Class Examples

Energy Balances
Q1 A copper bar of mass 2 kg at an initial temperature of 180C is quenched in oil
of a mass of 10 kg and a temperature of 25C. i!en the follo"ing data#
C
p
$copper% &'85 ()kg* & 0.'85 k()kg*
C
p
$oil% & 2.' k()kg*
1
180
C
T
C and+
1
25
O
T
C
Calculate the final mean temperature of the oil and the bar and determine the
heat transfer from the bar to the oil. ,tate an- assumptions.
Assuming no heat loss to surroundings.
0 E
0
C O
E E +

.et
f
T
final mean temperature
0
c o
c p c o p o
m C T m C T +
1 1
$ % $ % 0
c o
c p f c o p f o
m C T T m C T T +
1 1
0
c c o o
c p f c p c o p f o p o
m C T m C T m C T m C T +
1 1 c o c o
c p f o p f c p c o p o
m C T m C T m C T m C T + +
1 1 c o
c o
c p c o p o
f
c p o p
m C T m C T
T
m C m C
+

+
$2 0.'85 180% $10 2.' 25%
'0
$2 0.'85% $10 2.'%
f
T
+

+
C
/eat transfer from the bar &
1
$ % 2 0.'85 $180 '0% 115.5
c
c p c f
m C T T
k(
Q2 0etermine the design po"er rating for an electric kettle element gi!en the
follo"ing data.
1ass of "ater to be heated & 1.5 kg
,pecific heat capacit- of "ater & 2.18 k()kg*
3nitial "ater temperature & 10C
4inal "ater temperature & 100C
1
5ime to reach boiling point & ' minutes
,tate an- assumptions.
0etermine the time of heating if a 2.5 k6 kettle is a!ailable for the same dut-.
Assumptions# 7o heat transfer to surroundings. 7o internal energ- change of
the element. All po"er input is transferred to heating the "ater.
1.5 2.18 $100 10% 582.'
p
E mC T
k(
582.'
'.1'5
180
w
E work
Power
time time

k6
4or a 2.5 k6 kettle noting E
w
is unchanged.
5ime
582.'
225.8
2.5
s
Alternati!el- using ratios#
5ime &
'.1'5
180 225.8
2.5
s
Conduction Examples
Q1 9ne "all of a house measures 5m

'm and is constructed of a single brick

skin+ e:cept for a 2m

1m "indo" more or less in the middle.

0etermine the heat loss through the "all if the brick is 0.25m thick and the
glass is 5mm thick+ the inside and outside temperatures are 25C and 5C
respecti!el-+ and the thermal conducti!it- !alues are as gi!en in the course
notes#
Area 1' m
2
Area 2 m
2
5 m
'm
2
T through "all & 20C
0.8; 1' 20
<1<.8
0.25
b
Q

6
1.0; 2 20
8<20
0.005
g
Q

6
<1<.8 8<20 ;2'<.8
TOTAL b g
Q Q Q + +
6
Q2 A "all made up of different material la-ers has a thickness of 150 mm and an
effecti!e thermal conducti!it- of 0.25 6)m*. 0etermine the thickness of a
masonr- "all+ ha!ing a thermal conducti!it- of 0.<5 6)m* if the heat transfer
through the "all is to be <0= of that through the composite "all for the same
inside and outside temperatures.
0.25
0.150
composite c
A T
Q Q


0.25
0.<
0.150
wall w
A T
Q Q

as
0.<
w c
Q Q
0.<5
w
A T
Q
x

"here x & the thickness of the "all
3t follo"s#
0.<5 0.25 0.<
0.150
A T A T
x

0.<5 0.150
0.82'
0.25 0.<
x

m
Q' A 20mm thick sheet of plastic 0.8 k 6)m* is to be bonded to a 50 mm thick
aluminium plate <0 k 6)m*. 5he glue for the bond is to be held at a
temperature of 50C to achie!e the best adherence+ and to accomplish this
bonding the surface is to be heated. ,tead- state conditions should be
assumed.
3f the ma:imum permitted temperature allo"able for the plastic is 85C+ "hat
is the ma:imum rate of heat transfer per unit area that can be applied+ and
"hat "ould be the resulting temperature drop through the aluminium>
Assume the thermal resistance of the adhesi!e is negligible.
Assume the temperature in each material at an- point is constant and the drop
in temperature is a linear function of the thickness.
'
0ra"ing a diagram of the "all as follo"s#
kdT
Q
dx
$unit area%
dT
dx
constant
4or the plastic
'
'
$50 85%
1.<5 10
20 10
dT
dx

*)m
4or the aluminium
dT Q
dx K

' '
0.8 $ 1.<5 10 % 1.2 10
dT
Q k
dx
6)m
2
5herefore for the aluminium
'
1.2 10
20
<0
dT
dx

*)m
'
50
20
50 10
f
T

*)m
50 1
f
T
*
2;
f
T
C
5he temperature drop through the aluminium is 1C.
5
f
20mm
Aluminium
?lastic
Q
5C
3nterface 50C

85C
2
50mm
Convection Examples
Q1 An electricall- heated plate dissipates heat b- con!ection at a rate of 8500
6)m
2
to air "hich is at an ambient temperature of 22C. 3f the surface of the
hot plate is maintained at 110C calculate the heat transfer coefficient for
con!ection bet"een the plate and the air.
8500 Q
6)m
2
110 22 88 T C
Q h T
8500
<'.;
88
h 6)m
2
*
Q2 Calculate the rate of heat transfer b- free con!ection bet"een a roof of area
15m

20m and ambient air+ if the roof surface air temperature is 15C+ and the
air temperature is#
$i% @5C
$ii% A5C
Assume the a!erage con!ecti!e heat transfer coefficient is 10 6)m
2
*
Area of roof & '00 m
2
$i%
$ % 10 '00 $15 5% '0000
s
Q hA T T

6 & '0 k6
$ii%
$ % 10 '00 $15 5% 80000
s
Q hA T T

6 & 80 k6
Radiation Examples
Q1 5he operating temperature of a tungsten filament in an incandescent lamp is
2280* and its emissi!it- is 0.'5. Assuming all the energ- transfer is due to
thermal radiation+ determine the surface area of the filament of a 806 lamp.
2280
s
T
* $surface temperature%
Assumptions
surr s
T T =
so
surr
T
can be neglected.
Badiation heat transfer & po"er input
2 2
80 $ %
s surr
Q A T T
5
5
8 2
80
8.' 10
0.'5 5.8< 10 $2280%
A

m
2
Q2 A domestic hot "ater c-linder 0.5 m in diameter and 1 m high is situated in a
large enclosed cupboard. 5he c-linder surface temperature is 80C and the
surrounding surfaces in the cupboard area are at 25C. 0etermine the heat
transfer due to radiation in each of the follo"ing cases+ and the reduction in
the radiation heat transfer from the c-lindrical surface of the c-linder if the
initial o:idised copper surface is then coated "ith aluminium paint. 5he
emissi!it- of o:idised copper and the aluminium paint are 0.8 and 0.'
respecti!el-.
( )
2 2
urr
Q A T T
5emperatures must be in K
( )
8 2 2
0.8 5.8< 10 0.5 1 '5' 2;8 522 Q

6
After coating "ith aluminium paint
0.' 522
202
0.8
Q

6
Beduction in radiation transfer 522 202 '20 6
Beduction is 82.5=.
7ote+ heat transfer "ill also occur b- natural con!ection from the c-linder
surface to the air in the cupboard.
Q' A sheet of glass at a temperature of 800C is cooled b- passing a flo" of air
o!er its surface. 5he temperature of the air is the same as the temperature of
the surroundings. 5o pre!ent cracking it has been found that the temperature
gradient must not e:ceed 15C)mm an-"here in the glass during the cooling
process. 3f the thermal conducti!it- for glass is 1.5 6)m* and its surface
emissi!it- is 0.8+ "hat is the appro:imate lo"est temperature of the air that
can be initiall- used for cooling> 5ake the con!ection heat transfer coefficient
as 5 6)m
2
*.
urr
T T

T
5emperature of surface
0
Co!d Co!" #ad
Q Q Q
8
Csing unit area#
( ) ( )
2 2
0
urr
dT
k h T T T T
dx

_


,
15 15000 15000
max
dT C C K
dx mm m m
_


,
o o
T

must be in *
800 2<' 8<'

T +
*
3t follo"s#
8 2 2
$ 1.5% $ 15000% 5 $8<' % 0.8 5.8< 10 $8<' % T T

+
8 2 2
22500 5 $8<' % 2.5'8 10 $8<' % T T

+
0etermine appro:imate !alue of T
$
b- trial and error method as follo"s.
T
$
$*% B/, $6)m
2
%
800 218''.'
820 20;0;.0
580 228<;.0
Accept T
$
& 580 *
<
Heat Exchanger calculation using Log Mean Temperature Difference
Q1. A multiAtube single pass heat e:changer uses hot "ater on the shell side to
heat a flo" of cold "ater on the tube side in a coAcurrent mode of operation.
i!en the follo"ing data determine the appro:imate cold "ater flo" outlet
temperature and using this !alue+ the cold "ater flo"Arate per hour.
/eat D:changer length 1m
Cold inlet temperature 10C
/ot inlet temperature 80C
Q
h
& 8k6
/ot "ater mass flo"Arate 800kg)hour
C
p
& 2.18 k()kg*
8 tubes ')8E 90.
% & 1185 6)m
2
*
h
h h p h
Q m C T
c
c c p c
Q m C T
L&
Q %A
1 2
1
2
ln
L&

"here
1

is the temperature difference of the streams at one end of the heat

e:changer and
2

is the temperature difference of the streams at the opposite

end of the heat e:changer.
,olution.
0ra"ing a diagram as follo"s#
800 kg)hour
/ot 6ater at 80C
10C
C9ACCBBD75
8 tubes ')8E 90.
AAAAC
.ength 1m
AAAAC
Cold 6ater
8
3n this e:ample#
1

& hot in temperature F cold in temperature.

2

& hot outlet temperature F cold outlet temperature.

Cold out

Cold in $10C%
/ot out

/ot in $80C% 800kg)hour

h
h h p h
Q mass C T
800 2180
8000
'800
T

11.5 T C
o
80C F hot outlet temperature & 11.5C
/ot outlet temperature & 28.5C
h c L&
Q Q Q %A
'
'
1 8 25.2 10 0.1<;
8
A

m
2
8000
1185 0.1<;
'8.'8
L&
L&
L&
Q
%A
C

o
1 2
1
2
ln
L&

1
50 C
o
2
u!k!ow!
2
2
50
'8.'8
50
ln

_

,
;
Cse trial and error to determine appro:imate !alue of
2

and hence this !alue

to determine cold "ater outlet temperature.
5o guess the !alue of
2

take the !alue of

L&

as the !alue of an arithmetic

mean. Calculated
L&

is '8.'8C+ therefore as an arithmetic mean

1 2
2 '8.'8 <8.<2 +
hence guess <8A50 is 28C
./, B/, Calculated !alue
'8.'8C 28C '8.<0C
'8.'8C 28C '<.;2C
'8.'8C 2<C '8.55C
Appro:imate !alue of
2

is 2;C
Cold outlet & 28.5 A 2; & 1;.5C
'
8000 2.18 10 $1;.5 10%
0.201
c
c c p c
c
c
Q m C T
m
kg
m
s

'800 0.201 <25

c
m
kg)h
10
Class Test
?art 1. A multiAtube single pass heat e:changer uses hot "ater on the shell side
to heat a flo" of cold "ater on the tube side in a coAcurrent mode of operation.
i!en the follo"ing data determine the appro:imate cold "ater flo" outlet
temperature and using this !alue the cold "ater flo"Arate per hour.
/eat D:changer length 110 cm
Cold inlet temperature 10C
/ot outlet temperature 2;C
Q
h
& 8k6
/ot "ater mass flo"Arate 10kg)minute
C
p
& 2180 ()kg*
8 tubes ')8E 90.
% & 1185 6)m
2
*
h
h h p
Q m C T
c
c c p
Q m C T
L&
Q %A
1 2
1
2
ln
L&

"here
1

is the temperature difference of the streams at one end of the heat

e:changer and
2

is the temperature difference of the streams at the opposite

end of the heat e:changer.
3n this e:ample#
1

& hot in temperature F cold in temperature.

2

& hot outlet temperature F cold outlet temperature.

,olution.
Cold out

Cold in $10C%
/ot out $2;C%

/ot in $10kg)min%
h
h h p h
Q mass C T
800 2180
8000
'800
T

11.28
h
T C
o
11
/ot inlet temperature & 2;C @11.28C
$7ote the temperature difference is added in this case%
/ot inlet temperature & 80.5C
h c L&
Q Q Q %A
'
'
1.1 8 25.2 10 0.1;8;
8
A

m
2
8000
1185 0.1;8;
L&
L&
Q
%A

'2.88
L&

C
1 2
1
2
ln
L&

1
80.5 10 50.5 C C C
o o o

2
u!k!ow!
2
2
50.5
'2.88
50.5
ln

_

,
Cse trial and error to determine appro:imate !alue of
2

and hence this !alue

to determine cold "ater outlet temperature.
5o guess the !alue of
2

take the !alue of

L&

as the !alue of an arithmetic

mean. Calculated
L&

is '2.88C+ therefore as an arithmetic mean.

1 2
2 '2.88 8;.<8 C +
o
hence guess <0A50 is 20C
./, B/, Calculated !alue
'2.88C 20C '2.;'C lo"
'2.88C 22C '5.82C high
'2.88C 2'C '2.;<C
Appro:imate !alue of
2

is 2'C
Cold outlet & 2; A 2' & 28C
12
c
c c p c
Q m C T
'
8000 2.18 10 $28 10%
c
m
0.11;8
c
m
kg)s
'800 22 11;8 10''2
c
m
kg)da-
?art 2
3f the number of tubes "as reduced to 5 and the siGe of each tube reduced to
1)2 inches 90+ "hat "ould be the length of the heat e:changer required to
meet the same dut- as the original+ if the o!erall heat transfer coefficient is
1185 6)m
2
* as before.
,ame dut- so
L&

+ %+ and Q must be the same. 5herefore the area must be the

same as that of the original.
3t follo"s#
'
0.1;8; 5 0.25 25.2 10 A L


1.;< L m
?art '
9utline one factor that should be considered "hen changing the length+ and
tube siGe of a shell and tube heat e:changer.
,iGe+ space required.
P 'pressure drop% on the tube side.
Affect on %
P $pressure drop% on the shell side.
Cost
1'
!orced Convection
Q1 9il flo"s through a pipe of 5mm 90 and a length of 1m+ "ith the "all
temperature of the pipe maintained at a constant temperature of 100C. 5he oil
enters at 20C and e:its at 20C. 5he a!erage !alues of the ph-sical properties
of the oil are as follo"s#
0ensit- 880 kg)m
'
,pecific heat capacit- 1;00 ()kg*
5hermal conducti!it- 0.25 6)m*
Hiscosit- 10 m7s)m
2
Csing the follo"ing (usselt correlation#
0.8 0.''
0.02'Be ?r (u
6here the dimensionless groups are as follo"s#
Be
?r
p
hd
(u
k
ud
C
k

Calculate#
the mass flo"Arate of oil if the heat transferred to the oil is 1000 6+ the
o!erall heat transfer coefficient %+ and the !alue of h
i
and hence h
o
if the
o!erall heat transfer coefficient+ is made up from contributions from the inside
and outside heat transfer coefficients+ and the resistance of the pipe "all is
neglected. Comment on the !alue of h
o
+ and "h- this has resulted.
,olution
9il in 20C

9il out 20C

/eating fluid in 100C

/eating fluid out 100C

p
Q mC T
1ass of oil
1000
1;00 $20 20%
p
Q
m
C T


& 0.028 kg)s
/eat gained b- the oil is equal to the heat transferred to the oil across the pipe
"all.
12
L&
Q %A
$100 20% $100 20%
80
ln
80
L&

_

,
& 8;.52C
'
1000
5 10 8;.52
L&
Q
%
A



% & ;15.<' 6)m
2
*
1 1 1
o i
x
% h k h
+ +
6here x is the pipe "all and k is the thermal conducti!it- of the pie "all
material.
5he equation can then be used to determine h
o
based on a calculated !alue of
h
i
)
Csing the 7usselt correlation#
Be
ud dm
A



7ote# !elocit- u $m)s% is unkno"n but is calculated from mass rate m $kg)s%.
m
u
A

3t follo"s#
' 2 '
880 0.005 0.028 2 0.028 2
Be
10 10 880 0.005 10 10 0.005




7ote !alue of #e is 882 "hich indicates laminar flo". 7usselt correlation onl-
applies under conditions of turbulent flo". 4or this reason it is not likel- that
the correlation "ill gi!e a true !alue of h
o
based on the !alue of h
i
.
'
1;00 10 10
?r <8
0.25
p
C
k

0.8 0.''
0.02'Be ?r (u
0.8 0.''
0.02' 882 <8 (u
15
0.02' 180.58 2.1< 1<.'2 (u
1<.'2
hd
(u
k

1<.'2 0.25
0.005
i
h

h
i
& 888 6)m
2
*
1 1 1
o i
% h h
+
1 1 1
;15.< 888
o
h
+
h
o
& A15;.5
5his is not possible and is an error due to the correlation being used outside its
limits. Bemember correlations are determined e:perimentall- and "ork onl-
under a set of defined limits.
18
"team Ta#les
1. 6hat is the enthalp- of steam at 50 bar>
& 2<;2 k()kg
2. 6hat is the enthalp- of saturated liquid at 201.2C>
& 85; k()kg
'. 6hat is the boiling point of "ater at 0.5 bar>
& 81.'C
2. 6ater boils at <0.8C. At "hat pressure "ould the s-stem be at>
& 0.'2 bar.
5. 6hat is the boiling point of "ater at 1 bar>
& ;;.8C
8. 6hat is the specific !olume of saturated !apour at 20 bar>
& 0.02;<< m
'
)kg
<. 6hat is the latent heat of condensation at 2.8 bar>
& 21<8 k()kg
8. 6hat is the latent heat of !aporiGation of "ater at 18 bar>
& 1;12 k()kg
;. 6hat is the entrop- of "ater at 1'0C>
& 1.8'2 k()kg
10. 6hat is the internal energ- of saturated "ater !apour at 10 bar>
& 2582 k()kg
11. Calculate the heat e!ol!ed "hen dr- saturated steam at ' bar is con!erted to
saturated liquid at 0.8 bar.
3nitial h
g
& 2<25 k()kg
4inal h
f
& ';2 k()kg
/eat e!ol!ed & 2<25 F ';2 & 2''' k()kg
1<
12. Calculate the proportion of liquid that "ould flash to steam if saturated liquid
at <0 bar undergoes a pressure reduction to 2 bar. $Iasis 1 kg of "ater liquid%
3nitial J <0 bar h
f
& 128< k()kg
4inal J 2 bar h
f
& 505 k()kg and J 2 bar h
g
& 2<0< k()kg
.et x be fraction that flashes to steam
3t follo"s#
$x%$2<0<% @ $1 A x%$505% & 128<
x & 0.'28
0.'28 kg flashes to steam per kg of the initial liquid
1'. Calculate the minimum heat requirement to produce 10+000 m
'
)hr of saturated
steam at 8 bar from boiler "ater at 20C.
Iasis of calculation 1 kg of "ater at 20C.
3nitial h
f
& 18<.5 k()kg
4inal h
g
& 2<8; k()kg
* in the boiler & 2<8; F 18<.5 & 2801.5 k()kg
+
g
J 8 bar & 0.220' m
'
)kg
$10+000m
'
)hr% ) $0.220' m
'
)kg% & 21812.85 kg)hr
$21812.85%$2801.5% ) $'800% & '00<2.2 k6 required.
12. 4uel oil is burned generating 800 k6 of heat. 3f 80= is used to produce steam
at 10 bar from liquid "ater at '0C+ "hat rate of steam is produced>
/eat input & $800%$80 )100% & 280 k6
/eat input per hour & $280%$'800% & 1<28000 k(
J '0C h
f
& 125.< k()kg and J 10 bar h
g
& 2<<8 k()kg
+
g
& 0.1;22 m
'
)kg
$2<<8 A125.<%$m% &1<28000 "here m is mass of steam produced per hour
3t follo"s steam produced & $851.5 kg)hour%$0.1;22 m
'
)kg% & 128.85 m')hour
18
"team Ta#les $"team "parging%
Q1 A stainless steel !essel contains 2000 litres $2000kg% of "ater at an initial
temperature of 2;C+ "hich must be heated to a final temperature of 88C in a
time period of 80 minutes. ,team is a!ailable at 2 bar+ and direct stem
inKection is to be used.
$a% Calculate the final "ater !olume at the end of the heating time.
$b% Calculate the steam flo" !elocit- if the steam suppl- pipe is 20 mm 30.
,olution.
$a% Assuming no heat is lost to the en!ironment.
6ater# 3nitiall- J 2;C h
l
& 121 k()kg
4inall- J 88C h
l
& '80 k()kg
h & '80 F 121 & 2'; k()kg
,team# 3nitiall- J 2 bar h
g
& 2<'; k()kg
4inall- J 88C h
l
& '80 k()kg $must be at final "ater temperature%
h & 2<'; F '80 & 2'<; k()kg
/eat required for heating "ater & $2000%$ 2';% & ;58+000 k(
,team mass required &
;58000
2'<;
& 201.85 kg
4inal "ater !olume & 2000 @ 201.85 & 2202 kg
& 2202 litres
$b% ,team !elocit-#
Holumetric flo" & $!elocit-%$C,A%
2 ' 2
'
$20 10 %
1.2588 10
2 2
d
CA

m
2
+
g
steam J 2 bar &0.282' m
'
)kg
Holume of steam & $201.85%$0.282'% & 185.<8 m
'
5ime allo"ed is 80 minutes & '800 s
Holumetric flo" $Q% &
185.<8
0.0518
'800
m
'
)s
1;
'
0.0518
21.0<
1.2588 10
Q uA
Q
u
A

u & 21.0< m)s

Q2 A !essel is heated b- direct steam inKection. 5he final !olume must not e:ceed
'000 litres $'000 kg% 6ater is introduced into the !essel at '1C. 5he final
temperature of the '000 litres must be up to+ but not e:ceed <2C. 3f the steam
suppl- to the !essel is at 2 bar.
$a%Calculate the mass of steam required and the initial !olume $mass% of "ater
introduced.
$b%5he time of heating required+ if the flo" !elocit- in the short section of 1E
30 suppl- pipe is recorded as ;8.188 m)s.
$c% 3f -ou "ere siGing piping "hat should be the normal flo" !elocit- of a
gas)!apour in a pipeline.
,olution#
Csing a mass basis+ and assuming no heat losses to the en!ironment.
$a% .et x be the !olume introduced at '1C
6ater# 3nitiall- J '1C h
l
& 1'0 k()kg
1ass of steam introduced & '000 A x
3nitiall- steam J 2 bar h
g
& 2<0; k()kg
9!erall energ- balance is as follo"s#
$x%$1'0% @ $'000 A x%$2<0<% & $'000%$'02%
1'0x @ 8121000 A 2<0<x & ;08000
A 25<<x & A <215000
x & 2<;;.<<
Holume introduced is 2<;;.8 litres $2<;;.8 kg%
,team introduced & '000 F 2<;;.8 & 202.2 kg
$b% +
g
steam J 2 bar & 0.8858 m
'
)kg
5otal !olume of steam & $200.2%$0.8858% & 1<;.0< m
'
20
2 ' 2
2
$25.2 10 %
5.08< 10
2 2
d
CA

m
2
Q , uA
2 2
;8.188 5.08< 10 0.02;< 10 Q

m
2
5ime required & total !olume required ) Q
5ime required &
1<;.0<
'800
0.02;<
s & 1 hour
$c% 7ormal flo" !elocit- $u% should be 15A'0 m)s for gases)!apours.
21
Heating in tan&s using heating coils or 'ac&ets
7ote# 3n these questions an energ- balance is required. A similar question
could in!ol!e heating through a Kacket+ and heat loss to the en!ironment !ia
the unKacketed surface of the !essel. 3nstead of an o!erall heat transfer
coefficient to the surroundings+ indi!idual heat transfer coefficients could be
gi!en for con!ection and radiation. 5he radiation could also be gi!en in terms
of emissi!it-+ "hich "ould require the use of the 2
th
?o"er .a".
Q1 A !essel contains 1000 kg of a liquid of specific heat capacit- 2 k()kg *. 5he
!essel is heated b- steam at ';' * "hich is fed to an internal coil immersed in
the stirred liquid. /eat is lost to the en!ironment $surroundings% "hich is at a
constant temperature of 2;' * from the outside of the !essel.
5he surface area of the coil is 0.5 m
2
.
5he o!erall heat transfer coefficient to the liquid is 800 6)m
2
*.
5he outside surface area of the !essel is 8 m
2
+ and the coefficient of heat
transfer to the surroundings is 10 6)m
2
*.
Iased on the information gi!en in the question+ and assuming there is no heat
input due to the agitator+ determine#
$a% 5he ma:imum temperature to "hich the liquid can be heatedL
$b% 5he time required to heat the liquid from 2;' to '5' *L
$c% 5he temperature if the steam is turned of for t"o hours after the liquid has
attained a temperature of '5' *L
$d% 5he time it "ill take to reheat the material to '5' * from the temperature
calculated in part $c%.
$e% 4inall- comment on the possible problems associated "ith the use of
internal coils as a method of heating fluids in !essels.
,olution
$a% 3f T $*% is the temperature of the liquid in the !essel at a time t $s% then a
heat balance on the !essel is as follo"s#
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
';' 2;'
1000 2000 800 0.5 ';' 10 8 2;'
2000000 1'5280 '80
11111 '<8.'
p
dT
mass C %A T hA T
dt
dT
T T
dt
dT
T
dt
dT
T
dt




5he equilibrium occurs "hen
dT
dt
& 0
T & '<8.' *
22
5his temperature is "hen the heat input from the steam equals the heat loss to
the surroundings. As the temperature of the fluid in the !essel increases the
temperature difference bet"een the fluid and the steam decreases "hich
decreases the heat input from the steam+ "hilst at the same time the
temperature difference bet"een the surroundings and the fluid increases "hich
increases the heat transfer to the surroundings. As one decreases and the other
increases e!entuall- a state of equilibrium is attained at T & '<8.' * in this
case.
$b% 3n heating from 2;' to '5' * the time taken is#
11111 '<8.'
dT
T
dt

'5'
2;'
11111
$'<8.' %
dT
t
T

8'.'
$11111% ln
2'.'
t
_

,
t & 12155 s $'.;' hours%
$c% ,team is turned off for a time of 2 hours $<200 s% during this time heat
balance is#
1000 2000 10 8 $ 2;'%
dT
T
dt

Change in temperature of liquid in tank is due to heat losses to surroundings+
as heat in from steam is Gero.
88<00 2;'
dT
T
dt

5his equation is integrated bet"een the limits T final temperature+ '5' * the
initial temperature and time inter!al of <200 s.
<200
'5' 0
1
$2;' % 88<00
T
dT
dt
T

80 <200
ln 0.108
2;' 88<00 T
_ _

, ,
0.108
80
2;'
e
T
_

,
2'
80
1.1121
2;' T
_

,
T & '28.; *
$d% 5he time taken to reheat the liquid to '5' * is then calculated using '28.;
* as the initial temperature.
'5'
'28.;
11111
$'<8.' %
dT
t
T

2;.2
$11111% ln
2'.'
t
_

,
t & 2582 s $0.<2 hours%
$e% As per class discussions.
22
Lagging example
Q1 A steam pipe+ 150 mm 30 and 188 mm 90 is carr-ing steam at 222 * and is
lagged "ith 50 mm of 85 = magnesia. 6hat is the heat loss to air at 2;2 *>
5he coefficient for condensing steam h
i
together "ith an- scale is taken as
8500 6)m
2
*+ and the thermal conducti!ities of the pipe "all and the lagging+
k
w
and k
l
as 25 6)m* and 0.0<' 6)m* respecti!el-.
I- "hat = has the heat loss been reduced b- the addition of the lagging>
Cse the correlation for streamline natural con!ection#
0.25
1.'<
c
s
T
h
d
_

,
and use a !alue of - as 0.;
Csing an initial estimate of the outside temperature of the lagging as '12 *
and $h
r
@ h
c
% as 10 6)m
2
*+ calculate the abo!e and check the !alidit- of this
initial estimate.
,olution
4irstl- dra"ing a diagram of the lagged pipe
d
i
& 150 mm & 0.150 m
d
o
& 188 mm & 0.188 m
d
w
& 15; mm & 0.15; m $mean of d
i
and d
o
%
d
s
& 288 mm & 0.288 m
d
m
& 212 mm & 0.212 m
6here d
m
& log mean diameter of lagging using formulae#
222* d
i
& 150 mm d
s
& 288mm
lagging
T
$
& 2;2*
d
o
& 188
mm
25
288 188
212
288
ln
188
m
d


_

,
mm & 0.212 m
5hermal resistances can no" be calculated $unit length of pipe%
1 1
0.00025
8000 0.150
i i
h d


0.00;
0.00020
25 0.15;
w
w w
x
k d


0.050
1.01;
0.0<' 0.212
l
l m
x
k d


( )
1 1
0.11;
10 0.288
r c s
h h d

+
5he first t"o terms are insignificant and can be neglected. 5he total thermal
resistance is then#
1.01; @ 0.11; & 1.1'8 m*)6
/eat loss per unit length & M$total% ) 5otal resistance & $222 A2;2% ) 1.1'8
& 1'1.8 6)m
5he temperature on the outside of the lagging can no" be checked.
Csing ratios of resistances $same !alue of Q passing through each la-er%+ it
follo"s#
Q , T laggi!g . #esista!ce of laggi!g and+
Q , T Total . Total resista!ce
5herefore#
T laggi!g , 'T Total/'#esista!ce of laggi!g/ . Total resista!ce
$222 2;2% 1.01;
1'2.'
1.1'8
laggi!g
T

*
5hus the temperature on the outside of the lagging is# 222 A1'2.' & '0;.< *
5his temperature confirms initial estimate "as correct.
28
7ote in the abo!e it is assumed the steam temperature and the outside of the
steam pipe are the same at 222 * as resistance of the pipe "all is !er- small.
Checking the !alues of h
r
and h
c
based on the outside surface temperature of
the lagging+ at sa- '10 * is required. $basis unit area%
8 2 2
0.; 5.8< 10 $'10 2;2 %
$'10 2;2%
r
h

& <.20 6)m

2
* as
r
Q
h
A T

0.25
'10 2;2
1.'< '.81
0.288
c
h
_


,
6)m
2
*
5hus
'.81 <.2 11.2
r c
h h + +
6)m
2
*
3n practice it is more likel- forced con!ection currents "ill be present and h
c
"ill be much higher.
3f the pipe "as unlagged then T
s
& 222 *
T & 222 F 2;2 & 150 *
and h
r
and h
c
at this temperature are 10.8<; and 8.882 6)m
2
*
Csing $h
r
@ h
c
% as 1<.'5 6)m
2
* the heat loss is#
$ % 1<.'5 0.188 150 1'<'
r c o
Q
h h d T
l
+ 6)m
5his compares "ith the heat loss "ith lagging of 1'1.8 6)m
Beduction is#
;0.2=
2<
Condensation Example
Q1 A condenser is used to condense "ater !apour at a feed pressure of 0.2 bar g+
and a flo"rate of 500 m
'
)hour+ for an operating time of < hours. 5he
condensate flo"s b- gra!it- into a storage !essel+ "hich is emptied at the end
of the operating period. 5he condenser tubes are positioned in a bank
!erticall- at normal to the direction of the !apour flo".
i!en the follo"ing data#
g & ;.81 m)s
Condenser tubes outside diameter d
o
& 1; mm
Condensate 0 & 1 c? $1 : 10
A'
7s)m
2
%
T
coola!t
& 12C
,uppl- pipe a!ailable 1E+ 2E+ 'E+ 2E and 8E 7I $nominal bore%
Condenser tube length & 1 m
0etermine#
$a% 5he suppl- pipe required for the "ater !apour feed to the condenser if
the site standard ma:imum !elocit- is '0m)sL
$b% 5he heat released per hourL
$c% 5he o!erall !alue of h
m
L
$d% 5he number of tubes requiredL
$e% 5he !olumetric siGe of the condensate storage !esselL
$f% 5he number of tubes if positioned horiGontall-.
,olution.
$a% !olumetric flo" & !elocit- : cross sectional area
2
500 '0
2
d

d & 0.0<88 m
<8.<<
'.02
25.2
d
?ipe required for !apour inlet stream is 'E 7I.
$b%
Q 1
At 0.2 bar g. $1.2 bar absolute%
28
T & 10;.'C
+
g
& 1.2'8 m
'
)kg
2 & 22'2 k()kg
densit- of condensate & 1000 kg)m
'
500
0.112'<
'800 1.2'8
1

0.112'< kg)s
0.112'< 22'2 250.81 Q
'
250.81 10 Q ()s
$c%
0.25
' 2
' '
0.8 1000 ;.81 22'2
0.<2
1; 10 1 10 ;5.'
m
h

1

1

]
;15.'2
m
h
6)m
2
*
$d%
m f
Q h A T
'
250.81 10
2.8<5
;15 ;5.'
A

m
2
$e% 5o determine area#
'
2.8<5
28.185
1; 10 1
o
A ! d L
!

2; tubes
$f% Holume of !essel for condensate
0.112'< '800 < 28'1 litres
Hessel siGe ' m
'
$g% /oriGontal
2;
( )
0.'''
0.'''
2
' 2
0.'''
2
0.''' '
'
' 2
1.51
2
1 10
1 1 10
1.51
2 0.112'< 0.8 1000 ;.81
m
m
l
h
1 k g
h

1
1

1
1
]
]
1

1
1

1
1

]
]
2512.8
m
h
6)m
2
*
'
250.81 10
1.02<
2512.8 ;5.'
A

m
2
'
1.02<
1; 10
1<.55
!
!

7umber of tubes is 18
'0
Boiling Example
Q1 An e!aporator is used to concentrate < kg)s of a solution from 10 to 50 mass =
solids. ,team is a!ailable at 205 k7)m
2
and e!aporation takes place at a
pressure of 1'.5 k7)m
2
. 3f the o!erall heat transfer coefficient is ' k6)m
2
*+
estimate the heating surface required and the amount of steam used if the feed
to the e!aporator is at 2;2 * and the condensate lea!es the heating space at
'52.< *.
5he specific heat capacit- of the 10 and 50 = solutions are '.<8 and '.12
k()kg* respecti!el-.
Assume the steam is dr- and saturated at 205 k7)m
2
+ and assume an aqueous
solution $follo"s boiling data of "ater%.
,olution.
Csing data from steam tables#
J 205 k7)m
2
steam temperature is ';2 * and enthalp- is 2<08 k()kg
J 1'.5 k7)m
2
"ater boils at '25 * and this is taken as the temperature of
boiling.
5he enthalp- of steam at '25 * is 25;2 k()kg
5he feed containing 10= solids has to be heated from 2;2 to '25* at "hich
temperature e!aporation takes place.
3f the feed solids is 10= it follo"s mass of solids in feed is 0.< kg)s
4inall- this 0.< kg)s of solid is the 50= solids in the final solution. 5herefore
mass of "ater in final solution is 0.< kg)s
6ater to be e!aporated is#
( ) < 0.< 0.< 5.8
kg)s
,ummariGing#
,tream ,olids $kg)s% .iquid $kg)s% 5otal $kg)s%
4eed 0.< 8.' <.0
?roduct 0.< 0.< 1.2
D!aporatio
n
5.8 5.8
Csing a datum of 2<' *
'1
/eat entering "ith feed & ( ) <.0 '.<8 2;2 2<' 55.2
k6
/eat lea!ing "ith product & ( ) 1.2 '.12 '25 2<' 228.8
k6
/eat lea!ing "ith e!aporated "ater & 5.8 25;2 12528 k6
5herefore#
/eat transferred from the steam & ( ) 12528 228.8 552.< 12202 +
k6
Dnthalp- of condensed steam lea!ing at '52.< * &
( ) 2.18 '52.< 2<' '''.2
k()kg
/eat transferred from 1 kg of steam & 2<08 '''.2 2'<2.8 k()kg
/ence steam required &
12202
5.;8
2'<2.8
kg)s
As preAheating of solution and subAcooling of condensate represent a small
proportion of the heat load+ the temperature dri!ing force ma- be taken as the
difference bet"een the condensing steam and the e!aporating "ater.
';2 '25 8; T C therefore
12202
88.8
' 8;
Q
A
% T


m
2
'2