a) Theories about human growth and development The Developmental Stages of Erik Erikson

Our personality traits come in opposites. We think of ourselves as optimistic or pessimistic,

independent or dependent, emotional or unemotional, adventurous or cautious, leader or follower, aggressive or passive. Many of these are inborn temperament traits, but other characteristics, such as feeling either competent or inferior, appear to be learned, based on the challenges and support we receive in growing up. The man who did a great deal to explore this concept is Erik Erikson. Although he was influenced by reud, he believed that the ego exists from birth and that behavior is not totally defensive. !ased in part on his study of "ioux #ndians on a reservation, Erikson became aware of the massive influence of culture on behavior and placed more emphasis on the external world, such as depression and wars. $e felt the course of development is determined by the interaction of the body %genetic biological programming&, mind %psychological&, and cultural %ethos& influences. $e organi'ed life into eight stages that extend from birth to death %many developmental theories only cover childhood&. "ince adulthood covers a span of many years, Erikson divided the stages of adulthood into the experiences of young adults, middle aged adults and older adults. While the actual ages may vary considerably from one stage to another, the ages seem to be appropriate for the ma(ority of people. Erikson)s basic philosophy might be said to rest on two ma(or themes* %+& the world gets bigger as we go along and %,& failure is cumulative. While the first point is fairly obvious, we might take exception to the last. True, in many cases an individual who has to deal with horrendous circumstances as a child may be unable to negotiate later stages as easily as someone who didn)t have as many challenges early on. or example, we know that orphans who weren)t held or stroked as infants have an extremely hard time connecting with others when they become adults and have even died from lack of human contact. 1. Infanc ! "irth to 1# $onths Ego Development Outcome! Trust vs. $istrust "asic strength! Drive and %ope Erikson also referred to infancy as the -ral "ensory "tage %as anyone might who watches a baby put everything in her mouth& where the ma(or emphasis is on the mother)s positive and loving care for the child, with a big emphasis on visual contact and touch. #f we pass successfully through this period of life, we will learn to trust that life is basically okay and have basic confidence in the future. #f we fail to experience trust and are constantly frustrated because our needs are not met, we may end up with a deep.seated feeling of worthlessness and a mistrust of the world in general.
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#ncidentally, many studies of suicides and suicide attempts point to the importance of the early years in developing the basic belief that the world is trustworthy and that every individual has a right to be here. /ot surprisingly, the most significant relationship is with the maternal parent, or whoever is our most significant and constant caregiver. &. Earl 'hildhood! 1# $onths to ( )ears Ego Development Outcome! *utonom vs. Shame "asic Strengths! Self+control, 'ourage, and -ill 0uring this stage we learn to master skills for ourselves. /ot only do we learn to walk, talk and feed ourselves, we are learning finer motor development as well as the much appreciated toilet training. $ere we have the opportunity to build self.esteem and autonom as we gain more control over our bodies and ac1uire new skills, learning right from wrong. And one of our skills during the 2Terrible Two)s2 is our ability to use the powerful word 2/-32 #t may be pain for parents, but it develops important skills of the will. #t is also during this stage, however, that we can be very vulnerable. #f we)re shamed in the process of toilet training or in learning other important skills, we may feel great shame and doubt of our capabilities and suffer low self.esteem as a result. The most significant relationships are with parents. (. .la *ge! ( to / )ears Ego Development Outcome! Initiative vs. 0uilt "asic Strength! .urpose 0uring this period we experience a desire to copy the adults around us and take initiative in creating play situations. We make up stories with !arbie)s and 4en)s, toy phones and miniature cars, playing out roles in a trial universe, experimenting with the blueprint for what we believe it mean to be an adult. We also begin to use that wonderful word for exploring the world 52W$672 While Erikson was influenced by reud, he downplays biological sexuality in favor of the psychosocial features of conflict between child and parents. /evertheless, he said that at this stage we usually become involved in the classic 2-edipal struggle2 and resolve this struggle through 2social role identification.2 #f we)re frustrated over natural desires and goals, we may easily experience guilt. The most significant relationship is with the basic family.
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1. School *ge! 2 to 1& )ears Ego Development Outcome! Industr vs. Inferiorit "asic Strengths! $ethod and 'ompetence 0uring this stage, often called the 8atency, we are capable of learning, creating and accomplishing numerous new skills and knowledge, thus developing a sense of industr . This is also a very social stage of development and if we experience unresolved feelings of inade1uacy and inferiorit among our peers, we can have serious problems in terms of competence and self. esteem. As the world expands a bit, our most significant relationship is with the school and neighborhood. 9arents are no longer the complete authorities they once were, although they are still important. /. *dolescence! 1& to 1# )ears Ego Development Outcome! Identit vs. 3ole 'onfusion "asic Strengths! Devotion and 4idelit :p to this stage, according to Erikson, development mostly depends upon what is done to us. rom here on out, development depends primarily upon what we do. And while adolescence is a stage at which we are neither a child nor an adult, life is definitely getting more complex as we attempt to find our own identit , struggle with social interactions, and grapple with moral issues. -ur task is to discover who we are as individuals separate from our family of origin and as members of a wider society. :nfortunately for those around us, in this process many of us go into a period of withdrawing from responsibilities, which Erikson called a 2moratorium.2 And if we are unsuccessful in navigating this stage, we will experience role confusion and upheaval. A significant task for us is to establish a philosophy of life and in this process we tend to think in terms of ideals, which are conflict free, rather than reality, which is not. The problem is that we don)t have much experience and find it easy to substitute ideals for experience. $owever, we can also develop strong devotion to friends and causes. #t is no surprise that our most significant relationships are with peer groups. 2. )oung adulthood! 1# to (/ Ego Development Outcome! Intimac and Solidarit vs. Isolation "asic Strengths! *ffiliation and 5ove

#n the initial stage of being an adult we seek one or more companions and love. As we try to find mutually satisfying relationships, primarily through marriage and friends, we generally also begin to start a family, though this age has been pushed back for many couples who today don)t start their families until their late thirties. #f negotiating this stage is successful, we can experience intimac on a deep level. #f we)re not successful, isolation and distance from others may occur. And when we don)t find it easy to create satisfying relationships, our world can begin to shrink as, in defense, we can feel superior to others. -ur significant relationships are with marital partners and friends. 6. $iddle *dulthood! (/ to // or 2/ Ego Development Outcome! 0enerativit vs. Self absorption or Stagnation "asic Strengths! .roduction and 'are /ow work is most crucial. Erikson observed that middle.age is when we tend to be occupied with creative and meaningful work and with issues surrounding our family. Also, middle adulthood is when we can expect to 2be in charge,2 the role we)ve longer envied. The significant task is to perpetuate culture and transmit values of the culture through the family %taming the kids& and working to establish a stable environment. "trength comes through care of others and production of something that contributes to the betterment of society, which Erikson calls generativit , so when we)re in this stage we often fear inactivity and meaninglessness. As our children leave home, or our relationships or goals change, we may be faced with ma(or life changes5the mid.life crisis5and struggle with finding new meanings and purposes. #f we don)t get through this stage successfully, we can become self+absorbed and stagnate. "ignificant relationships are within the workplace, the community and the family. #. 5ate *dulthood! // or 2/ to Death Ego Development Outcome! Integrit vs. Despair "asic Strengths! -isdom Erikson felt that much of life is preparing for the middle adulthood stage and the last stage is recovering from it. 9erhaps that is because as older adults we can often look back on our lives with happiness and are content, feeling fulfilled with a deep sense that life has meaning and we)ve made a contribution to life, a feeling Erikson calls integrit . -ur strengt h comes from a wisdom that the world is very large and we now have a detached concern for the whole of life, accepting death as the completion of life.
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-n the other hand, some adults may reach this stage and despair at their experiences and perceived failures. They may fear death as they struggle to find a purpose to their lives, wondering 2Was the trip worth it72 Alternatively, they may feel they have all the answers %not unlike going back to adolescence& and end with a strong dogmatism that only their view has been correct.

%avighurst7s Developmental Stage and Tasks

c 1. 'hildhood . walk . talk . control elimination of wastes . relate emotionally to others . distinguish right from wrong through development of a conscience . learn sex differences and sexual modesty . achieve personal independence . form simple concepts of social ; physical reality

&. $iddle childhood . learn physical skills, re1uired for games . build healthy attitudes towards oneself . learn to sociali'e with peers . learn appropriate masculine or feminine role . gain basic reading, writing ; mathematical skills . develop concepts necessary for everyday living . formulate a conscience based on a value system . achieve personal independence . develop attitudes toward social groups ; institutions

(. *dolescence . establish more mature relationships with same.age individuals of both sexes . achieve a masculine or feminine social role . accept own body . establish emotional independence from parents
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. achieve assurance of economic independence . prepare for an occupation - prepare for marriage & establishment of a family - acquire skills necessary to fulfill civic responsibilities - develop a set of values that guides behavior

1. Earl *dulthood . select a partner . learn to live with a partner . start a family . manage a home . establish self in a career<occupation . assume civic responsibilities

/. $iddle *dulthood . become part of a social group . fulfill civic ; social responsibilities . maintain an economic standard of living . assist adolescent children to become responsible, happy adults - relate ones partner . ad(ust to physiological changes . ad(ust to aging parents 2. 5ater $aturit . ad(ust to physiological changes ; alterations in health status . ad(ust to retirement ; altered income . ad(ust to death of spouse . develop affiliation with one=s age group . meet civic ; social responsibilities . establish satisfactory living arrangement

b) Identit and Self+esteem $aslow8s hierarch of needs

$aslow8s hierarch of needs is a theory in psychology, proposed by Abraham Maslow in his +>?@ paper A Theory of Human Motivation. Maslow subse1uently extended the idea to include his observations of humans) innate curiosity. $is theories parallel many other theories of human developmental psychology, all of which focus on describing the stages of growth in humans. Maslow studied what he called exemplary people such as Albert Einstein, Aane Addams, Eleanor Boosevelt, and rederick 0ouglass rather than mentally ill or neurotic people, writing that 2the study of crippled, stunted, immature, and unhealthy specimens can yield only a cripple psychology and a cripple philosophy.2 Maslow studied the healthiest +C of the college student population.

Maslow)s theory was fully expressed in his +>D? book Motivation and Personality.

%ierarch Maslow)s hierarchy of needs is often portrayed in the shape of a pyramid, with the largest and most fundamental levels of needs at the bottom, and the need for self.actuali'ation at the top. The most fundamental and basic four layers of the pyramid contain what Maslow called 2deficiency needs2 or 2d.needs2* esteem , friendship and love, security, and physical needs. With the exception of the most fundamental %physiological& needs, if these 2deficiency needs2 are not met, the body gives no physical indication but the individual feels anxious and tense. Maslow)s theory suggests that the most basic level of needs must be met before the individual will strongly desire %or focus motivation upon& the secondary or higher level needs. Maslow also coined the term Metamotivation to describe the motivation of people who go beyond the scope of the basic needs and strive for constant betterment. Metamotivated people are driven by !.needs %!eing /eeds&, instead of deficiency needs %0./eeds&. .h siological needs or the most part, physiological needs are obvious 5 they are the literal re1uirements for human survival. #f these re1uirements are not met, the human body simply cannot continue to function. Air, water, and food are metabolic re1uirements for survival in all animals, including humans. Elothing and shelter provide necessary protection from the elements. The intensity of the human sexual instinct is shaped more by sexual competition than maintaining a birth rate ade1uate to survival of the species. Safet needs With their physical needs relatively satisfied, the individual)s safety needs take precedence and dominate behavior. These needs have to do with people)s yearning for a predictable orderly world in which perceived unfairness and inconsistency are under control, the familiar fre1uent and the unfamiliar rare. #n the world of work, these safety needs manifest themselves in such things as a preference for (ob security, grievance procedures for protecting the individual from
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unilateral authority, savings accounts, insurance policies, reasonable disability accommodations, and the like. "afety and "ecurity needs include*

9ersonal security inancial security $ealth and well.being "afety net against accidents<illness and their adverse impacts

5ove and belonging After physiological and safety needs are fulfilled, the third layer of human needs are social and involve feelings of belongingness. This aspect of Maslow)s hierarchy involves emotionally based relationships in general, such as*

riendship #ntimacy amily

$umans need to feel a sense of belonging and acceptance, whether it comes from a large social group, such as clubs, office culture, religious groups, professional organi'ations, sports teams, gangs, or small social connections %family members, intimate partners, mentors, close colleagues, confidants&. They need to love and be loved %sexually and non.sexually& by others. #n the absence of these elements, many people become susceptible to loneliness, social anxiety, and clinical depression. This need for belonging can often overcome the physiological and security needs, depending on the strength of the peer pressureF an anorexic, for example, may ignore the need to eat and the security of health for a feeling of control and belonging. Esteem All humans have a need to be respected and to have self.esteem and self.respect. Also known as the belonging need, esteem presents the normal human desire to be accepted and valued by others. 9eople need to engage themselves to gain recognition and have an activity or activities that give the person a sense of contribution, to feel accepted and self.valued, be it in a profession or hobby. #mbalances at this level can result in low self.esteem or an inferiority complex. 9eople with low self.esteem need respect from others. They may seek fame or glory, which again depends on others. /ote, however, that many people with low self.esteem will not be able to improve their view of themselves simply by receiving fame, respect, and glory externally, but must first accept themselves internally. 9sychological imbalances such as depression can also prevent one from obtaining self.esteem on both levels. Most people have a need for a stable self.respect and self.esteem. Maslow noted two versions of esteem needs, a lower one and a higher one. The lower one is the need for the respect of others,
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the need for status, recognition, fame, prestige, and attention. The higher one is the need for self. respect, the need for strength, competence, mastery, self.confidence, independence and freedom. The latter one ranks higher because it rests more on inner competence won through experience. 0eprivation of these needs can lead to an inferiority complex, weakness and helplessness. Maslow also states that even though these are examples of how the 1uest for knowledge is separate from basic needs he warns that these Gtwo hierarchies are interrelated rather than sharply separatedH %Maslow >I&. This means that this level of need, as well as the next and highest level, are not strict, separate levels but closely related to others, and this is possibly the reason that these two levels of need are left out of most textbooks. Self+actuali9ation GWhat a man can be, he must be.H This forms the basis of the perceived need for self. actuali'ation. This level of need pertains to what a person)s full potential is and reali'ing that potential. Maslow describes this desire as the desire to become more and more what one is, to become everything that one is capable of becoming. This is a broad definition of the need for self.actuali'ation, but when applied to individuals the need is specific. or example one individual may have the strong desire to become an ideal parent, in another it may be expressed athletically, and in another it may be expressed in painting, pictures, or inventions. As mentioned before, in order to reach a clear understanding of this level of need one must first not only achieve the previous needs, physiological, safety, love, and esteem, but master these needs. Self+transcendence Maslow later added "elf.transcendence.

c) Theories about loss and change

Elisabeth :;bler+3oss < David :essler

Elisabeth 4Jbler.Boss, a doctor working with terminally ill patients, developed the five stages of grief theory, described in her book, 2-n 0eath and 0ying.2 This theory has also been applied to other ma(or losses that bear many similarities to death. These include the loss of a relationship, a (ob or even a home. Eoming to terms with a big loss is one of the biggest challenges of a person)s life Denial, *nger, "argaining, Depression and *cceptance The stages have evolved since their introduction and they have been very misunderstood over the past three decades. They were never meant to help tuck messy emotions into neat packages. They are responses to loss that many people have, but there is not a typical response to loss as there is no typical loss. -ur grief is as individual as our lives. The five stages, denial, anger, bargaining, depression and acceptance are a part of the framework that makes up our learning to live with the one we lost. They are tools to help us frame and identify what we may be feeling. !ut they are not stops on some linear timeline in grief. /ot everyone goes through all of them or in a prescribed order. -ur hope is that with these stages comes the knowledge of grief =s terrain, making us better e1uipped to cope with life and loss. Denial This first stage of grieving helps us to survive the loss. #n this stage, the world becomes meaningless and overwhelming. 8ife makes no sense. We are in a state of shock and denial. We go numb. We wonder how we can go on, if we can go on, why we should go on. We try to find a way to simply get through each day. 0enial and shock help us to cope and make survival possible. 0enial helps us to pace our feelings of grief. There is a grace in denial. #t is nature=s way of letting in only as much as we can handle. As you accept the reality of the loss and start to ask yourself 1uestions, you are unknowingly beginning the healing process. 6ou are becoming stronger, and the denial is beginning to fade. !ut as you proceed, all the feelings you were denying begin to surface. *nger Anger is a necessary stage of the healing process. !e willing to feel your anger, even though it may seem endless. The more you truly feel it, the more it will begin to dissipate and the more you will heal. There are many other emotions under the anger and you will get to them in time, but anger is the emotion we are most used to managing. The truth is that anger has no limits. :nderneath anger is pain, your pain. #t is natural to feel deserted and abandoned, but we live in a society that fears anger. Anger is strength and it can be an anchor, giving temporary structure to the nothingness of loss. At first grief feels like being lost at sea* no connection to anything. Then you get angry at someone, maybe a person who didn=t attend the funeral, maybe a person who isn=t around, maybe a person who is different now that your loved one has died. "uddenly you have a structure K . your anger toward them. The anger becomes a bridge over the open sea, a connection from you to 1$ made from the strength of them. #t is something to hold ontoF and a connection anger feels better than nothing. We usually know more about suppressing anger than feeling it. The anger is (ust another indication of the intensity of your love. "argaining

d) Theories about power and how can it be used and abused

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French and Raven's Five Forms of Power

The most common description of power is rench and Baven %+>LM&. This divides power into five different forms. 'oercive power This is the power to force someone to do something against their will. #t is often physical although other threats may be used. #t is the power of dictators, despots and bullies. Eoercion can result in physical harm, although its principal goal is compliance. 0emonstrations of harm are often used to illustrate what will happen if compliance is not gained. Eoercion is also the ultimate power of all governments. Although it is often seen as negative, it is also used to keep the peace. 9arents coerce young children who know no better. A person holds back their friend who is about to step out in front of a car. -ther forms of power can also be used in coercive ways, such as when a reward or expertise is withheld or referent power is used to threaten social exclusion. 3eward power -ne of the main reasons we work is for the money we need to conduct our lives. There are many more forms of reward .. in fact anything we find desirable can be a reward, from a million dollar yacht to a pat on the back. Beward power is thus the ability to give other people what they want, and hence ask them to do things for you in exchange. Bewards can also be used to punish, such as when they are withheld. The promise is essentially the same* do this and you will get that. 5egitimate power 8egitimate power is that which is invested in a role. 4ings, policemen and managers all have legitimate power. The legitimacy may come from a higher power, often one with coercive power. 8egitimate power can often thus be the acceptable face of raw power. A common trap that people in such roles can fall into is to forget that people are obeying the position, not them. When they either fall from power or move onto other things, it can be a pu''ling surprise that people who used to fawn at your feet no long do so. 3eferent power

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This is the power from another person liking you or wanting to be like you. #t is the power of charisma and fame and is wielded by all celebrities %by definition& as well as more local social leaders. #n wanting to be like these people, we stand near them, hoping some of the charisma will rub off onto us. Those with referent power can also use it for coercion. -ne of the things we fear most is social exclusion, and all it takes is a word from a social leader for us to be shunned by others in the group. E=pert power When # have knowledge and skill that someone else re1uires, then # have Expert power. This is a very common form of power and is the basis for a very large proportion of human collaboration, including most companies where the principle of speciali'ation allows large and complex enterprises to be undertaken. Expert power is that which is used by Trades :nions when they encourage their members to strike for better pay or working conditions. #t is also the power of the specialist B;0 Engineer when they threaten to leave unless they get an exorbitant pay rise or a seat by the window.

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