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Learning
Any relatively permanent change in behavior or thoughts that occurs as a result of experience. That means Learning involves change, which may be good or bad from an organizational point of view. Change must become ingrained. Means immediate changes may be only reflexive or as a result of fatigue and thus may not represent learning. Some form of experience is necessary for learning. Experience may be acquired directly through observation or practice or it may be acquired indirectly through reading. Habituation is the simplest form of learning.Habituation is the process by which we respond less strongly over time to repeated stimuli.

Classical Conditioning (Pavlov)

This theory was established by Ian Pavlov and based on stimulus - response paradigm. Pavlov demonstrated classical conditioning systematically as given below.

1. He started with an initially neutral stimulus, called the conditioned stimulus (CS). He used a whistle (among many CSs, but contrary to popular belief, Pavlov didnt use a bell) & found that CS doesn't elicit any response from dogs. 2. He then paired the CS again and again with an unconditioned stimulus (UCS). Meat powder was the UCS & found that UCS elicits an automatic, reflexive response called the unconditioned response (UCR), in this case salivation. 3. Pavlov repeatedly paired the CS and UCS and observed something remarkable. If he now presented the CS (Whistle) alone, it elicited a response, namely, salivation. This new response is the conditioned response (CR). 4. Pavlov concluded that learning has occurred. Process in which a formerly neutral stimulus, when paired with an unconditioned stimulus, becomes a conditioned stimulus that elicits a conditioned response.

UCS can either positive (like food in the above case) or negative stimuli like inducing pain. Classical conditioning to an unpleasant UCS is called Aversive Conditioning. Classical conditioning has proved to be a highly effective tool for advertisers.By repeatedly pairing the sights and sounds of products with photographs of handsome hunks and scantily clad beauties, marketing whizzes try to establish classically conditioned connections between their brands and positive emotions.

Operant Conditioning or Instrumental Conditioning

Operant conditioning is a method of learning that occurs through rewards and punishments for behavior. Through operant conditioning, an association is made between a behavior and a consequence for that behavior. Operant conditioning argues that behavior is a function of its consequences. People learn to behave to get something they want or to avoid something they dont want. We can find examples of operant conditioning at work all around us. Consider the case of children completing homework to earn a reward from a parent or teacher, or employees finishing projects to receive praise or promotions. In these examples, the promise or possibility of rewards causes an increase in behavior, but operant conditioning can also be used to decrease a behavior. The removal of an undesirable outcome or the use of punishment can be used to decrease or prevent undesirable behaviors. For example, a child may be told they will lose recess privileges if they talk out of turn in class. This potential for punishment may lead to a decrease in disruptive behaviors. Components of operant conditioning are reinforcement & punishment. Reinforcement is any event that strengthens or increases the behavior it follows. There are two kinds of reinforcers. 1. Positive reinforcement - favorable events or outcomes that are presented after the behavior that strengthens the probability of the behavior. 2. Negative reinforcement - involve the removal of an unfavorable events or outcomes after the display of a behavior. In these situations, a response is strengthened by the removal of something considered unpleasant. Punishment, on the other hand, is the presentation of an adverse event or outcome that causes a decrease in the behavior it follows. There are two kinds of punishment. 1. Positive punishment, sometimes referred to as punishment by application, involves the presentation of an unfavorable event or outcome in order to weaken the response it follows. 2. Negative punishment, also known as punishment by removal, occurs when an favorable event or outcome is removed after a behavior occurs.

In classical conditioning, the individuals response is elicited, that is, pulled out of the individual by the UCS and later the CS. In operant conditioning, the individuals response is emitted, that is, generated by the individual in a seemingly voluntary fashion. In classical conditioning, the reward is independent of what a person does. In operant conditioning, the reward is contingent - that is, dependent - on what a person does. In classical conditioning, the individuals responses depend primarily on the autonomic nervous system. In operant conditioning, the individuals responses depend primarily on the skeletal muscles. Classical Touches a hot vessel moves away Hears good music hums gently Steps on a nail Jumps & screams Operant Use power carefully saves money on electricity bill Carries a credit card convenient shopping Achieve sales targets incentives & gifts

Cognitive Learning
In cognitive learning, the individual learns by listening, watching, touching, reading, or experiencing and then processing and remembering the information. Cognitive learning might seem to be passive learning, because there is no motor movement. However, the learner is quite active, in a cognitive way, in processing and remembering newly incoming information. Some example for cognitive learning are Learning by insight Latent learning - learning that is not directly observable. Observational learning - Learning by watching others. Learning from TV & other media -

Social Learning
Based on social learning theory, personality development is more a result of social variables than biological variables. The social learning theory emphasizes the importance of observing and modeling the behaviors, attitudes, and emotional reactions of others. Thus it focuses on learning by observation and modeling. The theory originally evolved from behaviorism but now includes many of the ideas that cognitivists also hold; as a result it is sometimes called social cognitive learning. Social learning theory talks about how both environmental and cognitive factors interact to influence human learning and behavior. It focuses on the learning that occurs within a social context. It considers that people learn from one another, including such concepts as observational learning, imitation, and modeling. Observational learning - Learning by watching others. Imitation - An individual uses another persons behavior as a discriminative stimulus for an imitative response. Modeling - doing what others do. Advertisements/TV commercials are the most common examples of Social Learning Theory. We observe (watch)them, and then copy them. Commercials suggest that drinking a certain beverage or using a particular hair shampoo will make us popular and win the admiration of attractive people. Depending upon the component processes involved (such as attention or motivation),we may model the behavior shown in the commercial and buy the product being advertised.

Behavior Modification
Behavioral management is the application of the reinforcement theory or operant conditioning to exert a positive influence on the performance of employees. Robert Kreitner and Fred Luthans coined the term Organizational Behavior Modification or O.B Mod for behavioral management. O.B Mod process focusses on The influence of env on employee behavior. The conditions that precede a behavior. The consequence of a particular behavior.

5 The impact of behavior performance effectiveness. The O.B Mod process can help increase the frequency of desirable behaviors in employees. However, only those behaviors which are tangible, observable, measurable and repeatable can be improved by means of O.B Mod process. This process has been shown to reduce absenteeism, decrease costs, reduce defective output and improve safety. 1. Identify - identify the critical behaviors which have a significant impact on the individuals performance and there on the org performance. 2. Measure - determine the number of times a particular behavior is exhibited before using any managerial intervention to modify that behavior. 3. Analyze - determine the antecedent cues responsible for a particular behavior and also the consequences that maintain the behavior. 4. Intervene - design an appropriate strategy to encourage desirable behavior and discourage undesirable behavior. 5. Evaluate - assess the effectiveness of the intervention based on various parameters.