive 2. Need to train staff

Applications
1. Developing solid models of various components and assemblies using cad software packages. 2. Modifying and improving models of the components. 3. Color selection of solid models. 4. Getting the views of the product or components from different angles and different sections. 5. Studying the product for its manufacturing planning, standardization and simplification. 6. Checking interference between mating parts of an assembly.

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7. Stress analysis of machine components, buildings and bridges. 8.Study the product for material requirement, costing and value engineering. 9. Preparing detailed component drawings and assembly drawings. 10. Preparing database for future reference and record.

CAD VERSUS PENCIL, PAPER, AND ERASER (Conventional Design)

CAD programs are software that allow the designer to draw on his or her computer screen, instead of with pencil, paper and eraser Instead of a pencil, the applicator uses a mouse and keyboard.

CAD VERSUS PENCIL, PAPER, AND ERASER (Conventional Design)

Reuse Changes are faster Storage and retrieval are easier Exchange files with others Analysis can be done

Introduction

CAD hardware generally includes the computer, one or more graphical display terminals, keyboard and other equipment. CAD software consists of the computer programs to implement computer graphics on the system plus application programs to facilitate engineering function of the user. Examples include Stress- Strain Analysis, dynamics response, heat transfer calculation etc.

CAD software

CAD software

CAD software

CAD Workstation/CAD Lab

Typical CAD/CAM Laboratory

The CAD/CAM laboratory should offer an ideal solution to teach Computer Aided Design (CAD) & Computer Aided Manufacturing (CAM), Computer Aided Engineering (CAE) Includes Printer Station (1) Laser printer (B&W) Plotter Station (1) A0 Plotter with Roll Feed, color (2) A0 Laser Plotter Tutor/Instructor workstation/server Student Workstations

Student Workstations Specification

Pentium based system, dual core Processor, Desktop System Pentium motherboard, 2GB memory 160 GB hard disk 52xCDROM 17"SVGA monitor, Keyboard, 3 button mouse, 2 serial ports, 1 parallel port Graphics card, Network card, Windows XP.

Tutor/Instructor workstation/server specification

Pentium based system Pro 2000 Processor Server Pentium motherboard, 4 GB memory 160 GB SCSI hard disk drive 52x DVD ROM 21"SVGA monitor, Keyboard, 3 button mouse, 2 serial ports, 1 parallel port Graphics card, Network card, Windows XP PC desk

Hardware and Software Requirements of CAD

INPUT DEVICES Most systems have a keyboard and one or more additional devices specially designed for interactive input. These include a mouse, trackball, spaceball, joystick, digitizers, dials, and button boxes. Some other input devices used in particular applications are data gloves, touch panels, image scanners, and voice systems.

INPUT DEVICES

Keyboards An alphanumeric keyboard on a graphics system is used primarily as device for entering text strings. The keyboard is an efficient device for inputting such non-graphic data as picture labels associated with a graphics display. Keyboards can also be provided with features to facilitate entry of screen coordinates, menu selections, or graphics functions.

INPUT DEVICES

Mouse A mouse is small hand-held box used to position the screen cursor. Wheels or rollers on the bottom of the mouse can be used to record the amount and direction of movement. Another method for detecting mouse motion is with an optical sensor,. For these systems, the mouse is moved over a special mouse pad that has a grid of horizontal and vertical lines. The optical sensor detects movement across the lines in the grid. Since a mouse can be picked up and put down at another position without change in cursor movement, it is used for making relative changes in the position of the screen cursor. One, two, or three buttons are usually included on the top of the mouse for signaling the execution of some operation, such as recording cursor position or invoking a function.

INPUT DEVICES

Joysticks A joystick consists of a small, vertical lever (called the stick) mounted on a base that is used to steer the screen cursor around. Most joysticks select screen positions with actual stick movement; others respond to pressure on the stick. Figure below shows a movable joystick. Some joysticks are mounted on a keyboard; others function as stand-alone units.

INPUT DEVICES

Digitizers A common device for drawing, painting, or interactively selecting coordinate positions on an object is a digitizer. These devices can be used to input coordinate values in either a two-dimensional or a three-dimensional space.

Many graphics tablets are constructed with a rectangular grid of wires embedded in the tablet surface. Electromagnetic pulses are generated in sequence along the wires, and an electric signal is induced in a wire coil in an activated stylus or hand cursor to record a tablet position. Depending on the technology, either signal strength, coded pulses, or phase shifts can be used to determine the position on the tablet.

HARD-COPY DEVICES

We can obtain hard-copy output for our images in several formats. Eg: Dot matrix printer, laser printer & inkjet printer are commonly used.

Drafting layouts and other drawings are typically generated with ink-jet or pen plotters. A pen plotter has one or more pens mounted on a carriage, or crossbar, that spans a sheet of paper. Pens with varying colors and widths are used to produce a variety of shadings and line styles. Wet-ink, ball-point, and felt-tip pens are all possible choices for use with a pen plotter. Plotter paper can lie flat or be rolled onto a drum or belt. Crossbars can be either moveable or stationary, while the pen moves back and forth along the bar. Either clamps, a vacuum, or an electrostatic charge hold the paper in position. An example of a table-top flatbed pen plotter is given in Figure below, and a larger, rollfeed pen plotter is shown in Fig.below

VIDEO DISPLAY DEVICES

Typically, the primary output device in a graphics system is a video monitor (Fig.below). The operation of most video monitor is based on the standard cathode-ray tube (CRT) design. Refresh Cathode-Ray Tubes Raster-Scan Displays Random-Scan Displays Color CRT Monitors Flat-Panel Displays

Refresh Cathode-Ray Tubes

Operation of a CRT. A beam of electrons (cathode rays), emitted by an electron gun, passes through focusing and deflection systems that direct the beam towards specified position on the phosphor-coated screen. The phosphor then emits a small spot of light at each position contacted by the electron beam. Because the light emitted by the phosphor fades very rapidly, some method is needed for maintaining the screen picture. One way to keep the phosphor glowing is to redraw the picture repeatedly by quickly directing the electron beam back over the same points. This type of display is called a refresh CRT.

The primary components of an electron gun in a CRT are the heated metal cathode and a control grid (fig.below). Heat is supplied to the cathode by directing a current through a coil of wire, called the filament, inside the cylindrical cathode structure. This causes electrons to be boiled off the hot cathode surface. In the vacuum inside the CRT envelope, negatively charged electrons are then accelerated toward the phosphor coating by a high positive voltage. The accelerating voltage can be generated with a positively charged metal coating on the in side of the CRT envelope near the phosphor screen, or an accelerating anode can be used, a in fig below . Sometimes the electron gun is built to contain the accelerating anode and focusing system within the same unit.

Spots of light are produced on the screen by the transfer of the CRT beam energy to the phosphor. When the electrons in the beam collide wit the phosphor coating , they are stopped and there are stopped and their kinetic energy is absorbed by the phosphor. Part of the beam energy s converted by friction into heat energy, and the remainder causes electron in the phosphor atoms to move up to higher quantum-energy levels. After a short time, the excited phosphor electrons begin dropping back to their stable ground state, giving up their extra energy as small quantums of light energy. What we see on the screen is the combined effect of all the electrons light emissions: a glowing spot that quickly fades after all the excited phosphor electrons have returned to their ground energy level. The frequency ( or color ) of the light emitted by the phosphor is proportional to the energy difference between the excited quantum state and the ground state.

Different kinds of phosphor are available for use in a CRT. Besides color, a major difference between phosphors is their persistence: how long they continue to emit light ( that is, have excited electrons returning to the ground state ) after the CRT beam is removed. Persistence is defined as the time it take the emitted light from the screen to decay to one-tenth of its original intensity. Lower-persistence phosphors require higher refresh rates to maintain a picture on the screen without flicker. A phosphor with low persistence is useful for animation ; a high-persistence phosphor is useful for displaying highly complex, static pictures. Although some phosphor have a persistence greater than 1 second, graphics monitor are usually constructed with a persistence in the range from 10 to 60 microseconds.

Raster-Scan Displays

In a raster- scan system, the electron beam is swept across the screen, one row at a time from top to bottom. As the electron beam moves across each row, the beam intensity is turned on and off to create a pattern of illuminated spots. Picture definition is stored in memory area called the refresh buffer or frame buffer. This memory area holds the set of intensity values for all the screen points. Stored intensity values are then retrieved from the refresh buffer and painted on the screen one row (scan line) at a time (fig.below). Each screen point is referred to as a pixel or pel (shortened forms of picture element).

Refreshing on raster-scan displays is carried out at the rate of 60 to 80 frames per second, although some systems are designed for higher refresh rates. Sometimes, refresh rates are described in units of cycles per second, or Hertz (Hz), where a cycle corresponds to one frame. At the end of each scan line, the electron beam returns to the left side of the screen to begin displaying the next scan line. The return to the left of the screen, after refreshing each scan line, is called the horizontal retrace of the electron beam. And at the end of each frame (displayed in 1/80th to 1/60th of a second), the electron beam returns (vertical retrace)to the top left corner of the screen to begin the next frame.

On some raster-scan systems (and in TV sets), each frame is displayed in two passes using an interlaced refresh procedure. In the first pass, the beam sweeps across every other scan line from top to bottom. Then after the vertical retrace, the beam sweeps out the remaining scan lines(fig.below). Interlacing of the scan lines in this way allows us to see the entire screen displayed in one-half the time it would have taken to sweep across all the lines at once from top to bottom.

Random-Scan Displays

Random scan monitors draw a picture one line at a time and for this reason are also referred to as vector displays (or stroke-writing or calligraphic displays).The component lines of a picture can be drawn and refreshed by a random-scan system in any specified order

Refresh rate on a random-scan system depends on the number of lines to be displayed . Picture definition is now stored as a set of line-drawing commands in an area of memory referred to as the refresh display file. Sometimes the refresh display file is called the display list, display program, or simply the refresh buffer. To display a specified picture, the system cycles through the set of commands in the display file, drawing each component line in turn. After all line- drawing commands have been processed, the system cycles back to the first line command in the list. Random-scan displays are designed to draw al the component lines of a picture 30 to 60times each second.