Electronic copy available at: http://ssrn.

com/abstract=2099162
1

!"# !%&!" '( !#%%')*#

8rlan LelLer
*

blelLer[uchlcago.edu
drafL of CcLober 1, 2013
!" $% &'%(%)!%* +( !,% -&%( ./(!/)01/(,%* 2%3!1'% /) !,% 415+)/!/%( +! .+6/*(") 7"88%0%9 :"6; <9 =>?@
&8%+(% *" )"! 3/!% "' A1"!% B/!,"1! &%'5/((/")


nleLzsche famously says, ln hls unusual auLoblography -33% 4"5" and also elsewhere
1
ln hls
corpus, LhaL Lhe LruLh ls Lerrlble," and l would llke Lo begln by canvasslng Lhe varlous conslderaLlons ln
supporL of LhaL concluslon, boLh ones LhaL nleLzsche expllclLly acknowledged and oLhers, offered ln a
nleLzschean splrlL, LhaL also supporL hls verdlcL.
llrsL, for nleLzsche, llke Schopenhauer before hlm, Lhere are Lhe Lerrlble %C/(!%)!/+8 LruLhs abouL
Lhe human slLuaLlon. 1he facL LhaL all of us are desLlned for obllvlon only scraLches Lhe surface of Lhe
dllemma, Lhough lL cerLalnly bears emphaslzlng, slnce so much of llfe ls, as Peldegger rlghLly
emphaslzed, devoLed Lo dlverLlng our aLLenLlon from lL. All of us wlll vanlsh from Lhe world llLerally (our
senLlence and saplence wlll be exLlngulshed for eLernlLy) and probably flguraLlvely as well, slnce Lhe
llkellhood LhaL anyone wlll be remembered, beyond, say, Lhelr grandchlldren, ls exLremely lmprobable.
And even wlLh regard Lo LhaL blL of fake lmmorLallLy"--belng recognlzed for havlng exlsLed aL some
polnL ln Lhe lnLanglble pasL, by grandchlldren-one mlghL ask: how could LhaL consLlLuLe adequaLe
saLlsfacLlon for Lhe lnsaLlable vanlLles of human llfe (noL Lo menLlon Lhe hyper-vanlLles of academlc llfe

*
A Lhen-unpubllshed paper presenLed by 1amsln Shaw on nleLzsche and Weber aL Lhe pollLlcal Lheory
workshop aL Chlcago several years ago helped sLlmulaLe some of my LhoughLs on Lhls Loplc. (See noLe 8 for more
on Lhls paper.) l also was helped by dlscusslon early on wlLh lerre keller and SamanLha MaLherne, as well as
wrlLLen commenLs from Mark Alfano. arLlclpanLs aL Lhe conference on nleLzsche and CommunlLy" aL Wake
loresL unlverslLy ln Aprll 2012 provlded qulLe helpful feedback and quesLlons, l should menLlon especlally
Maudemarle Clark, ken Cemes, kaLhleen Plgglns, !ohn 8lchardson, Mark WraLhall, and !ullan ?oung. A laLer
verslon benflLLed from dlscusslon aL Lhe conference ln Cxford on nleLzsche on MorallLy and Lhe AfflrmaLlon of
Llfe" ln Lhe fall of 2012, l can recall parLlcularly helpful commenLs and quesLlons on LhaL occaslon from ChrlsLopher
!anaway and Slmon May. 1he currenL verslon was presenLed aL WashlngLon unlverslLy, SL. Louls, and generaLed a
very helpful seL of commenLs and quesLlons, l should acknowledge ln parLlcular Anne-MargareL 8axley and Lrlc
8rown. l am especlally graLeful Lo lssac Wlegman for lllumlnaLlng guldance on Lhe psychologlcal llLeraLure.
1
[add Lhe sLandard references]
Electronic copy available at: http://ssrn.com/abstract=2099162
2

ln parLlcular)? And should one of us, agalnsL all odds, lnherlL a cenLury or Lwo worLh of readers-whlle
our bodles and our mlnds are long decomposed and consumed by lnsecLs-whaL maLLers LhaL, slnce all
readers, llke all auLhors, are desLlned for obllvlon, noL [usL LhaL of Lhe morLal coll, buL also LhaL forecasL
by asLronomers for Lhe cosmlc coll, when our sun ls exLlngulshed, and noLhlng remalns of Lhls unlverslLy,
or of Chlcago, or Lhe unlLed SLaLes, or Lhe vaLlcan, or Mecca, or any oLher place ln whlch creaLures llke
us are emoLlonally lnvesLed.
8uL many of us, ln Lhe modern world, cleansed of Lheologlcal supersLlLlons, are ad[usLed-or aL
leasL adepL aL lgnorlng--Lhe abyss of noLhlngness LhaL awalLs, buL LhaL hardly relleves us of Lhe Lerrlble
LruLhs of our exlsLenLlal slLuaLlon. lor before all of us, and all our loved ones-meanlng our dear
chlldren and our beloved slbllngs and spouses, and our parenLs and grandparenLs-before all of Lhese
persons dear Lo our hearL enLer obllvlon, all wlll endure, Lo varylng degrees, physlcal and psychologlcal
mlsery, mlshap, and sufferlng. We wlll waLch some loved ones dle before Lhelr Llme, we wlll waLch
oLhers suffer excruclaLlng physlcal allmenLs and psychologlcal LormenLs, LhaL wlll dlmlnsh Lhelr well-
belng and ofLen Lhelr humanlLy. Some of Lhese horrors wlll, of course, befall us lndlvldually. Lxamples
of Lhe llLany of grlef LhaL awalLs us all are avallable for regular consumpLlon ln Lhe newspapers, a
LesLamenL Lo Lhe unlversallLy of Lhe affllcLlons: cancer, schlzophrenla, hearL dlsease, agoraphobla,
mulLlple sclerosls, alcohollsm, hlp fracLures, chronlc depresslon, and on and on. l have no doubL LhaL
for everyone llsLenlng Lo Lhls Lalk, one or more of Lhese affllcLlons ls all Loo real, for Lhem or for
someone for whom Lhey deeply care. 1o make maLLers worse, none of Lhese affllcLlons have any
reason, or sense, or purpose.
And, Lhen, even brackeLLlng all Lhe physlcal and psychologlcal hardshlps LhaL befall creaLures llke
us, Lhere remalns Lhe lnescapable psychologlcal facL LhaL we all llve ln a sLaLe of consLanL sLrlvlng and
deslre, whlch ls meL mosL ofLen by dlsappolnLmenL, and someLlmes by momenLary saLlsfacLlon, only for
Lhe cycle Lo begln anew. We are cursed, as lL were, Lo reenacL Lhls polnLless rouLlne of sLrlvlng and
3

dlsappolnLmenL, agaln and agaln, for as long as we remaln senLlenL, consLlLuLlng Lhe flnal perverse
polnLlessness of our exlsLence ln Schopenhauer's vlew.
2

Second, Lhere are Lhe Lerrlble 5"'+8 LruLhs abouL our slLuaLlon. [L]lfe /( someLhlng essenLlally
amoral" (81 ALLempL: 3) as nleLzsche noLes, Lhough l am uslng Lhe phrase moral LruLh" somewhaL
lronlcally, buL ln a nleLzschean splrlL, for lL ls preclsely hls polnL LhaL reallLy falls Lo llve up Lo our moral
sLandards, LhaL lL musL sLand condemned before Lhe bar of morallLy. 1he pleasanLrles and cusLoms of
our dally rouLlnes sofLen Lhe hard edges of Lhe Lerrlble LruLhs abouL our moral slLuaLlon, buL Lhose LruLhs
lnLrude noneLheless. SLarL only wlLh Lhe mosL obvlous: hardly anyone-maybe no one--llves ln a
socleLy LhaL ls morally defenslble, by any exlsLlng code of morallLy LhaL has arlsen ln Lhe wake of Lhe
slave revolL" nleLzsche famously descrlbed ln hls book D) !,% E%)%+8"0F "G H"'+8/!F. 1ake Lhe unlLed
SLaLes as Lhe example closesL Lo home for me. ln Lhe lasL decade, alone, Lhe unlLed SLaLes launched a
crlmlnal war of aggresslon agalnsL an oll-rlch counLry ln Lhe Mlddle LasL, one LhaL cosL Lhe llves of
hundreds of Lhousands and dlsplaced mllllons more. uomesLlcally, a pluLocraLlc class wlLh
exLraordlnary rlches lords over a pollLlcal sysLem devoLed Lo lLs lnLeresLs, whlle flfLy Lo one hundred
mllllon people sLruggle, someLlmes wlLh success and someLlmes noL, for food, shelLer, cloLhlng, and
medlcal care. 1he exlsLence of ellLe academlcs ls bullL upon Amerlcan aggresslon agalnsL counLrles rlch
ln resources and Lhe domesLlc lnequallLy LhaL susLalns Lhe ellLe unlverslLles, lncludlng my own. 1here ls
Lhe obvlous blood money" LhaL makes Amerlcan unlverslLles Lhe besL ln Lhe world-Lhe fabulous
endowmenLs courLesy, Loo ofLen, of explolLers and hucksLers, noL Lo menLlon Lhe soclal paraslLes LhaL
populaLe so much of Wall SLreeL-buL Lhere ls Lhe less obvlous blood money" LhaL flows from llvlng ln a
naLlon whose abundance ls causally connecLed Lo Lhe mlsery of mllllons elsewhere.

2
AlLhough Lhe besL-known Lheme from Schopenhauer's work, lL acLually plays a secondary role ln
Schopenhaeur's argumenL agalnsL Lhe llluslon of lndlvldual exlsLence. lor dlscusslon, see SebasLlan Cardner,
Schopenhauer's uesconsLrucLlon of Cerman ldeallsm," ln M. lorsLer & k. C[esdal (eds.), I,% DCG"'* 4+)*$""J "G
:/)%!%%)!, 7%)!1'F K,/8"("&,F (Cxford: Cxford unlverslLy ress, forLhcomlng).
4

8uL lL ls easy enough Lo brackeL Lhe lmmorallLy of one's naLlon-- and even some academlc moral
and pollLlcal phllosophy, as well as loLs of economlcs, has arlsen Lo asslsL ln LhaL endeavor. ?eL LhaL
hardly exhausLs Lhe Lerrlble LruLhs abouL Lhe lmmorallLy of our exlsLence. lor behlnd Lhe pleasanLrles
and genLle gesLures of bourgeols llfe lle a hosL of morally dlsLasLeful reallLles, of whlch Lhe proverblal
seven deadly slns" barely scraLches Lhe surface. As nleLzsche wrlLes, llfe lLself ls %((%)!/+88F a process
of approprlaLlng, ln[urlng, overpowerlng Lhe allen and Lhe weaker, oppresslng, belng harsh, lmposlng
your own form, lncorporaLlng, and aL leasL, Lhe very leasL, explolLlng," Lhough he Lelllngly ob[ecLs Lo Lhe
facL LhaL Lhese words have been sLamped wlLh slanderous lnLenLlons from Llme lmmemorlal" (8CL
239).
3
Academlc pollLlcs lnsLanLlaLes all of Lhese characLerlsLlcs (l Lhlnk of Lhe phllosophy professor, who
shall remaln nameless, whose own colleagues call hlm Lhe wlll Lo power lncarnaLe" and a sadlsLlc
manlpulaLor"), buL so Loo does Lhe soclal mllleu of Lhe mlddle school and Lhe whlLe-collar offlce. All
around us we see manlfesLaLlons of greed, lusL, beLrayal, vengeance, and splLe, ln maLLers banal and
momenLous. And, of course, glven Lhe exlsLenLlal LruLhs of our slLuaLlon any moral evaluaLlon LhaL
Lakes hedonlsLlc calculaLlons serlously, wheLher undersLood as pleasure" or happlness," ls bound Lo
dellver a scaLhlng verdlcL on our llves.
1hlrd, Lhere are Lhe Lerrlble %&/(!%5/3 LruLhs abouL our slLuaLlon. We may all be desLlned for
obllvlon and mlsery and sufferlng, and our world, boLh remoLe and local, may be awash ln lmmorallLles
brazen and subLle, buL aL leasL we J)"B a few cerLaln Lhlngs abouL Lhe world, llke whaL our senses Lell us
abouL Lhe lmmedlaLe envlronmenL. Cr do we? AlLhough lL ls LempLlng Lo Lhlnk LhaL l sLand aL a lecLern,
and you slL on chalrs, and LhaL Lhere are several dozen people ln Lhe room, and LhaL all of Lhem have
vlslble properLles lnvolvlng color and smell, physlcs Lells us LhaL Lhls room ls, ln facL, full of bllllons of
lnvlslble, odorless, colorless parLlcles, and LhaL, from Lhe polnL of vlew of our mosL eplsLemlcally robusL

3
2%$%) (%8$(! /(! wesenLllch L)%/0)1)9 M%'8%!N1)09 O$%'BP8!/01)0 *%( Q'%5*%) 1)* R3,BP3,%')9
S)*%'*'T3J1)09 4P'!%9 L1GNBP)01)0 %/0)%' Q"'5%)9 -/)6%'8%/$1)0 1)* 5/)*%(!%)(9 5/8*%(!%)(9 L1($%1!1/)0,--
+$%' B"N1 ("88!% 5+) /55%' 0%'+*% ("83,% U"'!% 0%$'+13,%)9 *%)%) 6") L8!%'( ,%' %/)% 6%'8%15*%'/(3,% L$(/3,!
%/)0%&'P! /(!?
3

Lheorles, Lhere are no chalrs or lecLerns or persons here. nleLzsche, hosLage Lo boLh pre-SocraLlc
meLaphyslcs and nlneLeenLh-cenLury physlcs, undersLood Lhe polnL ln Lerms of Lhe llluslon of belng" or
sLable Lhlngs, when Lhe reallLy was one of consLanL flux and change, buL Lhe baslc eplsLemlc polnL ls Lhe
same: ordlnary bellefs abouL Lhe world around us are lllusory. lndeed, our ordlnary bellefs abouL
ourselves are mosLly lllusory, and Lhose llluslons are essenLlal Lo our well-belng: as psychologlsLs have
found, only Lhe cllnlcally depressed Lyplcally have an accuraLe self-percepLlon, l.e., one LhaL corresponds
Lo whaL oLhers +3!1+88F Lhlnk.
4
Morevoer, nleLzsche ls also commlLLed Lo denylng LhaL Lhe flrsL-person
perspecLlve ln acLlon-ln whlch we Lake ourselves Lo be dellberaLlng and free Lo choose dlfferenL
courses of conducL-ls wholly lllusory.
3
llnally, Lhere ls Lhe Lerrlble eplsLemlc LruLh (whlch lmpllcaLes a
moral one), namely, LhaL all of our moral bellefs are based on lles and falsehoods, as nleLzsche never
Llres of emphaslzlng.
Clven Lhe Lerrlble LruLhs abouL Lhe human slLuaLlon, lL ls hardly surprlslng LhaL nleLzsche Look so
serlously Schopenhauer's challenge, namely, why prefer llfe Lo non-exlsLence? 1hese Lerrlble LruLhs"
dlffer, however, ln how Lhey lnfllcL Lhelr paln. All Lhe Lerrlble LruLhs" are Lerrlble /G 3")!%5&8+!%*9 lf
/)!%')+8/N%*, and Laken serlously. 8uL some of Lhe Lerrlble %C/(!%)!/+8 LruLhs are, of course, consLlLuLed
by paln and sufferlng: Lhey are Lerrlble for Lhose undergolng Lhem. l Lake lL LhaL Lhe Schopenhaurlan
challenge depends prlmarlly on Lhe former, raLher Lhan Lhe laLLer: LhaL ls, nleLzsche's concern ls why we
should keep on llvlng glven Lhe Lerrlble LruLhs abouL Lhe human slLuaLlon, even before Lhe ones
consLlLuLed by paln and sufferlng befall us. Why keep on llvlng, when llfe promlses sysLemaLlc sufferlng,

4
1hese resulLs are someLlmes conLesLed, buL one revlew of Lhe llLeraLure reporLed LhaL 70 of Lhe sLudles
looklng aL lnLerpersonal [udgmenL and feedback found evldence of depresslve reallsm, l.e., LhaL Lhe depressed had
more reallsLlc self-assessmenLs, and were less llkely Lo whlLewash negaLlve feedback. See kelLh uobson & 8enee-
Loulse lranche, A ConcepLual and Lmplrlcal 8evlew of Lhe uepresslve 8eallsm PypoLhesls," 7+)+*/+) V"1')+8 "G
W%,+6/'"+8 R3/%)3% 21 (1989): 419-433, see esp. p. 427. CLher klnds of alleged depresslve reallsm has noL sLood
up Lo repeaLed experlmenLal examlnaLlon, however. See, e.g., Lorralne C. Allan, Shepard Slegel & Samuel Pannah,
1he Sad 1ruLh abouL uepresslve 8eallsm," X1+'!%'8F V"1')+8 "G -C&%'/5%)!+8 K(F3,"8"0F 60 (2007): 482-493.
3
See my nleLzsche's 1heory of Lhe Wlll," lbllosopbets lmptlot __ (2007): 1-13, and MaLhlas 8lsse,
nleLzschean 'Anlmal sychology' versus kanLlan LLhlcs," ln :/%!N(3,% +)* H"'+8/!F, ed. 8. LelLer & n. Slnhababu
(Cxford: Cxford unlverslLy ress, 2007).
6

lmmorallLy, and llluslon? Why noL accepL Schopenhauer's apparenL verdlcL, and glve up on llfe
alLogeLher?
6

1here are relaLlvely few clalms abouL nleLzsche LhaL are unconLroverslal, buL l hope Lhls one ls:
nleLzsche was always lnLeresLed ln respondlng Lo LhaL Schopenhauerlan challenge, from hls earllesL
work Lo hls lasL. And Lhe anlmaLlng ldea of hls response also remalns sLeady from beglnnlng Lo end, l
shall argue, namely, LhaL as he puLs lL ln Lhe new 1886 preface Lo hls flrsL book, 1872's I,% W/'!, "G
I'+0%*F, Lhe exlsLence of Lhe world ls Y1(!/G/%* [0%'%3,!G%'!/0!] only as an aesLheLlc phenomenon" (81:
ALLempL 3). Pe here slmply echoed famous clalms from Lhe orlglnal work more Lhan a dozen years
earller: lL ls only as an +%(!,%!/3 &,%)"5%)") LhaL exlsLence and Lhe world are eLernally Y1(!/G/%*"
(81:3) and exlsLence and Lhe world seem [usLlfled only as an aesLheLlc phenomenon" (81:24).
7
1hls
klnd of [usLlflcaLlon," whaLever preclsely lL amounLs Lo, ls equlvalenL ln nleLzschean Lermlnology Lo
Laklng a ulonyslan" perspecLlve on llfe. As nleLzsche says ln Lhe new 1886 preface Lo I,% W/'!, "G
I'+0%*F, Lhe book conLalns an answer" Lo Lhe quesLlon whaL ls ulonyslan?" (81: ALLempL 4) and, of
course, he concludes hls flnal work, -33% 4"5", by summlng up hls llfe's work by asklng Pave l been
undersLood?" and offerlng as Lhe answer ulonyus versus Lhe cruclfled" (LP lv:9), where lL ls clear
whose slde nleLzsche ls on. 1he ulonyslan" afflrms llfe (LreaLs lL as [usLlfled"), whlle Lhe cruclfled"
Lhlnks +3!1+8 llfe ls fundamenLally deflclenL, redeemed, lf aL all, ln an lllusory hereafLer. As nleLzsche
puLs lL ln IB/8/0,! "G !,% Z*"8(: Saylng yes Lo llfe, even ln lLs sLrangesL and harshesL problems, Lhe wlll Lo
llfe re[olclng ln lLs own lnexhausLlblllLy.!,+! ls whaL l called ulonyslan, !,+! ls Lhe brldge l found Lo Lhe
psychology of Lhe !'+0/3 poeL" (1l AnclenL:3).
nleLzsche sums up Lhe slgnlflcance of Lhe ldea of Lhe ulonyslan" ln Lhe 1886 preface Lo I,% W/'!, "G
I'+0%*F as follows:

6
[noLe on why Schopenhauer dldn'L recommend sulclde per se! sulclde sLlll lnvolves wllllng, S.
recommends deLachmenL, cessaLlon of wllllng]
7
Cf. CS 107: As an aesLheLlc phenomenon exlsLence ls sLlll $%+'+$8% Lo us.."
7

lL was +0+/)(! morallLy LhaL my lnsLlncL Lurned wlLh Lhls quesLlonable book, long ago, lL was an
lnsLlncL LhaL allgned lLself wlLh llfe and LhaL dlscovered for lLself a fundamenLally opposlLe docLrlne
and valuaLlon of llfe-purely arLlsLlc and +)!/[7,'/(!/+). WhaL Lo call lL? As a phllologlsL and man of
words l bapLlzed lL, noL wlLhouL Laklng some llberLy-for who could clalm Lo know Lhe rlghLful name
of Lhe AnLlchrlsL-ln Lhe name of a Creek god: l called lL ulonyslan. (81: ALLempL 3)
So Lhe ulonyslan" aLLlLude Lowards llfe ls purely arLlsLlc and +)!/[7,'/(!/+)," celebraLlng aesLheLlc value
+)* llluslon and decepLlon, and re[olclng ln Lhe desLrucLlon of morallLy, ln parLlcular, ChrlsLlan morallLy,
as nleLzsche emphaslzes repeaLedly ln I,% L)!/3,'/(! and -33% 4"5". 8uL ln whaL sense exacLly can llfe
be [usLlfled aesLheLlcally" ln llghL of Lhe Lerrlble LruLhs abouL our slLuaLlon?
!usLlflcaLlon" ln Lhls conLexL ls llLerally a mlsnomer, for whaL ls aL sLake ls LhaL llfe would be
%C&%'/%)3%* as worLh llvlng, noL LhaL a raLlonal or cognlLlve warranL exlsLs for conLlnulng Lo llve.
8
1he

8
Pere l agree wlLh ken Cemes ln hls lllumlnaLlng dlscusslon of 8ernard 8eglnsLer's very flne book on I,%
LGG/'5+!/") "G 2/G%\ :/%!N(3,% ") D6%'3"5/)0 :/,/8/(5 (Cambrldge, Mass.: Parvard unlverslLy ress, 2006).
8eglnsLer's accounL of nlhlllsm (and ulLlmaLely of afflrmaLlon), Cemes ob[ecLs, ls overly cognlLlve. nlhlllsm ln lLs
depesL manlfesLaLlon ls for nleLzsche an affecLlve raLher Lhan a cognlLlve dlsorder." Cemes, nlhlllsm and Lhe
AfflrmaLlon of Llfe," -1'"&%+) V"1')+8 "G K,/8"("&,F 16 (2008), p. 461. 8eglnsLer LreaLs nlhlllsm as comlng ln Lwo
maln forms: dlsorlenLaLlon" resulLlng from Lhe reallzaLlon LhaL Lhere are no ulLlmaLe, ob[ecLlve values, or
despalr" resulLlng from Lhe reallzaLlon LhaL one's values can noL be reallzed ln Lhe world as lL ls. 8eglnsLer, llke
Peldegger, presenLs a :+3,8+((-cenLrlc accounL of nlhllllsm, Lhough he does so much more sklllfully and
lnLeresLlngly. 8uL he mlsses Lhe much more cenLral worry abouL nlhlllsm" ln nleLzsche's corpus, namely, LhaL
people wlll %C&%'/%)3% llfe as noL worLh llvlng-LhaL ls, afLer all, Lhe sulcldal nlhlllsm" LhaL ls cenLral Lo nleLzsche ln
Lhe E%)%+8"0F. 1haL ls Lhe Lheme LhaL runs from I,% W/'!, "G I'+0%*F Lo Lhe very end ln nleLzsche's corpus, and
whlle lL ls closer Lo whaL 8eglnsLer calls Lhe nlhlllsm of despalr," lL ls noL, as Cemes noLes, a maLLer prlmarlly of
$%8/%G as opposed Lo affecLlve orlenLaLlon Lowards llfe.
Slmon May, ln a qulLe lnLeresLlng paper on Why nleLzsche ls sLlll ln Lhe morallLy game," ln Nletzscbes Cn
Lhe Cenealogy of MorallLy: L 7'/!/3+8 E1/*%, ed. S. May (Cambrldge: Cambrldge unlverslLy ress, 2011), follows
Cemes ln Laklng Lhe ulLlmaLe lssue Lo be +GG%3!/6% aLLachmenL Lo llfe. May suggesLs LhaL nleLzsche recommends
LhaL we slmply glve up on Lhe need for [usLlflcaLlon," buL Lhe LexLual evldence LhaL Lhls was nleLzsche's vlew
seems Lo me lacklng. l suspecL May goes wrong ln framlng Schopenhauer's challenge, whlch nleLzsche Lhen Lakes
up, as one calllng for a Lheodlcy-ln Lhls respecL he LreaLs [usLlflcaLlon" as a cognlLlve demand. (uanlel Came
draws Lhe same mlsleadlng comparlson ln 1he AesLheLlc !usLlflcaLlon of LxlsLence," ln L 7"5&+)/") !" :/%!N(3,%,
ed. k. Ansell-earson (Cxford: 8lackwell, 2006), p. 43.) Cbvlously lL ls of no lnLeresL Lo Schopenhauer or nleLzsche
how Lo [usLlfy Lhe exlsLence of evll" glven Cod's omnlsclence, omnlpoLence and benevolence. 1he quesLlon ls noL
meLaphyslcal, buL psychologlcal: how can one susLaln an affecLlve aLLachmenL Lo llfe ln Lhe face of Lhe Lerrlble
LruLhs whlch mlghL cause one Lo glve up on lL.
llnally, 1amsln Shaw, ln her lllumlnaLlng paper on nleLzsche and Weber, also frames Lhe lssue ln
excesslvely cognlLlve Lerms (she also speaks of Lheodlcy" and ends up Laklng [usLlflcaLlon" qulLe llLerally), buL her
preferred meLaphor for Lhe LhreaL posed by whaL l am calllng Lhe Lerrlble LruLhs" ls LhaL Lhey lead Lo a sense of
8

lssue ls our +GG%3!/6% or emoLlonal aLLachmenL Lo llfe, whlch Lhe Lerrlble LruLhs," aL leasL when Laken
serlously, LhreaLen Lo undermlne,
9
Lhe lssue ls noL wheLher Lhere are good reasons for conLlnued llfe
(nleLzsche, llke Pume before hlm, Lakes reason Lo radlcally underdeLermlne answers Lo all Lhe cruclal
quesLlons!). 1hus, we need Lo ask whaL aesLheLlc values llfe mlghL exempllfy LhaL would explaln how
Lhey would enable persons, or aL leasL some persons, Lo reslsL Schopenhauer's pesslmlsm? LeL us sLarL
by supposlng LhaL llfe *"%( /) G+3! exempllfy some aesLheLlc values (whaLever preclsely Lhey are): why
would Lhe +%(!,%!/3 characLer of Lhose values be relevanL Lo Lhe aLLracLlveness of llfe ln Lhe face of Lhe
Lerrlble LruLhs"?
Conslder Lhe Lerrlble LruLhs ln reverse order. SomeLhlng can have +%(!,%!/3 6+81% even lf lL has
no eplsLemlc value-lndeed, on nleLzsche's vlew, lL ls Lhe mark of +%(!,%!/3 6+81% LhaL lL lacks eplsLemlc
value. 1haL has been a famlllar Lheme ln phllosophy slnce laLo, and lL ls one nleLzsche repeaLedly
emphaslzes wlLh regard Lo Lhe ulonyslan." lndeed, slnce havlng %&/(!%5/3 value ls ofLen LreaLed as a
5"'+8 requlremenL, nleLzsche noLes ln Lhe 1886 reface Lo I,% W/'/!, "G I'+0%*F LhaL ChrlsLlanlLy ls Lhe
mosL prodlgal elaboraLlon of Lhe moral Lheme Lo whlch humanlLy has ever been sub[ecLed" (81:
ALLempL 3), whlch he Lhen explalns as follows:
ln LruLh, noLhlng could be more opposed Lo Lhe purely aesLheLlc lnLerpreLaLlon and [usLlflcaLlon of
Lhe world whlch are LaughL ln Lhls book Lhan Lhe ChrlsLlan Leachlng, whlch ls, and wanLs Lo be, ")8F
moral and whlch relegaLes arL, %6%'F arL, Lo Lhe realm of 8/%(, wlLh lLs absoluLe sLandards, beglnnlng
wlLh Lhe LruLhfulness of Cod [and sclence!], lL negaLes, [udges, and damns arL. 8ehlnd Lhls mode of
LhoughL and valuaLlon, whlch musL be hosLlle Lo arL lf lL ls aL all genulne, l never falled Lo sense a

ulLlmaLe fuLlllLy LhaL ls moLlvaLlonally deblllLaLlng." 1amsln Shaw, 1he 'LasL Man' roblem: nleLzsche and Weber
on ollLlcal ALLlLudes Lo Sufferlng," ln M. knoll & 8. SLocker (eds.), :/%!N(3,% +( K"8/!/3+8 K,/8"("&,%' (8erlln: de
CruyLer, 2014), p. 10 (MS, [usL afLer n. 12). Cnly lf moLlvaLlon had prlmarlly raLlonal sources-whlch ls obvlously
noL nleLzsche's vlew-would such deblllLaLlon" be deflecLed by a raLlonal [usLlflcaLlon for sufferlng and Lhe oLher
Lerrlble LruLhs. And only lf lL had such raLlonal sources would Shaw's ldea LhaL we should glve up seeklng a
[usLlflcaLlon for sufferlng noL lnLenLlonally caused by an agenL have any purchase.
9
Pere l agree wlLh Came, 1he AesLheLlc !usLlflcaLlon of LxlsLence," p. 47.
9

,"(!/8/!F !" 8/G%-a furlous, vengeful anLlpaLhy Lo llfe lLself: for all llfe ls based on semblance, arL,
decepLlon, polnLs of vlew, and Lhe necesslLy of perspecLlves and error. ChrlsLlanlLy was from Lhe
beglnnlng, essenLlally and fundamenLally, llfe's nausea and dlsgusL wlLh llfe, merely concealed
behlnd, maksed by, dressed up as, falLh ln anoLher" or beLLer" llfe. (81: ALLempL 3)
Slnce belng able Lo llve depends on llluslon, any moral lmperaLlve Lo know only Lhe LruLh ls necessarlly
an obsLacle Lo llfe. Pe sounds Lhe same Lheme ln 8ook ll of I,% E+F R3/%)3%:
Pad we noL approved of Lhe arLs and lnvenLed Lhls Lype of culL of Lhe unLrue, Lhe lnslghL lnLo
general unLruLh and mendaclLy LhaL ls noL glven Lo us by sclence-Lhe lnslghL lnLo deluslon and
error as a condlLlon of cognlLlve and sensaLe exlsLence-would be uLLerly unbearable. 4")%(!F
would lead Lo nausea and sulclde. 8uL now our honesLy has a counLerforce LhaL helps us avold
such consequences: arL, as Lhe 0""* wlll Lo appearance..As an aesLheLlc phenomeon exlsLence
ls sLlll $%+'+$8% [%'!'P08/3,] Lo us, and arL furnlshes us wlLh Lhe eye and hand and above all Lhe
good consclence Lo be +$8% Lo make such a phenomenon of ourselves.. (CS 107)
nleLzsche's susLalned hosLlllLy Lowards whaL he calls aesLheLlc SocraLlsm" (81:12) ls moLlvaLed by Lhe
same LhoughL, by Lhe LhoughL LhaL lL ls Lhe mark of Lhe aesLheLlc LhaL lL welcomes and celebraLes
llluslon, as agalnsL knowledge, whereas Lhe supreme law [of aesLheLlc SocraLlsm] reads roughly as
follows, '1o be beauLlful everyLhlng musL be lnLelllglble,' as Lhe counLerparL Lo Lhe SocraLlc dlcLum,
'knowledge ls vlrLue'" (81:12). SocraLes and SocraLlc aesLheLlclsm Lhus represenL a new and
unprecedenLed value seL on knowledge" (81:13), so much so LhaL SocraLes ls Lhe proLoLype of Lhe
LheoreLlcal opLlmlsL who, wlLh hls falLh LhaL Lhe naLure of Lhlngs can be faLhomed, ascrlbes Lo
knowledge and lnslghL Lhe power of a panacea, whlle undersLandlng error as Lhe evll &+' %C3%88%)3%"
(81:13). 8uL slnce Lhe LruLhs abouL Lhe world are Lerrlble, lndeed llfe-LhreaLenlng, SocraLlc opLlmlsm
sLands Lhe reallLy on lLs head. 1he opposlLlon beLween aesLheLlc and eplsLemlc value ls sLrlklngly
summed up by nleLzsche ln Lhe 1hlrd Lssay of Lhe E%)%+8"0F\ arL, ln whlch preclsely Lhe 8/% hallows
10

lLself, ln whlch Lhe B/88 !" *%3%&!/") has good consclence on lLs slde" explalns why laLo, wlLh hls
SocraLlc opLlmlsm, ls Lhe greaLesL enemy of arL LhaL Lurope has yeL produced. laLo 3")!'+ Pomer:
LhaL ls Lhe compleLe, Lhe genulne anLagnoslm" (CM lll:23).
Second, someLhlng can have aesLheLlc value even lf lL lacks moral value, unless one held Lhe
lmplauslble vlew (whlch nleLzsche surely does noL hold) LhaL lmmorallLy defeaLs aesLheLlc value. 1he
Creek myLhs lllusLraLe Lhe polnL: anyone who approaches Lhese Clymplans wlLh anoLher rellglon ln hls
hearL," says nleLzsche-he ls alludlng, obvlously, Lo ChrlsLlanlLy-and Lhus looklng for moral
elevaLlon.for charlLy and benevolence, wlll soon be.dlscouraged and dlsappolnLed," slnce Lhere ls
noLhlng here [l.e., ln Lhe Creek myLhs] LhaL suggesLs, asceLlclsm, splrlLuallLy, or duLy. We hear noLhlng
buL Lhe accenLs of an exuberanL, LrlumphanL llfe ln whlch all Lhlngs, wheLher good or evll, are delfled"
(81:3). 1he Creek myLhs dellghL and engage, buL noL ln vlrLue of provldlng moral upllfL, buL raLher
celebraLlng Lhe exuberanL, LrlumphanL llfe" of Lhe Clymplans who are Lhoroughly lmmoral" ln Lhelr
llcenLlousness, vengeance, and dellghL ln cruelLy and vlolence.
8uL whaL abouL Lhe Lerrlble exlsLenLlal LruLhs? Pow could Lhe facL LhaL llfe exempllfles aesLheLlc
value resLore our aLLachmenL Lo llfe ln Lhe face of Lhe Lerrlble exlsLenLlal LruLhs abouL our slLuaLlon? LeL
us sLarL by recalllng a dlfferenL verslon of Lhls quesLlon LhaL nleLzsche Lakes up ln Lhe 1hlrd Lssay of D)
!,% E%)%+8"0F "G H"'+8/!F\ namely, how does Lhe asceLlc ldeal" LaughL by Lhe prlesLs seduce Lhe
ma[orlLy of morLals"-Lhe physlologlcal casualLles and.dlsgrunLled" (CM lll:1) as he calls Lhem--back
Lo llfe? [S]ufferlng lLself was )"! [Lhe] problem," nleLzsche noLes, Lhe problem was Lhe 5%+)/)0 of
sufferlng, Sufferlng for B,+!?" (CM lll:28). ln shorL, Lhe meanlnglessness of sufferlng, )"! Lhe
sufferlng, was Lhe curse whlch has so far blankeLed manklnd" (CM lll:28). WhaL makes Lhe Lerrlble
exlsLenLlal LruLhs abouL Lhe human slLuaLlon !%''/$8% ls preclsely LhaL Lhey are uLLerly 5%+)/)08%((. lor
Lhe ma[orlLy of morLals, Lhe Leachlng of Lhe asceLlc ldeal" glves Lhose Lerrlble exlsLenLlal LruLhs a
meanlng, buL a meanlng of a parLlcularly perverse klnd. lL explalns Lhelr sufferlng, falsely, as a
11

consequence of Lhelr own moral lnadequacles-Lhelr own fallures Lo llve up Lo asceLlc ldeals-and Lhus
aL leasL allows Lhem Lo dlscharge Lhe '%((%)!/5%)! LhaL sufferlng produces, albelL agalnsL Lhemselves.
10

1he key mechanlsm by whlch Lhls purporLedly occurs ls worLh quoLlng aL some lengLh:
[L]very sufferer lnsLlncLlvely seeks a cause for hls sufferlng, sLlll more preclsely, a perpeLraLor,
sLlll more speclflcally a 01/8!F perpeLraLor who ls recepLlve Lo sufferlng-ln shorL, some llvlng
Lhlng on whlch, ln response Lo some preLexL or oLher, he can dlscharge hls affecLs ln deed or ln
efflgy: for Lhe dlscharge of affecL ls Lhe sufferer's greaLesL aLLempL aL rellef, namely aL
+)%(!,%!/N+!/")-hls lnvolunLarlly craved narcoLlc agalnsL LormenL of any klnd. lL ls here alone,
accordlng Lo my surmlse, LhaL one flnds Lhe Lrue physlologlcal causallLy of '%((%)!/5%)!, of
revenge, and of Lhelr relaLlves-LhaL ls, ln a longlng for +)%(!,%!/N+!/") "G &+/) !,'"10,
+GG%3!..[C]ne wlshes, by means of a more vehemenL emoLlon of any klnd, Lo +)%(!,%!/N% a
LormenLlng, secreL paln LhaL ls becomlng unbearable and, aL leasL for Lhe momenL, Lo puL lL ouL
of consclousness-for Lhls one needs an affecL, as wlld an affecL as posslble and, for lLs
exclLaLlon, Lhe flrsL besL preLexL. (CM lll:13)
1he preLexL aL lssue ls Lhe one supplled by Lhe asceLlc prlesL's sLory: you yourself are Lo blame for your
sufferlng, because you falled Lo llve up Lo Lhe asceLlc ldeal. 1herefore, Lhe affecLs of revenge are
aroused, agalnsL Lhe sufferer hlmself. 8uL-and Lhls ls cruclal--powerful affecLs acL, accordlng Lo
nleLzsche, as narcoLlcs LhaL relleve paln. 1he meanlng" Lhe asceLlc prlesL supplles makes sufferlng
bearable because lL anesLheLlzes Lhe sufferlng Lhrough arousal of Lhe affecLs assoclaLed wlLh
'%((%)!/5%)! and revenge: Lhe meanlng" LhaL lnLeresLs nleLzsche-namely, a resLoraLlon of affecLlve
aLLachmenL Lo llfe-ls noL expressed ln a proposlLlonal conLenL, buL raLher derlves from Lhe arousal of
Lhe affecLs, whlch Lhen allow Lhe ma[orlLy of morLals" Lo reslsL sulcldal nlhlllsm. 1hls, l Lake lL, ls
nleLzsche's &+'+*/05 of a so-called [usLlflcaLlon" of sufferlng-lL ls cerLalnly Lhe one he explores aL

10
lor a deLalled dlscusslon, see LelLer (2002: __-__).
12

greaLesL and mosL sysLemaLlc lengLh--and Lhe key facL abouL lL ls LhaL lL Lurns on Lhe causal mechanlsm
of a psychologlcal process: !,% +'"1(+8 "G +GG%3!( +3!/)0 +( + )+'3"!/3 '%8/%6/)0 &+/).
11

nleLzsche, Lo be clear, conslders Lhls parLlcular response Lo Lhe Lerrlble exlsLenLlal LruLhs
perverse, slnce lL ls one LhaL exacerbaLes human sufferlng. As he puLs lL laLer ln Lhe 1hlrd Lssay of Lhe
E%)%+8"0F:
1o free Lhe human soul from all lLs moorlngs for once, Lo lmmerse lL ln Lerrors, frosLs, blazes,
and ecsLasles ln such a way LhaL lL ls freed from everyLhlng LhaL ls small and small-mlnded ln
llsLlessness, dullness, belng ouL of sorLs as lf by a bolL of llghLenlng: whlch paLhs lead Lo !,/(
goal? And whlch of Lhem mosL surely?...8aslcally all greaL affecLs have Lhe capaclLy Lo do so,
assumlng LhaL Lhey dlscharge Lhemselves suddendly: anger, fear, lusL, revenge, hope, Lrlumph,
despalr, cruelLy, and lndeed Lhe asceLlc prlesL has unheslLaLlngly Laken lnLo hls servlce Lhe B,"8%
pack of wlld dogs ln man and unleashed flrsL Lhls one, Lhen LhaL one, always for Lhe same
purpose, Lo waken man ouL of slow sadness, Lo puL Lo fllghL, aL leasL for a Llme, hls dull paln, hls
llngerlng mlsery, always under a rellglous lnLerpreLaLlon and [usLlflcaLlon." Lvery such
emoLlonal excess %C+3!( &+F5%)! afLerwards, LhaL goes wlLhouL saylng-lL makes Lhe slck
slcker.. (CM lll:20)
lL does so, parLlcularly, because Lhe asceLlc prlesL explolLs Lhe emoLlons surroundlng gullL and
'%((%)!/5%)! almed aL oneself, feellngs whlch lnduce new sufferlng even as Lhey anesLheLlze Lhe earller
paln.

11
lL bears emphaslzlng LhaL, as ls ofLen Lhe case wlLh nleLzsche, hls psychologlcal hypoLheses have found
supporL ln recenL emplrlcal research. As lsaac Wlegman polnLed ouL Lo me, Lhe psychologlsL Leonard 8erkowlLz
has defended Lhe vlew for many years LhaL paln and averslve" sLlmull Lrlgger anger and blame. See, e.g., Leonard
8erkowlLz, aln and Aggresslon: Some llndlngs and lmpllcaLlons," H"!/6+!/") +)* -5"!/") 17 (1993): 277-293.
1he ldea LhaL dlrecLlng one's anger aL a LargeL has an anesLheLlc affecL ls supporLed ln konrad 8resln & kaLhryn P.
Cordon, Aggresslon as AffecL 8egulaLlon: LxLendlng CaLharsls 1heory Lo LvaluaLe Aggresslon and LxperlenLlal
Anger ln Lhe LaboraLory and ually Llfe," V"1')+8 "G R"3/+8 +)* 78/)/3+8 K(F3,"8"0F 32 (2013): 400-423.
13

now nleLzsche ls expllclL LhaL arL achleves whaL Lhe asceLlc ldeal achleves, namely seduclng
one Lo a conLlnuaLlon of llfe" (81:3), buL lf arL does noL supply a flcLlonal explanaLlon for Lhe cause of
sufferlng, how does lL do so? Pow does arL resLore affecLlve or emoLlonal aLLachmenL Lo llfe? 1haL ls
now Lhe cenLral quesLlon.
We can noL answer LhaL quesLlon wlLhouL flrsL answerlng Lhe quesLlon whaL nleLzsche Lhlnks
aesLheLlc value, and Lhe appreclaLlon of aesLheLlc value, lnvolves. We may, once agaln, Lake our cue
from an observaLlon ln I,% W/'!, "G I'+0%*F, whlch afflrms Lhe cenLral role of aesLheLlc experlence as
counLeracLlng sulcldal nlhlllsm. nleLzsche wrlLes: 1he Lruly serlous Lask of arL.[ls] Lo save Lhe eye
from gazlng lnLo Lhe horrors of nlghL and Lo dellver Lhe sub[ecL by Lhe heallng balm of llluslon from Lhe
spasms of Lhe aglLaLlons of Lhe wlll" (81:19). And slmllarly, he says LhaL Lraglc lnslghL"-LhaL ls, lnslghL
lnLo Lhe Lerrlble exlsLenLlal LruLhs-needs arL as a proLecLlon and remedy" ln order merely Lo be
endured" (81:13). Pow does aesLheLlc experlence provlde Lhls proLecLlon and remedy," how does lL
dellver Lhe sub[ecL by Lhe heallng balm of llluslon"?
1here ls an answer Lo LhaL quesLlon nleLzsche glves ln I,% W/'!, "G I'+0%*F LhaL reflecLs hls
lnfaLuaLlon, aL LhaL Llme, wlLh Schopenhauer's ldloscyncraLlc meLaphyslcs. 1haL answer ls evldenL ln
passages llke Lhe followlng from LhaL early work:
ulonyslan arL.wlshes Lo convlnce us of Lhe eLernal [oy of exlsLence: only we are Lo seek Lhls [oy
noL ln phenomena, buL behlnd Lhem. We are Lo recognlze LhaL all LhaL comes lnLo belng musL
be ready for a sorrowful end, we are forced Lo look lnLo Lhe Lerrors of Lhe lndlvldual exlsLence-
yeL we are noL Lo become rlgld wlLh fear: a meLaphyslcal comforL Lears us momenLarlly from
Lhe busLle of Lhe changlng flgures. We are really for a brlef momenL prlmordlal belng lLself,
feellng lLs raglng deslre for exlsLence and [oy ln exlsLence, Lhe sLruggle, Lhe paln, Lhe desLrucLlon
of phenomena, now appear necessary Lo us.. We are plerced by Lhe maddenlng sLlng of Lhese
palns [usL when we have become, as lL were, one wlLh Lhe lnflnlLe prlmordlal [oy ln exlsLence,
14

and when we anLlclpaLe, ln ulonyslan ecsLasy, Lhe lndesLrucLlblllLy and eLernlLy of Lhls [oy.
(81:17)
1hls ls a Schopenhauerlan answer Lhrough and Lhrough: arL allows us Lo appreclaLe Lhe noumenal
realm, where all ls one, Lhus rlddlng us of Lhe Lerrors of lndlvldual exlsLence" and permlLLlng us Lo
plerce Lhe phenomenal vell and experlence Lhe lnflnlLe prlmordlal [oy of exlsLence," whaLever exacLly
LhaL ls. AlLhough nleLzsche never abandoned Lhe problem abouL sufferlng posed by Schopenhauer, l
Lhlnk lL ls clear he abandoned Lhe meLaphyslcal plcLure LhaL anlmaLed Schopenhauer's own accounL of
arL, and Lhe neokanLlanlsm LhaL wenL along wlLh lL. lndeed, as everyone recognlzes, whlle nleLzsche
reLalns Lhe label ulonyslan" for hls own vlew (as we have already seen), Lhe conLrasL wlLh Lhe
Appollonlan" drops ouL
12
: whaLever arL now does Lo make Lhe Lerrlble LruLhs bearable, lL does under
Lhe headlng of a ulonyslan" perspecLlve on llfe.
nleLzsche's own accounL of aesLheLlc experlence ls, noL surprlslngly, arLlculaLed ln opposlLlon Lo
kanL's, mosL clearly ln Lhe 1hlrd Lssay of Lhe E%)%+8"0F. kanL makes Lwo klnds of mlsLakes ln
nleLzsche's vlew, one abouL arL, Lhe oLher abouL knowledge. nleLzsche wrlLes: kanL lnLended Lo honor
arL when, among Lhe predlcaLes of Lhe beauLlful, he prlvlleged and placed ln Lhe foreground Lhose LhaL
consLlLuLe Lhe honor of knowledge: lmpersonallLy and unlversal valldlLy" (CM lll:6).
13
8uL
lmpersonallLy" and unlversal valldlLy" are marks of nelLher arL, nor knowledge: Lhls ls a cenLral aspecL
of Lhe docLrlne he calls perspecLlvlsm." lndeed, nleLzsche rldlcules kanL's ldea LhaL Lhe mark of
aesLheLlc experlence ls LhaL lL pleases wlLhouL lnLeresL" (CM lll:6), endorslng lnsLead SLendahl's
formula, namely, LhaL Lhe beauLlful &'"5/(%( happlness," LhaL ls, lL produces Lhe +'"1(+8 [-''%01)0] "G
!,% B/88 (of lnLeresL')" (CM lll:6). nleLzsche soon makes Lhe connecLlon beLween aesLheLlc and sexual

12
uanlel Came has a useful dlscusslon of Lhe dlsLlncLlvely Apollonlan" response Lo Lhe problem, whlch
lnvolves Lhe ascrlpLlon of poslLlve aesLheLlc value Lo sufferlng." 1he AesLheLlc !usLlflcaLlon of LxlsLence," p. 32.
As Came suggesLs, Lhls ls noL a very plauslble vlew, and l see no evldence lL ls nleLzsche's laLer vlew.
13
nleLzsche also does noL dlsLlngulsh beLween Lhe beauLlful" as a feaLure of Lhe naLural world as opposed
Lo a work of arL-whlch ls conslsLenL wlLh hls vlew of aesLheLlc appreclaLlon descrlbed ln Lhe LexL.
13

arousal even more expllclL Lwo secLlons laLer: Lhe pecullar sweeLness and fullness characLerlsLlc of Lhe
aesLheLlc condlLlon," he says, mlghL have lLs orlglns preclsely ln.'sensuallLy' [R/))8/3,J%/!]" Lhough lL ls
now Lransflgure[d] and no longer enLers consclousness as sexual sLlmulus" (CM lll:8).
14
Cf course, lf
Lhe hallmark of +3!1+8 aesLheLlc experlences are LhaL Lhey arouse" Lhe wlll, and are marked by Lhe
sweeLness and fullness" assoclaLed wlLh sensuallLy, and even, ln unsubllmaLed form, sexual
saLlsfacLlon, Lhen lL seems llke aesLheLlc experlence can Lap lnLo Lhe mechanlsm ldenLlfled ln Lhe
E%)%+8"0F: namely, Lhe anesLheLlzaLlon of paln Lhrough affecL" (CM lll:13) or, as he puLs lL laLer,
%C3%(( "G !,% %5"!/")(" whlch are Lhe mosL effecLlve means of anesLheLlzlng Lhe dull paralyzlng long
palnfulness" (CM lll:19). Could lL be, Lhen, LhaL arL [usLlfles" llfe, ln Lhe sense of resLorlng our affecLlve
aLLachmenL Lo lL, Lhrough essenLlally pleasurable, quasl-sexual affecLlve arousal? And lf lL does so, does
lL also, llke Lhe asceLlc prlesL's arousal of ressenLlmenL and gullL, make Lhe sufferer worse off?
1haL nleLzsche ln hls laLer work vlews aesLheLlc experlence as essenLlally pleasurable ln a way
LhaL ls on a conLlnuum wlLh sexual pleasure would be dlfflculL Lo deny.
13
Pere, for example, ls nleLzsche
ln one of hls lasL works, IB/8/0,! "G !,% Z*"8(, noLlng LhaL Lhe elemenL aL Lhe rooL of ulonyslan arL" ls Lhe
orglasLlc rlLe." Pe conLlnues:
1he G1)*+5%)!+8 G+3! of Lhe Pellenlc lnsLlncL-lLs wlll Lo llfe"-expresses lLself only ln Lhe
ulonyslan mysLerles, ln Lhe psychology of Lhe ulonsylan sLaLe.. 1haL ls why Lhe (%C1+8 symbol
was lnherenLly venerable for Lhe Creeks, Lhe Lruly profound elemenL ln Lhe whole of anclenL
pleLy..lL was ChrlsLlanlLy wlLh lLs fundamenLal '%((%)!/5%)! +0+/)(! llfe LhaL flrsL made sexuallLy
lnLo someLhlng unclean, lL Lhrew G/8!, on Lhe orlgln, Lhe presupposlLlon of llfe. (1l AnclenLs":4).

14
kanL, of course, Lhlnks LhaL Lhe beauLlful ls &8%+(/)0, he [usL Lhlnk lL ls dlslnLeresLed pleasure, ln Lhe
sense LhaL lL lnvolves no *%(/'% for Lhe ob[ecL. 8y assoclaLlng aesLheLlc and sexual appreclaLlon, nleLzsche
underllnes hls re[ecLlon of Lhe kanLlan vlew, slnce on no one's accounL does sexual appreclaLlon noL lnvolve deslre
for Lhe ob[ecL of sexual arousal.
13
lor a slmllar vlew, see Cregory Moore's defense of Lhe clalm LhaL, for nleLzsche, aesLheLlc pleasure" ls
+3!1+88F + (&%3/%( "G.sexual arousal." :/%!N(3,%9 W/"8"0F9 +)* H%!+&,"' (Cambrldge: Cambrldge unlverslLy ress,
2002), p. 106.
16

1he same Lheme conLlnues ln I,% L)!/3,'/(!9 where, ln hls wlld declamaLlon agalnsL ChrlsLlanlLy aL Lhe
end of Lhe book, he lncludes as one of Lhe slx offendlng ChrlsLlan docLrlnes lLs endorsemenL of chasLlLy"
(]%1(3,,%/!), addlng (ln nleLzsche's own volce) LhaL conLempL for sexuallLy" (*%( 0%(3,8%3,!8/3,%)
2%$%)() ls Lhe real sln agalnsL Lhe holy splrlL of llfe" (*/% %/0%)8/3,% RT)*% B/*%' *%) ,%/8/0%) E%/(! *%(
2%$%)(^;
nleLzsche as sexual hedonlsL, lndeed any klnd of hedonlsL, has noL been a domlnanL Lheme ln
Lhe scholarly llLeraLure, needless Lo say. 8uL nleLzsche's relaLlon Lo hedonlsm ls complex, even Lhough
he plalnly re[ecLs Lhe ldea LhaL pleasure ls Lhe only good, leL alone Lhe only moLlvaLor, of human acLlon,
and he ln no way endorses Lhe ldea LhaL Lhere ls a raLlonal [usLlflcaLlon for exlsLence based on a hedonlc
calculaLlon. 8uL he does ob[ecL agalnsL kanL, agaln ln I,% L)!/3,'/(!, LhaL [w]hen Lhe lnsLlncL of llfe
compels us Lo acL, pleasure proves LhaL Lhe acL ls '/0,!", nleLzsche adduces kanL's denlal of Lhe polnL as
evldence LhaL kanL became an ldloL" (A:11), one of several posslble pleces of evldence LhaL mlghL be
proferred for Lhe laLLer proposlLlon. And one could well agree wlLh nleLzsche LhaL people welcome
sufferlng, lndeed seek lL ouL conLrary Lo Lhe hedonlsL, as long as lL has a meanlng." Cur quesLlon ls only
how aesLheLlc experlence supplles LhaL meanlng"-rememberlng, of course, LhaL meanlng" ln Lhls
conLexL means a psychologlcal mechanlsm LhaL resLores and malnLalns our affecLlve aLLachmenL Lo llfe
desplLe lLs horrors.
16
And Lhe answer seems Lo be LhaL aesLheLlc experlence ls +'"1(/)0, LhaL lL
produces a subllmaLed form of sexual pleasure, and lL ls surely consLlLuLlve of a pleasurable experlence,
sexual or oLherwlse, LhaL lL +!!'+3!( us. l shall refer Lo Lhls as Lhe 5/)/5+8 ,%*")/3 !,%(/(, accordlng Lo
whlch pleasurable experlence draws us Lowards lLs ob[ecL, raLher Lhan away from lL. 1haL ls, of course,
compaLlble wlLh oLher moLlvaLlons domlnaLlng Lhe mlnlmal hedonlc one, and also compaLlble wlLh
ob[ecLs lncompaLlble wlLh hedonlc experlence also aLLracLlng us. 8uL Lhe hypoLhesls on offer ls LhaL, per

16
[ls Lhere a pun golng on wlLh R/)) and subllmaLed R/))8/3,J%/!?]
17

Lhe mlnlmal hedonlc Lhesls, aesLheLlc experlence produces affecLlve arousal sufflclenL Lo LhwarL Lhe
nlhlllsLlc lmpulse, Lhe lmpulse Lo glve up on llfe because of Lhe Lerrlble LruLhs abouL lL.
1hls clalm ralses aL leasL Lwo key quesLlons. llrsL, ls lL plauslble LhaL aesLheLlc experlence
saLlsfles Lhe mlnlmal hedonlc Lhesls? Second, even lf lL does, ls Lhe aLLracLlon assoclaLed wlLh Lhe
mlnlmal hedonlc Lhesls really enough Lo LhwarL sulcldal nlhlllsm? Cn Lhe flrsL lssue, we may wonder
wheLher Lhere ls a conLlnuum of dlsLlncLlve psychologlcal sLaLes LhaL runs from sexual ecsLasy Lo Lhe
flnal movemenL of 8eeLhoven's 9
Lh
Symphony? CerLalnLly, sexual pleasure appears Lo saLlsfy Lhe
mlnlmal hedonlc Lhesls, as evldenced by Lhe facL LhaL no one, Lo my knowledge, has ever chosen Lo glve
up on llfe durlng a sexual experlence.
17
8uL lf sexual pleasure saLlsfles Lhe mlnlmal hedonlc Lhesls, whaL
abouL aesLheLlc pleasure? no doubL someone, somewhere, has exLlngulshed hls llfe whlle llsLenlng Lo
8eeLhoven, buL surely lL remalns plauslble LhaL lnLense aesLheLlc experlence draws one Lowards llfe.
18

As nleLzsche wrlLes, ln Lhe ulonyslan sLaLe.Lhe enLlre sysLem of affecLs ls exclLed and lnLenslfled,"
addlng LhaL, Muslc as we undersLand lL Loday ls.a LoLal sLlmulaLlon and dlscharge of Lhe affecLs." (1l
Sklrmlshes":9). Lven Lhe herd" and Lhe rabble" have Lhelr verslon of Lhls experlence ln Lhe modern
rock 'n' roll concerL, ln whlch Lhe pulsaLlng and escalaLlng rhyLhyms and repeLlve muslcal moLlfs mlmlc
Lhose of sexual arousal and orgasm. ln a recenL lnLervlew, Lhe Amerlcan rock 'n' roll sLar 8ruce
SprlngsLeen observed LhaL he wanLed audlence members Lo leave hls concerL wlLh your hands hurLlng,
your feeL hurLlng, your back hurLlng, your volce sore, and your sexual organs (!/518+!%*."
19
1he muslcal
work of genlus, llke 8eeLhoven's, ls presumably more subllmaLed and also more lnLense on Lhls score,
yeL lL seems naLural Lo Lhlnk LhaL [oy" correcLly descrlbes Lhe experlence of hls Cde Lo !oy."

17
[noLe on I'/(!+) 1)* Z("8*%, and why lLs ploL ls noL aL all lnconslsLenL wlLh Lhls polnL]
18
ln Lhelr curlous book L88 I,/)0( R,/)/)0 (new ?ork: lree ress, 2011), PuberL ureyfus and Sean kelly
seem Lo be afLer a relaLed noLlon wlLh Lhelr ldea of whooshlng up," a raLher sllly meLaphor, and one LhaL Lhey Lle
much Loo closely Lo communlLy, raLher Lhan sexual pleasure. 8uL Lhe emphasls ln nleLzsche ls on Lhe conLlnulLles
wlLh Lhe laLLer.
19
uavld 8emnlck, We Are Allve," I,% :%B _"'J%' (!uly 30, 2012), p. 40.
18

WhaLever Lhe psychologlcal plauslblllLy of Lhe nleLzschean hypoLhesls on offer, Lhere remalns,
however, a relaLed worry: namely, as nleLzsche argues ln Lhe E%)%+8"0F9 lnLense arousal of Lhe affecLs
can make one worse off, even as lL anesLheLlzes Lhe paln of Lhe Lerrlble LruLhs. 8uL Lhe affecLlve arousal
characLerlsLlc of sex and arL ls surely dlfferenL Lhan LhaL lnduced by Lhe Leachlng of Lhe asceLlc ldeal. lor
Lhe laLLer glves rlse Lo '%((%)!/5%)! dlrecLed agalnsL Lhe sufferer as well as gullL experlenced by Lhe
sufferer, boLh of whlch qulLe clearly lnduce new rounds of sufferlng ln Lhe sub[ecL. 8uL Lhe sweeLness
and fullness" of aesLheLlc experlence, as nleLzsche puLs lL, seem raLher dlfferenL, one for whlch Lhe
meLaphor of seducLlon" seems especlally apL. lnLoxlcaLlon" (`+1(3,) ls nleLzsche's oLher preferred
meLaphor for lL,
20
as ln Lhls passage from IB/8/0,! "G !,% Z*"8(:
WlLhouL lnLoxlcaLlon Lo lnLenslfy Lhe exclLablllLy of Lhe whole machlne, Lhere can be no
arL..Above all, Lhe lnLoxlcaLlon of sexual exclLemenL, Lhe mosL anclenL and orlglnal form of
lnLoxlcaLlon. 1here ls also an lnLoxlcaLlon LhaL comes ln Lhe wake of all greaL deslres, all sLrong
affecLs, an lnLoxlcaLlon of Lhe fesLlval, Lhe conLesL, of Lhe $'+61'+ of performance, of vlcLory, of
all exLreme movemenL Lhe lnLoxlcaLlon of cruelLy, lnLoxlcaLlon ln desLrucLlon.or under Lhe
lnfluence of narcoLlcs..1he essenLlal Lhlng abouL lnLoxlcaLlon ls Lhe feellng of fullness and
lncreaslng sLrengLh. (1l Sklrmlshes":8)
1he characLerlzaLlon of lnLoxlcaLlon" ln Lerms of Lhe feellng of fullness and lncreaslng sLrengLh"
obvlously echoes Lhe characLerlzaLlon of aesLheLlc experlence from Lhe E%)%+8"0F noLed earller. ln
boLh cases, Lhe experlence (!/518+!%( whaL we mlghL call feellngs of allveness," counLeracLlng
Lherefore Lhe depressanL effecL of Lhe Lerrlble LruLhs abouL exlsLence. ArL ls Lhe greaL sLlmulus Lo llfe,"
as nleLzsche says ln IB/8/0,! (Sklrmlshes":24), buL lL does so ln Lhe same way LhaL sexual arousal and

20
1here ls a helpful dlscusslon of perLlnenL passages abouL `+1(3, ln !ohn 8lchardson, Nletzscbes New
.+'B/)/(5 (Cxford: Cxford unlverslLy ress, 2004), esp. pp. 229 ff. As 8lchardson wrlLes, someLhlng ls beauLlful
[accordlng Lo nleLzsche] lf and only lf lL can (or does) produce `+1(3," (p. 230). Less plauslbly, and wlLh llLLle
LexLual evldence, 8lchardson Lrles Lo connecL Lhls Lo a selecLlonlsL Lheory of aesLheLlc experlence, buL Lhe
adequacy of LhaL hypoLhesls does noL maLLer for my purposes.
19

lnLoxlcaLlon do so: by creaLlng cerLaln powerful feellngs wlLh a poslLlve valence, feellngs LhaL sLlmulaLe
Lhe sub[ecL and erase, or aL leasL overwhelm, any awareness of Lhe acLual reallLles of Lhe human
slLuaLlon (Lhe heallng balm of llluslon," as he puLs lL ln hls laLer work).
21

8uL how could arousal and lnLoxlcaLlon, Lhe heallng balm of llluslon," glve rlse Lo +GG/'5+!/") of
llfe, Lo Lhe wllllngness Lo wlll Lhe repeLlLlon of all sufferlng for eLernlLy? Cne posslblllLy, of course, ls LhaL
Lhe seducLlve quallLy of Lhe arousal and lnLoxlcaLlon ls so greaL, LhaL one wanLs lL *%(&/!% !,% G+3! LhaL lL
means a repeLlLlon of Lhe sufferlng as well. 8uL lf LhaL were all afflrmaLlon requlred, Lhen lL would be
compaLlble wlLh exclslng Lhe sufferlng ln favor slmply of preservlng Lhe hedonlc elemenL. 1haL plcLure,
however, seems ln Lenslon wlLh nleLzsche's ldea LhaL ln a ulonyslan perspecLlve one does noL vlew
sufferlng as an "$Y%3!/") Lo llfe: aln," as nleLzche says, ls )"! consldered an ob[ecLlon Lo llfe" (LP
lll:Z-1). Larller, nleLzsche descrlbes eLernal recurrence as Lhe ldeal of Lhe mosL hlgh-splrlLed, allve, and
world-afflrmlng human belng who has noL only come Lo Lerms and learned Lo geL along wlLh whaLever
was and ls [lncludlng sufferlng], buL who wanLs Lo have B,+! B+( +)* /( repeaLed lnLo all eLernlLy"
(8CL:36). lf an afflrmaLlve aLLlLude Lowards llfe ls one ln whlch one gladly wllls lLs repeLlLlon--/)381*/)0
+88 /!( (1GG%'/)0, +)* )"! *%(&/!% /!( (1GG%'/)0[[Lhen Lhe balm of llluslon" meLaphor ls mlsplaced, aL leasL
ln Lhe laLer nleLzsche's LhoughL. WhaL nleLzsche has Lo show ls a necessary connecLlon beLween Lhe
sufferlng and Lhe arouslng and lnLoxlcaLlng quallLles of aesLheLlc experlence: lf Lhey are )%3%((+'/8F
connecLed, Lhen Lhe seducLlve appeal of Lhe laLLer wlll brlng wlLhln lLs amblL Lhe former. We shall reLurn
Lo Lhls key lssue momenLarlly.
lL may also seem LhaL l have ellded anoLher lmporLanL polnL, ln boLh Lhe passage from IB/88/0,!
dlscussed earller, and also ln nleLzsche's crlLlclsm of kanL's aesLheLlcs ln Lhe E%)%+8"0F. ln Lhe IB/8/0,!

21
May, "&; 3/!., geLs some of Lhls rlghL, noLlng, for example, LhaL afflrmaLlon [of llfe] as [oy cannoL be a
purely cognlLlve maLLer, buL ls prlmarlly affecLlve" (p. 82), buL he reduces LhaL Lo Lhe obscure ldea of [oy ln Lhe
'Lhere-ness' or qulddlLy of one's own llfe as a whole concelved as necessary ln all lLs elemenLs and experlenced as
beauLlful" (p. 99). 1hls lmplles, lmplauslbly, LhaL anyone mlghL be able Lo afflrm hls llfe, and lL also omlLs Lhe role
of aesLheLlc experlence ln Lhls process.
20

passage, nleLzsche ls descrlblng `+1(3, as a necessary condlLlon for Lhe arLlsL, noL for Lhe consumer of
Lhe arLlsLlc producL, and ln Lhe E%)%+8"0F passage dlscussed much earller, he faulLs kanL noL only for
Lhlnklng aesLheLlc experlence ls */(/)!%'%(!%*, buL also for mlsLakenly focuslng on Lhe consumer or
specLaLor, raLher Lhan Lhe creaLor, of arL. As nleLzsche puLs lL Lhere: kanL, llke all phllosophers, lnsLead
of envlsaglng Lhe aesLheLlc problem sLarLlng from Lhe experlences of Lhe arLlsL (Lhe one who creaLes),
LhoughL abouL arL and Lhe beauLlful from Lhe vlewpolnL of Lhe specLaLor" [a1(3,+1%']." (CM lll:6).
8uL as we have already seen, nleLzsche also charges kanL wlLh mlsundersLandlng Lhe specLaLor's
aesLheLlc experlence, whlch Lurns ouL Lo be noL dlfferenL from Lhe arLlsL's: boLh lnvolve `+1(3,, or a
klnd of sensual arousal. lndeed, when nleLzsche lnvokes SLendahl's vlew LhaL Lhe beauLlful" offers ooe
&'"5%((% *% $"),%1'" (a promlse of happlness) he descrlbe Lhe lrench auLhor as a real 'specLaLor' [Lhe
quoLe marks are nleLzsche's] and arLlsL." 8oLh specLaLor and arLlsL are unlLed, Lhen, ln LhaL boLh
genulne appreclaLlon and genulne creaLlon have a sLrong componenL of `+1(3,.
`+1(3,9 however, seems Lo geL us only whaL 1amsln Shaw apLly calls obllvlousness" Lo Lhe
Lerrlble LruLhs, yeL, as she remarks, Lhls klnd of experlence can only be avallable Lo humans as an
exLraordlnary and LranslenL sLaLe."
22
And she adds, Lhe luxury of llvlng Lhls way ls only avallable as a
way of llfe Lo Lhose who llve off Lhe labor of oLhers,"
23
a facL LhaL hardly boLhers nleLzsche (as Shaw
recognlzes). 8uL Lhe more presslng challenge for nleLzsche ls: lf aesLheLlc pleasure ls LranslenL, ln Lhe
way Shaw descrlbes, how can lL resLore affecLlve aLLachmenL Lo llfe? MosL drunks" love llfe, buL whaL
happens when Lhey sober up and reallze Lhe Lerrlble LruLhs abouL exlsLence? 1he answer musL be LhaL
nleLzsche envlslons forms of llfe whose aesLheLlc quallLles are noL LranslenL, buL pervaslve feaLures of
Lhe soclal world. ls LhaL plauslble?
LeL us reframe Lhe quesLlon: whaL +%(!,%!/3 6+81% could llfe exempllfy such LhaL lL produces Lhe
pleasurable affecL of ulonyslan ecsLasy LhaL susLalns our aLLachmenL Lo llfe noL LranslenLly buL across

22
Shaw, 1he 'LasL Man' roblem," p. 16 (MS, before n. 17).
23
Z*; aL 20 (MS, before noLe 23)
21

Llme? Pere, l Lhlnk, ls Lhe cruclal connecLlon wlLh nleLzsche's crlLlque of morallLy, as l have expllcaLed lL
ln my 2002 book. Accordlng Lo nleLzsche's crlLlque, ln a culLure ln whlch moral norms predomlnaLe,
nascenL creaLlve genluses llke CoeLhe and 8eeLhoven wlll noL reallze Lhelr poLenLlal: alLrulsm, plLy,
egallLarlanlsm are lncompaLlble demands on Lhe klnd of llfe led by arLlsLlc genluses. And lf CoeLhes and
8eeLhovens fall Lo reallze Lhelr poLenLlal, Lhen we shall be deprlved of whaL l wlll call Lhe specLacle of
genlus," LhaL ls, Lhe specLacle of human achlevemenL LhaL lnduces aesLheLlc pleasure, wheLher ln Lhe
clearly aesLheLlc realm (for example, 8eeLhoven) or on Lhe hlsLorlcal sLage (for example, napoleon,
anoLher popular nlneLeenLh-cenLury exemplar of genlus
24
). Llfe wlLhouL muslc ls a mlsLake", nleLzsche
famously says ln an aphorlsm from IB/8/0,!, and Lhe polnL can be generallzed: llfe wlLhouL Lhe specLacle
of genlus could noL arouse aesLheLlc pleasure, and so would deprlve us of a [usLlflcaLlon" for exlsLence,
ln Lhe parLlcular psychologlzed sense of [usLlflcaLlon already noLed. And Lhe specLacle of genlus
produced by a 8eeLhoven or napoleon ls noL LranslenL and momenLary, buL all-encompasslng, deflnlng
Lhe characLer of exlsLence for lLs Llme-one llves ln Lhe age" of 8eeLhoven, or Lhe age" of napoleon.
And now noLlce LhaL for boLh proLoLypes of Lhe specLacle of genlus-8eeLhoven's and napoleon's-
sufferlng ls essenLlal: ln 8eeLhoven's case, lL was an essenLlal precondlLlon (on nleLzsche's accounL) of
hls creaLlve achlevemenLs, and for napoleon, lL was essenLlal Lo Lhe achlevemenLs Lhemselves LhaL Lhey
lnfllcLed sufferlng. lf Lhese specLacles of genlus aLLracL us Lo llfe, and lead us Lo afflrm lL, Lhey are, aL Lhe
same Llme, lnseparable from sufferlng. nleLzsche, l Lake lL, Lhlnks LhaL hls rlghLful readers wlll see Lhe
essenLlal connecLlon, and so gladly afflrm lL all.
8uL who are nleLzsche's rlghLful readers ln Lhls conLexL, Lhose who requlre Lhe klnd of
[usLlflcaLlon LhaL specLacles of genlus provlde? nleLzsche ls raLher expllclL LhaL Lhe vasL ma[orlLy of
humanlLy has already been seduced back Lo llfe by oLher narcoLlcs," perverse as some of Lhem, llke Lhe

24
[clLe Lo lSu hlsLorlan's book]
22

asceLlc ldeal, are. 8uL noL all of Lhem are so perverse, slnce Lhere are many lnnocenL" means of
anesLheLlzlng Lhe paln of exlsLence, for example:
[1]he general muffllng of Lhe feellng of llfe, mechanlcal acLlvlLy [drudgery], Lhe small [oy, above
all LhaL of love of one's nelghbor," Lhe herd organlzaLlon, Lhe awakenlng of Lhe communal
feellng of power, whereby Lhe lndlvldual's vexaLlon wlLh hlmself ls drowned ouL by hls pleasure
ln Lhe prosperlng of Lhe communlLy-Lhese are, measured accordlng Lo a modern sLandard,
[Lhe] /))"3%)! means ln Lhe baLLle wlLh llsLlessness... (CM lll:19)
Cne need only llsLen Lo Lhe rheLorlc of an Amerlcan resldenLlal elecLlon-or Lhe rheLorlc of varlous
LheocraLlc rulers--Lo reallze how pervaslve Lhese narcoLlcs are, and glven Lhe evldence LhaL mass sulclde
ls noL breaklng ouL, one mlghL Lhlnk Lhese narcoLlcs are worklng raLher well. lL ls one mark of
nleLzsche's genlus LhaL he dlagnoses Lhls wldespread phenomenon.
erhaps, Lhen, Lhe real audlence for Lhe aesLheLlc pleasure assoclaLed wlLh Lhe specLacle of
genlus ls noL Lhe vasL herd of humanlLy, for whom nleLzsche has Lhe mosL exLraordlnarlly llllberal
conLempL,
23
buL raLher Lhose hlgher" human belngs for whom Lhe perverse narcoLlcs, llke Lhe asceLlc
ldeal, and Lhe lnnocenL" narcoLlcs [usL descrlbed, are wholly lncredlble or lneffecLlve-ln oLher words,
Lhose who can acLually reflecL serlously on Lhe Lerrlble LruLhs abouL human exlsLence, buL who sLlll need,
ln Lhe end, some seduclng back Lo llfe. lL ls, afLer all, Lhe hlgher human belngs" who, as nleLzsche says,
dlsLlngulsh Lhemselves from Lhe lower by seelng and hearlng more"and dolng so more LhoughLfully"
(CS: 301). 1haL would suggesL LhaL Lhe class of hlgher human belngs ls larger Lhan Lhe class of genluses
llke 8eeLhoven and CoeLhe whose specLacular genlus glves aesLheLlc pleasure and seduces Lhe oLhers

23
!ullan ?oung has recenLly defended whaL seems Lo me Lhe preposLerous vlew LhaL nleLzsche values Lhe
flourlshlng of Lhe communlLy more hlghly Lhan Lhe flourlshlng of genluses. See, e.g., !ullan ?oung, Nletzscbes
K,/8"("&,F "G `%8/0/") (Cambrldge: Cambrldge unlverslLy ress, 2006), and esp. 190-191 for an especlally clean
sLaLemenL of Lhe dlspuLe ?oung has wlLh readlngs llke my own. ?oung ls gullLy aL Llmes of selecLlve quoLaLlon, and
he also has an unforLunaLe Lendency Lo LreaL any of nleLzsche's descrlpLlve exploraLlons of dlfferenL forms of soclal
order as lnvolvlng lmpllclL endorsemenLs. A useful crlLlque of ?oung's ldlosyncraLlc readlng ls Maudemarle Clark
and Monlque Wonderly, nleLzsche on Lhe Cood of CommunlLy," ln :/%!N(3,% +)* 7"551)/!F, ed. !. ?oung
(forLhcomlng).
23

back Lo llfe. lf Lhe class of hlgher human belngs were noL larger Lhan Lhe class of genluses whose
creaLlve work glves aesLheLlc pleasure, Lhen lL would seem LhaL nleLzsche's cenLral ob[ecLlon Lo
morallLy, namely, LhaL lL LhwarLs Lhe reallzaLlon of human excellence, would only maLLer for susLalnlng
oLher nascenL creaLlve genluses who mlghL, ln Lurn, glve pleasure Lo oLher genluses, and so on.
Cn Lhls accounL, of course, Lhe faLe LhaL befalls Lhe vasL ma[orlLy of humanlLy ls noL of greaL
slgnlflcance Lo nleLzsche. lmaglne: lf Lhe herd were Lo succumb Lo sulcldal nlhlllsm, whlle Lhe
8eeLhovens and CoeLhes, and Lhelr appreclaLlve audlence, were Lo survlve and Lhelr maLerlal needs Lo
be meL, ls Lhere any reason Lo Lhlnk nleLzsche would ob[ecL? Pow could he, conslsLenL wlLh hls
noLorlous sLaLemenL ln I,% L)!/3,'/(! LhaL [L]he weak and Lhe fallures should perlsh flrsL," lndeed, LhaL
Lhey should be helped" Lo perlsh as Lhe flrsL prlnclple of "1' love of humanlLy" (A: 2)? l Lake lL Lhe
LhoughL here, and ln oLher secLlons of I,% L)!/3,'/(!, ls LhaL Lhe specLacle of Lhe paLheLlc herd of
humanlLy ls, lLself a klnd of aesLheLlc bloL on exlsLence, an obsLacle Lo full en[oymenL of Lhe specLacle of
genulne human excellence. nleLzsche was, of course, read by boLh admlrers llke Lhe uanlsh crlLlc Ceorg
8randes and by crlLlcs, llke leglons of communlsLs, as a frlend of Lhe arlsLocraLlc order, ln a somewhaL
perverLed form, he was also so read by nazls, Lhough wlLh arlsLocracy glven a raclal lnLerpreLaLlon for
whlch Lhere ls no supporL ln nleLzsche's wrlLlngs (nleLzsche, as any reader of hls corpus knows, haLed
Cermans above all). 1hese readers were no doubL wrong ln many parLlculars, buL Lhey were noL wrong,
l suspecL, abouL Lhe deeply llllberal characLer of nleLzsche's response Lo Schopenhauer's challenge. Pls
quesLlon was how Lhe hlghesL human belngs, Lhose mosL aLLuned Lo Lhe Lerrlble LruLhs abouL exlsLence,
could malnLaln Lhelr affecLlve alleglance Lo exlsLence. And hls answer was LhaL Lhey requlred Lhe
enLlcemenL of Lhe specLacle of genlus, a specLacle lncompaLlble wlLh Lhe Lrlumph of asceLlc morallLles
over Lhe pasL Lwo Lhousand years.