Chapter 2

Introduction to Signals

CCEE 221: Introduction to Communications

 Introduction
„ Signals:
„ Set of information or data:
„ e.g. telephone, TV signals.
„ Monthly sales of a corporation.
„ Generally function of time (not necessarily).
„ Systems:
„ Process Signals.
„ Modify or extract additional information.
„ e.g. radar signal.
„ An entity that processes a set of signal (inputs) to
yields another set of signals (outputs).
„ Physical Components or Algorithm (software
realization).

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 2.1 Size of Signals
„ Size:
„ Number that indicates largeness or strength.
„ Signal Amplitude?
„ Varies with time.
„ Signal Duration?
„ Not enough.
„ e.g. Size of a person:
„ Length?
„ Width?
H
Height?
V = ∫ r (h)dh
„
2
„ Product of all three! (Volume)

0
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 Signal Energy
„ Area under a signal can be considered as a
measure of its strength or size taken
account of not only the amplitude but also
the duration:
„ Positive areas can cancel negative areas.
„ Signal Energy: (not same as Electric Energy in Joules)
+∞
For Real Signals:
∫ (t )dt
„
Eg = g 2

−∞
„ For Complex Signals: +∞

∫ g (t )
2
Eg = dt
−∞

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 Signal Power
„ Used when energy is infinite.
„ Necessary condition for finite Energy:
„ Signal Amplitude → 0 as |t| → ∞, otherwise gis(t ) infinite
„ For Real Signals, the average power +T 2
1
Pg = lim ∫
2
g (t )dt
„ For Complex Signals: T →∞ T
−T 2
+T 2
1
Pg = lim ∫ g (t ) dt
2

T →∞ T
−T 2
„ Signal Power Pg : mean-square value of g (t )
„ The square root of Pg is the Root-Mean-Square (rms)
Value of g (t ) .

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Examples of Signals

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 Comments
„ Error e(t) = g(t) – z(t)
„ Power of e(t) indication of goodness of
approximation (z(t)) to initial signal (g(t)).
„ SNR: Power of g(t) divided by Power of e(t).
„ Units of Energy and Power:
„ If signal is voltage:
„ Energy: V2.s
„ Power: V2
„ Suitable Measures:
„ Examples 2.1, 2.2 pp. 17-20

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 2.2 Classification of Signals
„ 2.2.1 Continuous-Time and Discrete-Time:
„ Continuous: Specified for every value of t (telephone & Video outputs) .
„ Discrete-Time: specified only at discrete value (gross national product, daily
stock market)

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 2.2.2 Analog and Digital Signals
„ Analog: Amplitude can take any value in a continuous range i.e., an infinite
number of values.
„ Digital: can take on only number of values.
„ A signal with M values amplitude is an M-ary (binary M=2 is a special case).
„ A/D converters.

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 2.2.3 Periodic and Aperiodic Signals
„ Periodic: g ( t ) = g (t + T0 ) ∀t
„ Smallest T0 is the period.
„ Remains unchange if shifted by multiples of T0.
„ Has to start at t=-∞.
„ Has to continue forever.
„ Can be generated by a periodic extension of any
segment of length T0.
„ Aperiodic:
„ Not periodic.

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Periodic Signal of Period T0

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Generation of a periodic extension of its
segment of one period duration

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 2.2.4 Energy and Power Signals
„ Energy Signal: signals can be observed in real
life (lab)
„ Finite Energy.
„ Power Signal: impossible to generate a true
power signal such a signal has infinite
duration and energy
„ Finite Power.
„ Signal cannot both be Energy and Power
Signal.
„ Signal can be both not Energy and not Power
Signal.

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 2.2.5
Deterministic and Random Signals
„ Deterministic:
„ Physical Description known completely in
either a mathematical form or a graphical
form
„ Random Signal: Noise, Message Signals!
„ Known in terms of probabilistic description
such as:
„ Mean Value.
„ Mean-Squared Value.

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 2.3 Signal Operations
„ 2.3.1 Time Shifting: φ (t + T ) = g (t )
„ Replace t with t-T⇒ Time Shift by T.
„ T>0: delay (shift right).
„ T<0: advance (shift left).
2.3.2 Time Scaling: ⎛t⎞
„ φ ⎜ ⎟ = g (t )
„ Compression φ (t ) = g ( at ) ⎝2⎠
„ Expansion or (slowed down in time by a
factor a >0) φ (t ) = g (t / a )
„ 2.3.3 Time Inversion (Time Reversal):
„ Special time scaling (a=-1). φ (t ) = g (−t )
„ Mirror Image w.r.t. y axis.
„ Replace t by –t.

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Signal Operations

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 2.4 Unit Impulse Function
„ Dirac Function:
„ One of the most important function in the
study of signals and systems
„ Tall, Narrow Rectangular Pulse of Unit Area.
„ Width is very small →0.
„ Height very large →∞.
„ Was defined by P.A.M. Diarc
δ (t ) = 0 t ≠ 0
∞

∫ δ ( t ) dt
−∞
=1
„ Multiplication of a function by an Impulse
φ (t )δ (t − T ) = φ (T )δ (t − T )
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„ Sampling or sifting Property:
∞
∫−∞
φ(t)δ (t −T) = φ(T)

„ A/D converters can be described by the

Unit Impulse Function.

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 Unit Step Function
„ u(t):
„ Starts at t=0.
„ Multiply any signal by u(t) and it starts at t=0.
„ Makes signals “causal”.

⎧1 t≥0
u (t ) = ⎨
⎩0 t<0

du
= δ (t )
dt
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 2.5 Signals and Vectors
„ 2.5.2 Component of a Signal:
„ Signals are not just like vectors. Signals are vectors
and are described by their projections on orthogonal
axes.
„ Vector is specified by its magnitude and its direction
„ 2.5.3 Orthogonality:
Real Signals: t2
∫
„

g (t ) x(t )dt = 0
t1
„ Complex Signals:
t2 t2
∫ g (t ) x (t )dt = 0 ∫ g * (t ) x(t )dt = 0
*
or
t1 t1

„ Energy of Sum of Orthogonal Signals is sum of

their energies.

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 2.6 Signal Comparison:
Correlation
„ Like vector comparison.
1 ∞
cn = ∫
E g E x −∞
g (t ) x(t )dt

− 1 ≤ cn ≤ 1

„ Best Friends.
„ Complete Strangers.
„ Worst Enemies.
„ Example 2.6 p. 37.

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 2.6.1
Application to Signal Detection
„ Correlation extremely important concept used
widely for signal processing in:
„ Radar, Sonar, Digital Communication, Electronic
Warfare etc…
„ Detecting presence of a certain signal within noisy
environment.
„ When the highest dissimilarity cn = -1 called the
antipodal and is the best
„ Orthogonal pulses with c n =0
„ Binary Communication: comparing with 0 signal:
„ Signal 0 exists: 1.
„ Signal 1 exists: -1.
„ Threshold.

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 CrossCorrelation
„ Detects time shift between two real signals.
∞
ψ gz (τ ) ≡ ∫ g (t ) z (t + τ )dt
−∞
„ Autocorelation Function:
„ Is the correlation of a signal with itself
„ Provides valuable information about a signal.

∞
ψ g (τ ) ≡ ∫ g (t ) g (t + τ )dt
−∞

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 2.7 Signal Representation by
Orthogonal Signal Set
„ Like vectors represented as a sum of
components along axes.
„ Orthogonal Signal Space:
t2 ⎧0 m≠n
∫ xm (t ) x (t )dt = ⎨
*

m=n
n
t1
⎩ En
„ En=1: Orthonormal set.
N
g (t ) ≈ c1 x1 (t ) + c2 x2 (t ) + ... + c N x N (t ) = ∑ cn xn (t )
n =1
„ Equality for a complete set. t
∫
* 2
g (t ) x n (t ) dt 1
„ Energy minimized if cn =
t
t
1
= ∫
t2
g (t ) xn* (t )dt
∫
2 2
x (t )dt En t1
n
t1

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 Parseval’s Theorem
„ Analogous to Sum of Squares in vectors.
„ The energy of the right –hand side is the
sum of the energies of the individual
orthogonal components

E g = ∑ c En 2
n
n

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 2.8 Trigonometric Fourier Series
„ Signal Set:
{1, cos wot , cos 2 wot ,..., cos nwot ,..., sin wot , sin 2 wot ,..., sin nwot ,...}

„ Signal: ∞
g (t ) = ao + ∑ (an cos nwot + bn sin nwot )
n =1
t1 +T0

∫ g (t ) cos nw tdt o
2
t1 +T0

an = = ∫ g (t ) cos nw tdt n = 1,2,3,...

t1
t1 +T0 o
T0
∫ nwotdt
2
cos t1

t1
t1 +T0
2
bn =
T0 ∫ g (t ) sin nw tdt
t1
o n = 1,2,3,...

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 Compact Trigonometric Fourier Series

„ Represent the signal with:

„ one cosine function.
„ Differing magnitude of cosines.
„ Differing phase angles.
„ Fourier Series are periodical:
„ They represent signal only in the interval under
consideration.
„ Fourier Spectrum:
„ Amplitude and phase spectra = frequency spectrum.
„ At discontinuities average is function.
„ Proof of existence of Fourier Series (read on your own).
„ Examples.

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 2.9 Exponential Fourier Series
„ Instead of using sine and cosine use
exponential function.
„ Coefficients:
„ Amplitude.
„ Phase Angle.
„ Exponential Fourier Spectra:
„ Amplitude spectrum.
„ Phase Angle Spectrum.
„ Negative Frequency ?
„ Real functions represented with imaginary spectra.

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 Homework
„ Read through all exercises from p. 62 to
p. 70 and solve the ones you think you
have problem with.

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