Exp of Atoms:

ParticulateTheory Of Matter
Atoms
-Smallest neutral particles in an element & take part in chemical reaction

Na=sodium C=carbon, He=Helium, Ne=Neon, Al=Aluminum

Element
-Made up of single type of atoms -Chemical reaction cant break down a substance of an element Molecules
-Neutral particles -Is a group of 2/more atoms that chemically bonded together. -Made up of atoms of the same &different element

Exp of Molecules:
Nitrogen=N2Oxygen=O2 Fluorine=F2 Chlorine=Cl2 Bromine=Br2Iodine=I2Pho sphorus=P4Sulphur=S8

Matter
-occupies space, has mass &volume -Made up of tiny discrete particles -Either elements / compounds -Either atoms, molecules / ions

Molecules
-Neutral particles -Is a group of 2/more atoms that chemically bonded together. -Made up of atoms of the same &different element

Exp of Molecules:
Water=H2O Ammonia=NH3Methane =CH4Carbon dioxide=CO2

Compound
-Made up of 2/more elements which are held together by chemical bonds. -Made up of molecules /ions

Ions
Cation:Mg2+ Cu2+H+ Al3+ Metals=positive+ (Cation) Anion: Cl ,I ,OH ,O2
- -

Non-metals =negative (anion)

Potassium manganate(Vll) crystal dissolves & the particles move very slowly into the spaces in between the gel particles.

Notes: Speed of diffusion depends: The higher the temperature, the faster the particles move & hence the faster the diffusion. The smaller the mass, the faster the particles move & the faster the speed of diffusion

Diffusion in solid Diffusion in liquid

Always collide among each other & affected when heat is provided.

Diffusion

Move from high concentration lower concentration

Diffusion in gas

Move rapidly in gases, slower in liquid & slowest in solid.

Potassium manganate(Vll) is made up of tiny & discrete particles. These particles move slowly into the spaces in between the water molecules.

Bromine gas is made up of tiny & discrete particles. These particles move randomly into the spaces in between the air particles.

Kinetic Theory of Matter

State
Particles arrangement

Solid

Liquid

Gas

Particles movement Attractive forces Kinetic energy of particles

Packed closely together orderly manner The particles can only vibrate & rotate about their fixed positions Strong forces between the particles Low energy content as movement is restricted

Packed closely but not in orderly arrangement -Rotate, vibrate& move throughout the liquid. -They collide against each other. The particles r held together by strong forces but weaker than the forces in a solid. Higher energy content as particles can move easily

Very far apart from each other&in a random arrangement -Particles can move freely -Rate of collision is greater than the rate of collision in a liquid Weak forces between the particles High energy(particles move at random)

Properties
Shape Volume Density

Solid
Definite shapes Fixed volume High

Liquid
Takes the shape of the container Fixed volume Medium

Gas
Takes the shape of the container Takes on the volume of the container Low

Compressibility

Not compressible bcoz the particles r very closely packed

Difficult to compress bcoz the particles r closely packed

Easily compressed bcoz the particles r far apart

a) b) c)

Solid, liquid&gas has kinetic energybcoz the particles r in constant motion&collide with each other. The higher the temperature, the higher the kinetic energy of the particles which move with higher speeds. The pressure of a gas is due to the collisions of the gas on the wall of the container and the collisions are elastic (with no energy lost in collisions)
Heating process

Sublimation Boiling/Evaporation Condensation

Heat energy absorbed, Temperature rises Heat energy released,

Melting Freezing

Solid

Liquid
Sublimation
Cooling process

Gas

Temperature drops

a) A matter changesits state form at a particular temperature&pressure. b) To change solid to liquid,liquid to gas &solid to gas, we have to overcome the forces of attraction between the particles in its original state.Thereforeheat energy must be absorbedto effect this change. c) For the changes of gas to liquid, liquid to solid, &gas to solid to take effect, heat energy must be released. As the particles lose heat energy, their kinetic energy decreases. They move slower & the forces of attraction between them become stronger.

d) SolidGas
Heat is absorbed by the substance until the solid completely changed into a liquid without a change in temperature = Latent heat of fusion

e) GasSolid
Heat energy that is provided to the substance to convert liquid to gas = Latent heat of vaporisation

Heating curve
Temperature (OC) F Begins to boil Boiling point Begins to melt Melting point A Room temperature B C Begins to melted Time (minute) D E Completely vapourised

Boiling pointis the temperature at which a liquid changes into a gas at a particular pressure. Melting point is the temperature at which a solid changes into a liquid at a particular pressure.

A to B: Solid
When the solid is heated, heat energy is absorbed to gain kinetic energy&vibrate faster. The temperature increases as the particles received more heat energy.

B to C: Mixture of solid & liquid

The temperature does not rise, even though heating continues. The temperature remains constantbcoz the heat energy absorbedby the particles is used to overcome the forces between particles so that the solid can turn into liquid.

C to D: Liquid
The particles in liquid absorb heat energy&move faster. The temperature continues to increase.

D to E: Mixture of liquid & gas

The temperature remains constantbcoz the heat energy absorbed by the particles is used to overcome the forces between particles so that the liquid can turn into gas.

E to F: Gas
The particles in liquid absorb heat energy&move faster. The temperature continues to increase.

Cooling curve
Temperature (OC)

A to B: Gas
A Boiling point Freezing point Begins to condense Completely condensed B C Begins to freeze E D F Room temperature Completely frozen Time (minute)

B to C: Mixture of gas & liquid

The temperature remains constantbcoz the heat surrounding is exactly balanced by the heat energy liberated as the particles attract one another to form a liquid.

When the gas is cooled, the particles in the gas lose their kinetic energy. They move slower as the temperature decreases

C to D: Liquid
The particles in liquid lose heatenergyto the environment&move slower. Hence, the temperature decreases. -

James Chadwick (1922)

D to E: Mixture of liquid & solid

The temperature remains constantbcoz the Discovered neutrons, the neutral particles in the cell heat loss to the surroundings is exactly Nucleus contains protons & neutrons with electrons balanced by the heat energy liberated as the surrounding the nucleus in permitted cells. particles attracted one another to form a solid.

Positively charged sphere The particles in solid continue to

E to F: Solid

lose heat energy to the environment&vibrate slower. Electron Hence, the temperature decreases to room temperature.

J.J Thomson (1897) -Atom made up of positively-charged sphere with negatively charged atom Neils Bohr (1913) -Electrons moved around the nucleus in fixed shells which contain protons.

The Atomic Model

- Electron is about 2000 times lighter than hydrogen atom.

Electron Nucleus

John Dalton (1803) -All elements made up small invisible particles = atoms

Electron

-Atoms cant be created / destroyed -Atoms look like spheres Ernest Rutherford (1911)

Nucleus

-Some alpha particles penetrated the gold plate & went through deflection, some were deflected, while some rebounded. -positively charged particles = protons -Mass of an atom was concentrated in a small positively charged area = nucleus

Tiny invisible particle

Atomic Structure
Particle Proton Neutron Electron Symbol Relative Relative Charge Masses
p n e +1 0 -1 2 1 1/1840 Electron (move around the nucleus) Nucleus: Proton & Neutron A neutral atom contains the same number of electron as the protons.

Nucleus is positively charged bcoz presence of protons.

Nucleon number of an element is the total number of protons & neutrons in its atom. Nucleon number (mass number)
Proton number (atomic number) Proton number = number of proton

Symbol of element

Nucleon number = number of protons + number of neutrons The relative mass of an atom is almost the same as its nucleon number

Isotopes and Their Importance

Isotopes are atoms of the same element with the same number of protons (proton number) but different numbers of neutrons (nucleon numbers)

Isotopes of an element have different physical properties bcoz they have different relative isotopes masses

Isotopes

Isotopes of an element have the same chemical properties bcoz they have the same electron arrangement.

Element Hydrogen Carbon (3 isotopes) Oxygen (3 isotopes) Chlorine (2 isotopes) Bromine (2 isotopes )

Name of isotopes
Hydrogen 1 Hydrogen 2 Hydrogen 3 Carbon 12 Carbon 13 Carbon 14 Oxygen 16 Oxygen 17 Oxygen - 18 Chlorine 35 Chlorine 37 Bromine 79 Bromine 81 Gamma radiation is also used to sterilize surgical rubber gloves, medicines & plastic hypodermic syringes

Protons
1 1 1 6 6 6 8 8 8 17 17 35 35

Neutrons
0 1 2 6 7 8 8 9 10 18 20 44 46

Proton number
1 1 1 6 6 8 8 8 8 17 17 35 35

Nucleon number
1 2 3 12 13 14 16 17 18 35 37 79 81

Gamma radiation from the decay of cobalt-60 is used to destroy cancer cells

Electronic Structure of An Atom

Second shell can take a maximum of 8 electrons. Electrons in the outermost shell are called the valence electrons. This atom has 1 valence electron.

First shell can take a maximum of 2 electrons. Valence shell The third shell can take a maximum of 18 electrons. However the atom attains stability if the third shell is filled with 8 electrons. Nucleus of the atom containing protons & neutrons

1) The electrons are arranged in shells surrounding the nucleus. 2) The electrons are filled starting from the first shell, the one closest to the nucleus. 3) The occupied shell which furthest from the nucleus is called the valence shell / outermost shell. The electrons in the

Electron Arrangement of Elements with Proton Numbers 1 to 20 Element Hydrogen

1 1

Electron arrangement 1

Element Sodium
23 11

Na

Electron arrangement 2.8.1

Helium

4 2

He
7 7 3 7

Magnesium
24 12

2.8.2

Mg
2.8.3

Lithium

Li

2.1

Aluminium
27 13

Al

Beryllium

9 4

Be B

2.2

Silicon
28 14

2.8.4

Si
2.8.5

Boron

11 5

2.3

Phosphorus
31 15

P
2.8.6

Carbon
12 6

2.4

Sulphur
32 16

C
2.5 Chlorine

S
2.8.7

Nitrogen
14 7

N
2.6 Argon

35 17 40 18

Cl
2.8.8

Oxygen

16 8

O F

Ar
2.8.8.1

Fluorine
19 9

2.7

Potassium
39 19

Neon
20 10

Ne

2.8

Calcium
40 20

Ca

2.8.8.2