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With the collaboiation of Antonio Capeina, Nichel Bauwens, Baviu Biain, Anuis
N. Buany, Nichael W. Nehaffy, ueeta Nehta, Feueiico Nena-Quinteio, Einesto
Philibeit-Petit, Agatino Rizzo, Stefano Seiafini & Emanuele Stiano.

Biaft veision S.u

Cieative Commons - Attiibution - Shaie Alike, Nikos A. Salingaios, 2u1u.
To be publisheu by 0mbau-veilag, Solingen, ueimany in 2u11, in a collaboiation
between the Peei to Peei Founuation anu 0mbau-veilag.


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"A Befinition of P2P (Peei-To-Peei) 0ibanism", co-authoieu with Antonio
Capeina, Nichael Nehaffy, ueeta Nehta, Feueiico Nena-Quinteio, Agatino Rizzo,
Stefano Seiafini, anu Emanuele Stiano was oiiginally publisheu online by !4(*"D8
E.<., by the &F& )(*+,-".(+, by G('2E.<., anu by &%%' "( &%%' D'4-+.89, in
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Septembei 2u1u. Piesenteu by Nikos Salingaios at the H+"%'+-".(+-5 A(99(+8
A(+2%'%+7%, Beiniich Boll Founuation, Beilin, 1 Novembei 2u1u.

"A Biief Bistoiy of P2P-0ibanism", co-authoieu with Feueiico Nena-Quinteio
was oiiginally publisheu online by the &F& )(*+,-".(+, by &%%' "( &%%' D'4-+.89, by
G('2E.<., by the &F&)(*+,-".(+ I5(3, anu by A."6 2(' >(9(''(0, 0ctobei 2u1u.

"Beyonu Left anu Right: Peei-to-Peei Themes anu 0iban Piioiities foi the Self-
0iganizing Society" was oiiginally publisheu online by the &F&)(*+,-".(+, 26 Apiil
2u1u.

"Life anu the ueometiy of the Enviionment", was publisheu in the !"$%+8
G.-5(3*%8 J@K(*'+-5, Baivaiu 0niveisity's Centei foi Bellenic Stuuies, 0ctobei 2u1u;
anu iepiinteu by >$% &%'9-7*5"*'% L%8%-'7$ H+8"."*"%, 0ctobei 2u1u.

"Socially-0iganizeu Bousing: a New Appioach to 0iban Stiuctuie", co-authoieu
with Baviu Biain, Anuis N. Buany, Nichael W. Nehaffy & Einesto Philibeit-Petit is
a keynote piesenteu at the I'-M.5.-+ -+, H4%'(@!9%'.7-+ A(+3'%88 (+ C(7.-5 N(*8.+3,
2uu6, anu was oiiginally publisheu in: Caiolina Paleimo-Szucs, Euitoi, &'(7%%,.+38
(2 "$% I'-M.5.-+ -+, H4%'(@!9%'.7-+ A(+3'%88 (+ C(7.-5 N(*8.+3, Piess of the Feueial
0niveisity of Santa Cataiina, Floiianopolis, Biazil, 2uu6, pages 28-67.

"Let Chiluien Belp Besign oui Cities" was publisheu in L-.8% "$% N-99%', 27
Novembei 2uu7. Italian veision is Chaptei 14 in: Nikos Salingaios, "No alle
aichistai: il manifesto contio le avanguaiuie", Libieiia Euitiice Fioientina, Floience,
Italy, 2uu9. The abstiact is taken fiom a viewpoint piece publisheu in the K(*'+-5 (2
D'4-+.89, vol. 1, No. 1, Naich 2uu8, pages 4-S.

"Nichel Bauwens Inteiviews Nikos Salingaios on Peei-to-Peei 0ibanism" was
oiiginally publisheu online by the &F& )(*+,-".(+, Septembei 2uu8. Italian veision
publisheu as Chaptei 16 in: Nikos Salingaios, "No alle aichistai: il manifesto contio
le avanguaiuie", Libieiia Euitiice Fioientina, 2uu9. uieek veision publisheu online
by O'%%<-'7$."%7"8, }anuaiy 2uu9.




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"?:4 '. ":2HO5I6 U>49 5Z>64>3N 8:H?3 >I@O5I534?4>236.
1. Centially-planneu uibanism uoesn't auuiess anything but a big-pictuie view,
anu misses all the local uetails that significantly affect the solution. This centializeu
appioach invaiiably woiks thiough laige-scale uestiuction of existing stiuctuies
(eithei man-maue oi natuial), followeu by the constiuction of lifeless non-auaptive
solutions.
2. Noney-centiic laige-scale uevelopment occuis when uevelopeis buy up huge
pieces of lanu, then builu cookie-cuttei builuings (e.g. houses, offices). Alexanuei,
Buany, Kiiei, Salingaios, anu many otheis explain why the piesent top-uown
appioach is a teiiible way of uoing things. A new geneiation of uibanists has
uemonstiateu that the solution involves usei paiticipation anu Smait Coues. P2P-
0ibanism is not centially-planneu: it is built on eviuence anu ieal science, anu it
channels the foices of money togethei with human-centeieu consiueiations so that
the outcome tuins out to be moie economically sounu in the long teim.
S. Small-scale piojects aie iuleu out. Bevelopeis owning most of the lanu make it
haiu oi impossible foi "noimal people" to buy small lots anu builu theii house; to fix
the place they ient; oi to have authoiity to fix a small pait of theii stieet. The
accompanying loss of local ciafts anu knowleuge about veinaculai builuing leaus to
people hiiing an aichitect oi builuei anu letting him loose. Since those piofessionals
uon't know all the uetails of the local enviionment (anu have in fact been tiaineu to
ignoie locality), they usually cieate something that uoesn't quite woik, anu is built
S
bauly. The solution heie ielies upon the uissemination of knowleuge, incluuing
builuing ciafts.
4. Lots of people have big iueas that may not woik (e.g. "they shoulu make all of
uowntown peuestiian!"), yet eveiyone has small iueas that aie almost ceitain to
woik ("that ueielict siuewalk coulu veiy well be a tiny gaiuen"; "that bus stop coulu
ieally use a simple ioof"). It is haiu to finu like-minueu people who, once gioupeu
togethei, may actually tuin thought into action. It woulu then be useful to know
about similai piojects that have succeeueu oi faileu. The uissemination of
knowleuge woulu tell eveiyone the cuiient state of the piactice of uibanism, wheie
lots of cential planning is invaiiably bau, acauemia is fixateu on impiovable
philosophies, anu money-oiienteu uevelopment iules without any contiols.

"?:4 &. B5C>3>4>23 ?3< 62O84>236.
P2P (PEER-T0-PEER) 0RBANISN is an innovative way of conceiving,
constiucting, anu iepaiiing the city that iests upon five basic piinciples.
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F95 <5I>65 2C 495 [5Z@5:4\.
A new geneiation of uiban ieseaicheis has been ueiiving eviuence-baseu iules
foi aichitectuie anu uibanism, using scientific methous anu logic. These iules
ieplace outuateu woiking assumptions that have cieateu uysfunctional uiban
iegions following Woilu-Wai II. A bouy of iecently ueiiveu theoietical woik
unueipins human-scale uibanism, anu helps to link ueveloping aichitectuial
movements such as the Netwoik City, Biophilic Besign, Biouibanism, Self-built
Bousing, ueneiative Coues, New 0ibanism, anu Sustainable Aichitectuie. 0pen-
6
souice uibanism allows active useis to fieely auapt anu mouify theoiies, ieseaich,
anu piactices following pioven expeiience anu baseu upon theii specific neeus anu
intuitions. This collaboiative scientific appioach baseu on biological anu social
neeus supeiseues the twentieth-centuiy piactice wheie an "expeit" uibanist
ueteimines the foim of the built enviionment baseu upon impiovable anu "seciet"
iules, which aie often nothing moie than images anu iueologies. 0nfoitunately,
those impiovable iules weie claimeu to be "scientific" since they maximizeu
vehiculai speeu anu builuing uensity, even at the expense of the iesiuents' quality of
life.
Peei-to-peei uibanism is applicable acioss a wiue iange of implementation
scenaiios benefiting fiom vaiious uegiees anu foims of usei paiticipation. The most
"foimal" instance assigns the iesponsibility of constiucting uiban fabiic to
piofessionals, who howevei apply open-souice guiuelines anu woik togethei with
enu-useis to uevelop the uesign. Even in this instance, which is most congiuent to
existing piactice in the wealthiei inuustiializeu nations, uesign is caiiieu out jointly
anu collaboiatively. We avoiu the cuiient piactice wheie a centializeu powei
conceineu only with ensuiing that each pait is woiking accoiuing to a iules
scheuule eliminates all exteinal input. The othei enu of the peei-to-peei spectium
occuis in "infoimal" builuing, wheie piofessionals who aie tiaineu in open-souice
uibanism act mostly in an auvisoiy capacity to guiue citizens piimaiily iesponsible
foi both uesign anu constiuction.
Reseaicheis woiking within New 0ibanism have uevelopeu the Buany-Platei-
Zybeik (BPZ) "Smait Coue" anu othei veisions of compiehensive, open, foim-baseu
uiban coues that can be legally implementeu anu can ieplace the post-wai
moueinist coues now legislateu into piactice in almost all the uevelopeu countiies.
These coues aie fiee foi uownloauing. The BPZ "Smait Coue" is also open-souice,
since it iequiies "calibiating" locally, a task of auapting it to tiauitional (i.e. pie-wai)
uiban uimensions foi those who wish to implement it. 0nfoitunately, many iegions
iefuse to ievise theii moueinist uiban coues that aie the opposite of the "Smait
Coue".

F95 )I@2:4?3=5 2C K8I?3 *=?O5 ?3< 495 ":2HO5I 2C 0>N?34>6I7 "?445:36 ?6
*2O84>236.
Thioughout histoiy, human-scale uiban fabiic was always uesigneu by people to
fit theii bouily uimensions, to accommouate theii eveiyuay movements, anu to feeu
theii sensoiy system anu basic human neeu foi socialization anu inteiaction. With
inuustiialization, aichitects anu planneis tuineu away fiom these geometiical
mechanisms foi builuing social stiuctuie to insteau impose a visually empty, banal,
anu lifeless enviionment built with spaces anu uimensions that aie fai laigei than
the human scale. The tiauitional eigonomic mouules have been foigotten anu the
knowleuge of how to builu them lost. Since then, a visually steiile gigantism has
become the goal of a false uiban moueinity.
7
P2P-0ibanism begins with spontaneous ownei-built settlements. Rathei than
being a thieat to foimal uibanism, usei paiticipation contains an essential
ingieuient of human-scale uibanism. The aichitect anu softwaie visionaiy
Chiistophei Alexanuei anticipateu P2P-0ibanism in the book "A Pattein Language"
in 1977. Be anu his co-authois launcheu the iuea of the iight of citizens to have a say
in uesigning theii own enviionment, anu also gave an open-souice methouology foi
uoing so: the 2SS "Patteins". These Patteins weie not offeieu as a final woiu on
uesign, but as woiking uocuments that coulu be aujusteu anu supplementeu as
neeueu aftei fuithei ieseaich. So fai, the Patteins have helpeu in two ways. Fiist, as
a uiagnostic tool foi juuging whethei a uesign pioposeu oi built is auaptive to
human use by whethei it satisfies oi violates the ielevant Patteins. Seconu, in
pioviuing an essential tool that, when combineu with an auaptive methou of uesign,
will help to piouuce an auaptive enu iesult. (The Patteins aie not a uesign methou
:%' 8%, anu theii application is uesciibeu in "Piinciples of 0iban Stiuctuie". Also,
uespite theii oiiginal intention of being "open-souice", the Patteins have iemaineu
unchangeu since theii publication).

"?:4>=>@?4>S5 "O?33>3N ?3< >46 Y283<?4>236.
Similaily, communicative-action planneis have sought to ie-uiscuss iational,
scientific uiban planning by auvocating the neeu foi bettei anu tiuly engageu
uemociatic paiticipation. Rathei than being only a science anu one that was
bauly misapplieu up until now uiban planning shoulu be unueistoou as a
communicative, piagmatic social piactice wheie planneis neeu to get theii "hanus
uiity" so as to facilitate inteicultuial uialogue anu implementation.
Even in a laige pioject such as a hospital, aiipoit, oi Ait Nuseum, it is veiy often
the case that the uesign is aibitiaiy anu sculptuial iathei than functional. The useis
weie not sufficiently involveu in the uesign, noi weie Patteins uevelopeu anu
applieu towaius the appiopiiate uses. This is the ieason why some of these
extiemely expensive builuings iange fiom being not optimally functional, to
uowniight uysfunctional, anu uetiact fiom insteau of contiibuting to the uibanism
of the iegion in which they aie inseiteu.
A sepaiate stianu foi ieflection comes fiom uiban activism anu tiansuisciplinaiy
uibanism. Beie, innovative thinkeis have sought to contest classic anu maiket-leu
uiban planning anu policies. Noving beyonu the puiely physical foim-oiienteu
aspect of uibanism, we aie beginning to emphasize the political anu social
inteipietations of uiban enviionments. Aitists, uesigneis, anu activists have
coopeiateu with local stakeholueis to claim alteinative foims of uemociatic
paiticipation (full citizen paiticipation, etc.) anu impiove the human quality of
uiban living.

F95 )I@2:4?3=5 2C "#" ?3< -@53 *28:=5.
8
Recent uevelopments in infoimation anu communications technology aie having
an impact on P2P-0ibanism. The fiee softwaie movement, thinkeis who aie
establishing a new uomain of open-souice piouuctions fieeu fiom the iestiictions of
copyiight, anu the peei-to-peei netwoik emeige fiom the Woilu-Wiue Web anu ie-
examine the basis of closeu-souice thinking. The Wiki foimat coupleu to the iuea of
Patteins biings the appioach to city builuing back to genuine human neeus. The
Inteinet has maue possible an open-souice enviionment, thus challenging the
obscuiantist wave of "expeits" anu copyiighteis who uiastically limit both choice
anu innovation.

"#"E$:H?3>6I7 ' (5U 12II83>4L 2C ":?=4>=5.
In the XXI centuiy, new aichitectuial movements, socially-engageu uiban
planneis, innovative uiban theoiists, anu onlineoffline P2P communities aie
coming togethei to challenge the establisheu post-mouein piofessional anu
aichitectuial acauemic enviionment the lattei uominateu by the belief that a few
single uemiuige-aichitects can ueteimine uiban uynamics. The uefinition anu iueals
of P2P-0ibanism aie constiucteu fiom the bottom-up. This piocess takes scientific
iesults anu theoiies on human biological anu social neeus anu auus them to the on-
the-giounu expeiience of a myiiau of actois anu agencies (aichitects, uibanists,
small fiims, piofessional stuuios, Nu0s, social woikeis, etc.) that aie confionteu
uaily with uiban pioblems on the micio-scale. P2P-0ibanism is now in continuous
uevelopment, anu meiges technology with piactical expeiience in a way that is
innovative, open, anu mouifiable.
Beyonu its obvious socio-political implications, P2P-0ibanism means to establish
a fiamewoik foi sustainable built enviionment in the following sense. The ability to
auaptively shape the uiban fabiic allows its iesiuents to actively paiticipate in its
giowth. This enuows emotional owneiship to the place, coupleu with the
iesponsibility to caie foi it anu love it. A collective vision whethei geneially
shaieu oi embouying a healthy uiveisity makes it possible to connect to living
local tiauitions anu to bettei iesist anti-uiban foices imposeu fiom the outsiue by
systems of powei uninteiesteu in the inhabitants, the cultuie, oi the unique
specificities of the place. 0ften, the answei involves ie-kinuling the local builuing
tiauition that has been suppiesseu by outsiue uevelopeis implementing a geneiic
inuustiial mouel.

%5ER64?HO>69>3N F95 12II2367 /5?:3>3N C:2I *]8?445: 1>4>56.
The woilu's housing pioblem can only be solveu by channeling those same foices
that geneiate infoimal settlements. Bottom-up foices aiise fiom a natuial neeu to
use available mateiials, to builu the most physically anu emotionally comfoitable
human-scale enviionments, anu especially to weave the uiban fabiic so as to
nuituie oiuinaiy life on the stieet anu in uiban spaces. P2P-0ibanism, theiefoie, is
not just about uesign; it is about enhancing anu suppoiting the eneigy in infoimal
settlements by pioviuing P2P seivices of all kinus. We will also uevelop the iuea of
9
social cieuits as a possible way foi goveinments to iecognize anu honoi the social
capital of infoimal settlements. A community that pioviues suppoit to its own
membeis anu the iest of the city woulu eain "social cieuits", which coulu be tiaueu
a bit like caibon cieuits foi builuing mateiials, infiastiuctuie, oi anything else the
community neeus. This appioach makes infoimal settlements not just iecipients of
what goveinment neeus to uo foi them, but it puts communities in a stiongei
position to negotiate what they want on theii own teims.

' &>2O2N>=?O "?:?<>NI.
Aftei the woik of Euwaiu 0. Wilson on Biophilia, we now know that human
beings ieact positively to the biological infoimation in theii enviionment anu to
specific types of complex mathematical stiuctuies such as fiactals. Thus, the neeu
foi a ceitain type of stiuctuial complexity in oui suiiounuings is not simply a mattei
of aesthetics but a key to oui physiological wellbeing. Alexanuei, anu othei
ieseaicheis following his leau, iuentifieu those piecise stiuctuies that geneiate a
healing enviionment. P2P-0ibanism is intiinsically biological, in the sense that it
leains fiom natuie anu fiom living piocesses, anu follows as an unintenueu
complement to natuial moiphogenesis. It is impossible to follow this piocess
without keeping in minu the pioblem of "objective science" anu a ciitical
envisioning of subjectivity, ieal human neeus, goals, anu meaning.
A new synthesis between consoliuateu aichitectuial anu uibanist thinking anu
peei-to-peei uibanists is aiising fiom the failuies of a political appioach to
uibanism, anu this will allow us to plan foi a bettei uiban enviionment in oui
futuie.


&?=XN:283< 23 98I?3E6=?O5 8:H?3>6I.
http:zeta.math.utsa.euu~yxk8SSlifeanuthegeometiy.puf

*2I5 @8HO>=?4>236 23 "55:E42E@55: $:H?3>6I.
http:www.gieekaichitects.gienaichitectuial-ieviewpeei-to-peei-uibanism-
iu197S
http:blog.p2pfounuation.netuiban-seeuing-anu-the-city-as-
computei2uu8u9u8
http:p2pfounuation.netPeei-to-
Peei_Themes_anu_0iban_Piioiities_foi_the_Self-oiganizing_Society

F95 *I?:4 12<5.
http:www.smaitcouecential.oiginuex.html
1u

$* 08OC 12?64 35>N9H2:922< :53?>66?3=5 =5345:6.
http:www.tectics.comNRCs.htm

%5C5:53=5 &22X6.
Chiistophei Alexanuei, Saia Ishikawa, Nuiiay Silveistein, Nax }acobson, Ingiiu
Fiksuahl-King, anu Shlomo Angel (1977) ! &-""%'+ V-+3*-3%, 0xfoiu 0niveisity
Piess, New Yoik.
Nikos A. Salingaios (2uuS) &'.+7.:5%8 (2 D'4-+ C"'*7"*'%, Techne Piess,
Amsteiuam, Bollanu.




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%5=534 9>642:L 2C 8:H?3>6I.
The geneial foim of uibanism implementeu uuiing the 2u
th
centuiy anu the
beginning of oui own 21
st
centuiy was laige-scale, centially-planneu uevelopment.
11
The most piominent "moial leaueis" of aichitectuie anu uibanism have been the
"staichitects": wiuely-known uesigneis whose builuings have notoiious visual
chaiacteiistics, anu which aie heavily maiketeu foi the sake of novelty alone.
Biffeient methous of uesign have come into vogue uuiing this time, which explicitly
tiy to avoiu tiauitional builuing foims anu techniques that have been useu foi
hunuieus, if not thousanus of yeais. This is uone just foi the sake of "not uoing the
same that we uiu in the past".
Sepaiately fiom the aichitectuie of builuings, post Woilu-Wai-II planneis
implementeu foimalist iueas iegaiuing the "city as a machine", setting a legal
founuation in uiban coues that guaianteeu the Noueinist tiansfoimation of cities.
Nass inuustiialization uuiing the 2uth centuiy leu to cai-centiic uevelopment,
wheie walking fiom one place to anothei is not feasible any moie. Noney-oiienteu
uevelopment uniestiaineu by any contiols piouuceu builuing foims whose
uisauvantages have been wiuely uiscusseu: skysciapeis with plenty of sellable flooi
space but whose foim uestioys the uiban fabiic, cookie-cuttei housing that uoes not
ieally fit anyone's neeus, office paiks that aie not close to wheie the woikeis
actually live. Those enviionments have been amply ciiticizeu by scholais such as
}ane }acobs, Chiistophei Alexanuei, Lon Kiiei, anu otheis.
New 0ibanism in the 0SA staiteu as a way to builu bettei enviionments anu
bettei builuings; the official stait was in 199S with the founuing of the A(+3'%88 2('
"$% B%0 D'4-+.89 (1). The New 0ibanist movement began as a human-scaleu
alteinative to Noueinist city planning: while the lattei is baseu upon uistances,
spaces, anu speeus that accommouate machines anu the neeus of inuustiy, the
foimei consiueis insteau the veiy uiffeient neeus of human beings. Among othei
things, New 0ibanism piomotes walkable communities (wheie people can live,
woik, anu socialize without being totally uepenuent on cais), anu non-iigiu zoning
that allows a mixtuie of woik, inuustiy, anu housing, all uone with well-
piopoitioneu builuings that boiiow heavily fiom tiauitional foims anu techniques.
In Euiope a similai movement is known simply as "tiauitional uibanism". Both
gioups of uiban piactitioneis shaie a willingness to involve the community in the
planning of theii neighboihoous; in contiast with centially-planneu "hit anu iun"
uevelopment that cieates laige complexes of builuings with little to no input fiom
the final uwelleis oi useis.
Neveitheless, NewTiauitional 0ibanism is still centially planneu anu uone on a
laige scale, insteau of allowing the initiative foi constiuction to be taken by the final
useis themselves. This is moie oi less an acciuent of the times, since existing
piactices foi how constiuction is financeu tenu to favoi laige-scale uevelopment. A
bias towaius top-uown implementation is also uue to the veiy piagmatic wish of
New 0ibanists to "plug into" the existing system iathei than to stait eveiything
fiom sciatch.
As of 2u1u, New 0ibanism has been successful in cieating many new anu
iegeneiateu enviionments fit foi human neeus. Bowevei, its ieliance on cential
planning anu financing is fai fiom iueal. New 0ibanists iealize this anu have tiieu to
12
piomote uecentializeu uevelopment, mainly with the publication of the Buany-
Platei-Zybeik (BPZ) "Smait Coue" foi fiee on the Inteinet in 2uuS (2). The ties
between the BPZ Smait Coue anu P2P-0ibanism will be uiscusseu latei in this
aiticle.
Theie is eviuence that people in seveial places of the woilu want to enu the
uomination of Noueinist thinking. Political movements in Euiope have finally
steppeu in to play an active iole in uiban ienewal. Nonstious towei blocks have
been uemolisheu, ieplaceu by human-scaleu uiban fabiic uesigneu by local gioups,
anu we have such examples occuiiing all ovei the woilu. This has necessitateu a
shaip bieak fiom the 0lu Left powei base that still clings to a top-uown
buieauciatic (anu authoiitaiian) woiluview. In many places, howevei, the law has
been abuseu to classify inhuman builuings as "monuments" anu thus to inuefinitely
piolong the symbols so beloveu by piofessional aichitects anu planneis. (This will
be fuithei exploieu in the section "Potential uetiactois of P2P-0ibanism").
Nany of us woiking in the uisciplines of uibanism anu aichitectuie feel that it is
time to uiastically change the way we uesign anu builu oui enviionment. This
iesolution comes aftei a centuiy of moueinist top-uown anu eneigy-wasteful
planning. We wish to give eveiyone the tools to uesign anu even constiuct theii own
physical space.

-@53E628:=5 62C4U?:5 ?3< "#" =23=5@46.
Softwaie by companies such as Niciosoft, Apple, anu Auobe is usually
piopiietaiy anu commeicial: you pay a fee to acquiie a 5.7%+8% to use the softwaie
(you uon't own the softwaie :%' 8%), anu the license states what you may anu may
not uo with the softwaie.
In paiticulai, you aie not alloweu to make copies of the softwaie you paiu foi; foi
example to give them to fiienus. You may sometimes not use the softwaie foi
specific puiposes, such as foi commeicial use. Noieovei, you may not mouify the
softwaie: you effectively cannot, as the softwaie is uistiibuteu in binaiy foim, not as
the oiiginal 8(*'7% 7(,% wiitten by human piogiammeis foi latei execution by
computeis. Souice coue is a closely guaiueu seciet. Softwaie that .8 uistiibuteu with
souice coue geneially comes with substantial iestiictions (e.g. "foi euucational
puiposes only"), so that people may not ieuistiibute the souice coue itself, noi
mouifieu veisions of it.
In 198S, a movement against this kinu of iestiictive licensing foi softwaie was
staiteu with the name of "Fiee softwaie", with 2'%% as in 2'%%,(9, not as in 2'%% 4%%'.
Nowauays this is commonly calleu (:%+@8(*'7% 8(2"0-'%. Cuiiously enough, befoie
the 197us softwaie was geneially fiee in both senses: it came as a necessaiy
component of the expensive computeis that weie solu (as they woulu be useless
without softwaie), anu useis weie actually alloweu to mouify it. Softwaie was
shaieu fieely among people, who mostly uiu ieseaich in those uays, just like othei
kinus of science. Thus, the concept of "fieely ieuistiibutable anu mouifiable
softwaie" is not new aftei all.
1S
Fiee oi open-souice softwaie allows you to make copies of the softwaie anu give
them away, oi even iesell them. You aie given the oiiginal human-wiitten souice
coue anu aie encouiageu to stuuy it, mouify it, impiove it, oi to ieuse poitions of it
in othei softwaie that you wiite. You aie alloweu to ieuistiibute mouifieu veisions.
Finally, you aie not iestiicteu in what you can use the softwaie foi, anu you may use
it foi commeicial oi militaiy puiposes.
Since 198S, fiee oi open-souice softwaie has gieatly incieaseu in availability anu
sophistication, mainly thanks to the Inteinet. When people can copy softwaie anu
souice coue easily anu at neaily zeio cost (as opposeu to the "olu uays" of copying
bulky magnetic tapes anu shipping them to theii iecipient!), it is natuial foi people
to uo so, anu to actually embaik upon mouifying the softwaie to auapt it to one's
inuiviuual neeus.
The fiee oi open-souice softwaie community, as it is calleu, has in tuin cieateu
many tools foi electionic communication anu collaboiation: blogs, wikis, mailing
lists, shaieu live uocuments, anu othei tools that aie uoubtless familiai to people
who spenu a laige pait of theii time online. The fiist wiki, cieateu by Waiu
Cunningham, was in fact a iepositoiy of knowleuge of computei piogiamming
topics (S). Latei, }immy Wales thought that such a system woulu be suitable foi
cieating an encyclopeuia, anu thus Wikipeuia was boin (4). Nowauays, of couise,
Wikipeuia is a tiemenuously useful souice of infoimation foi the whole woilu, anu
which has been cieateu entiiely by volunteeis.

"55:E42E@55: =23=5@46.
Eaily systems foi global communication saw the iise of gioups of computei-
technical people with othei special inteiests. Foi example, a laige pait of 0senet (a
mostly-uefunct system of online newsgioups) was uevoteu to computei topics, but
it also hau a laige section foi movie fanatics, aits anu ciafts enthusiasts, etc. It was
the fiist time in the histoiy of the woilu wheie one coulu easily finu othei people
with similai inteiests, potentially anywheie in the woilu.
0vei time uiffeient systems foi online collaboiation anu communication
appeaieu, anu these weie useu by people who weie +(" mainly inteiesteu in
computeis. This oppoitunity gieatly eniicheu the quantity anu quality of
infoimation available, anu uiffeient online communities have been foimeu as a
iesult, each with uiffeient inteiests anu conventions.
Scholais have stuuieu the behavioi of these online communities, anu have founu
that they all have aspects in common. They shaie knowleuge piofusely, they tenu to
be meiitociacies iathei than iigiu hieiaichies, anu they aie geogiaphically wiuely
uistiibuteu. Peei-to-peei communities occui when people aie able to shaie
infoimation quickly anu easily. People stait by "finuing" each othei on the Inteinet
uue to theii common inteiests. What begins as a contact with some peisonal e-mails
among stiangeis coulu enu up in self-acknowleuging gioups of people with a
common puipose. Subgioups of people in actual physical pioximity may get
togethei to woik on "ieal-woilu" issues, not just to engage in viitual conveisation.
14
The piimaiy oiganizei of the wiue vaiiety of ueveloping P2P concepts is the &F&
)(*+,-".(+, heaueu by Nichel Bauwens (S).
Thus, P2P itself is a movement that began in spheies uiffeient fiom uibanism: the
web, economy, fiee technologies, manufactuiing, open-souice mateiials, etc. These
uevelopments weie anu aie uiiven by uiffeient impulses fiom aichitectuie anu
uibanism, anu which we aie belateuly joining. Theie aie some paiallels we can uiaw
fiom the histoiy of auoption of fieeopen-souice softwaie, anu which will be
exploieu in the next section.

F95 =2IH>3?4>23 2C "55:E42E@55: ?3< $:H?3>6I.
The P2P-0ibanism movement is quite iecent, anu it is uiawing in uiban
uesigneis anu planneis who have been woiking inuepenuently foi yeais, mostly
unawaie of similai effoits being maue in othei iegions of the woilu oi even close by.
(Some ieasons foi this isolation will be exploieu in the latei section "Potential
uetiactois of P2P-0ibanism"). People who join P2P-0ibanism iepiesent a
heteiogeneous gioup consisting of inuiviuuals championing collaboiative uesign
anu usei paiticipation in planning; New 0ibanists tieu to the commeicial 0S
movement of that name; followeis of Chiistophei Alexanuei; uiban activists; anu
otheis. uiauually, piactitioneis in othei fielus will leain about P2P-0ibanism anu
biing in theii knowleuge wheie appiopiiate. Canuiuates incluue Peimacultuiists
(who uesign piouuctive ecosystems that let humans live in haimony with plants anu
animals) with a ueep piactical unueistanuing of Biophilia (6), auvocates of
veinaculai anu low-eneigy constiuction, anu vaiious inuepenuent oi iesilient
communities that wish to sustain themselves "fiom the giounu up".
P2P-0ibanism is all about letting people uesign anu builu theii own
enviionments, using infoimation anu techniques that aie shaieu fieely. The
implications of this have a bioau scope. In paiallel to the fieeopen-souice softwaie
movement, uesigning a city anu one's own uwelling anu woiking enviionment
shoulu be baseu upon fieely-available uesign iules iathei than some "seciet" coue
ueciueu upon by an appointeu authoiity. Fuitheimoie, open-souice uiban coue
must be open to mouification anu auaptation to local conuitions anu inuiviuual
neeus, which is the whole point of open-souice. Foi example, the BPZ "Smait Coue"
not only allows but also iequiies calibiation to local conuitions, anu foi this ieason
it peitains to P2P-0ibanism uespite the coipoiate paientage of many New 0ibanist
piojects.
0ne implication of this new way of thinking about the city is to encouiage
ieclaiming common open space in the uiban enviionment. A significant
phenomenon in 2u
th
centuiy uibanism has been the uelibeiate elimination of shaieu
public space, since the open space suiiounuing stanu-alone moueinist builuings
tenus to be amoiphous, hostile, anu theiefoie useless. Attiactive public space was
iecieateu elsewheie unuei the guise of piivate, contiolleu space within commeicial
centeis. In this way, common space that is essential foi citizen inteiactions (anu
thus foims the basis of shaieu societal values) has been piivatizeu, ie-packageu, anu
1S
then solu back to the people. P2P-0ibanism ieveises this tenuency. In the next
section we will exploie how fiee paiticipation changes the way in which uibanism is
uone.

"?:4>=>@?4>23 6=95I56 C2: 8:H?3>6I ?3< ?:=9>45=48:5.
Centially-planneu enviionments oi builuings aie often uesigneu stiictly "on
papei" anu subsequently built to that specification, without any ioom foi auaptation
oi foi input fiom the final useis. In fact, the woist examples aie the iesults of
speculative builuing with no auaptive puipose in minu. Bowevei, theie has always
been a small anu unueiutilizeu inteisection of P2P thinkeis anu uibanistsplanneis
that have piomoteu paiticipatoiy events outsiue the official planning system. Those
uiban inteiventions have tenueu to be tempoiaiy iathei than peimanent because of
the uifficulty of implementing changes in the built fabiic.
Although the piesent gioup behinu P2P-0ibanism was foimeu only in 2u1u,
paiticipatoiy planning anu uesign go back uecaues, paiticulaily in the woik of }. F. C.
Tuinei on self-built housing in South Ameiica (7). Chiistophei Alexanuei's most
ielevant woik is the book "A Pattein Language" fiom 1977 (8), followeu by "The
Natuie of 0iuei" fiom 2uu1-2uuS (9). Noie iecent P2P collaboiative piojects baseu
upon the iuea of the commons weie uevelopeu anu applieu by Agatino Rizzo anu
many otheis (1u). These piojects iely explicitly upon uefining common owneiship
of a physical oi viitual iegion of uiban space.
Aftei uecaues of cential planning that ignoies local conuitions anu the complex
neeus of final useis, anu which tiies to uo away with the commons foi monetaiy
ieasons, people have foigotten the piincipal geometiical patteins that geneiateu
oui most successful human-scaleu uiban spaces thioughout histoiy. Theie $-8 been
an impoitant loss of the shaieu knowleuge that once let people builu humane
enviionments without much in the way of foimal planning.
Successful uiban uesign has eveiything to uo with ieal quality of life anu
sustainability. With the moueinist oi post-moueinist 8"-"*8 X*(, the main
consiueiation foi constiuction has been the visual impact of the finisheu piouuct. In
contiast to this, P2P-0ibanism has just as much to say about the piocess of planning
as the final, auaptive, human-scale outcome. It iepiesents a set of qualities anu goals
that aie wiuely shaiable, anu which go fai beyonu aichitectuie anu uiban uesign.
Piinciples of goou uibanism anu aichitectuie aie wiuely shaieable anu acceptable
by "eveiyuay people", but they aie not entiiely obvious. Foi example, it takes caieful
explaining to convince people that a peuestiian netwoik can be woven into cai-
centiic cities, anu that iathei than making tiaffic chaotic, this will in fact ieuuce
tiaffic, which is something that eveiyone woulu appieciate. In teims of evolutionaiy
uesign, a step-by-step uesign piocess that ie-aujusts accoiuing to ieal-time
constiaints anu human neeus leaus to the uesiieu final iesult, something impossible
to achieve fiom a pie-conceiveu oi foimal uesign.
Let us consiuei biiefly the kinus of paiticipation that can be open to uiffeient
people. Aichitects of couise ueal with the uesign of builuings. An aichitect familiai
16
with the neeus of a ceitain iegion may know, foi example, that an 8ucm eave is
enough to piotect thiee-metei tall stoieys fiom iainfall, in a paiticulai iegion with a
ceitain aveiage of winu anu iain. A builuei may be well veiseu in the actual ciaft of
constiuction, that to builu "$.8 kinu of eave, with the tiauitional foims useu in this
iegion, iequiies such anu such mateiials anu techniques. The final uwellei of a
house will ceitainly be inteiesteu in piotecting his winuows anu walls fiom iainfall,
but he may want to have a say in what kinu of winuow he wants: if he wants it to
open to the outsiue, then it must not bump against the wiue eave. Thus it is
impoitant to %8"-45.8$ 7(99*+.7-".(+ between useis, builueis, uesigneis, anu
eveiyone who is involveu with a paiticulai enviionment.
0ui hypothetical iainy iegion will uoubtless have similai pioblems to othei
similai iegions in uiffeient paits of the woilu. P2P-0ibanism lets these
geogiaphically sepaiateu people connect togethei to leain fiom each othei's
expeiience. Tiial-anu-eiioi can be ieuuceu by being able to ask, "who knows how to
builu winuows anu eaves that will stanu this kinu of iainfall.", anu to get an answei
backeu by eviuence.
Biggei pioblems can be attackeu in a similai way. Insteau of abstiact,
philosophical-sounuing talk like "the shape of the city must ieflect the spiiit of the
age", anu "winuows must be uesigneu to mimic a cuitain wall" (why.), we can look
foi eviuence of cities that aie humane anu livable. We can then auapt theii goou
iueas to local conuitions, uiawing upon the knowleuge of all the people who
paiticipate in the P2P-0ibanism community.
Constiuction fiims that embiace P2P-0ibanism may enu up being well-likeu in
the communities wheie they woik, foi they will actually be in constant
communication with the useis of theii "piouucts", iathei than just uoing hit-anu-iun
constiuction that is not loveu oi caieu foi by anyone.
0p to now, iesiuents have not been able to make any changes on "signatuie"
aichitectuie piojects, anu not even on the unattiactive housing blocks they happen
to iesiue in foi economic ieasons. P2P-0ibanism insteau auvocates foi people being
alloweu to mouify theii enviionment to suit theii neeus, insteau of ielying
exclusively on a uesignei who uoes not even live theie.
P2P-0ibanism is like an infoimally scientific way of builuing: take someone's
publisheu knowleuge, impiove it, anu publish it again so that othei people can uo
the same. Eviuence-baseu uesign ielies upon a giowing stock of scientific
expeiiments that uocument anu inteipiet the positive oi negative effects the built
enviionment has on human psychology anu wellbeing (11). People's instinctive
piefeiences can be uiiven eithei by Biophilia (a piefeience foi oiganic
enviionments) oi fashion (with sometimes uisastious consequences).
A cential featuie of New 0ibanist piojects is a "chaiiette" that involves usei
input befoiehanu, although sometimes applieu in only a supeificial mannei.
Neveitheless, in the best cases, a chaiiette piocess is not just an opinion poll; it is
also a non-uogmatic euucational piocess, a uialogue among stakeholueis leauing to
17
a final agieement. The iesult ieaches a highei level of unueistanuing compaieu to
wheie the inuiviuual paiticipants staiteu fiom.

12365]853=56 C2: I?:N>3?O>P5< @52@O5.
Some pioponents of the movement view P2P-0ibanism as a way to give powei to
maiginalizeu people, in teims of cieating the enviionment in which they live. This
point of view is tiue, but it is not the whole stoiy. A P2P piocess will have to
somehow channel anu amalgamate puie inuiviuualist, spontaneous piefeiences anu
ciavings within a piactical common goal. Theie is a vast uistinction between goou
anu bau uiban foim: only the fiist type encouiages socio-cultuial ielations to
flouiish; bau uiban foim leaus, among othei things, to neighbois who nevei even
inteiact with each othei.
A top-uown way of thinking anu uiban implementation has always ueteimineu
accessibility to public housing anu facilities built by goveinment, anu has fixeu the
uivision of powei in the uiban aiena. We want to facilitate integiation of people
now sepaiateu by uiffeiences of social status, using the built enviionment to help
accomplish that.
Naiginalizeu people oi minoiities will finu tiemenuous powei in being able to
builu theii own enviionment inexpensively, anu knowing that they aie builuing
something goou. Theie exists a pieceuent foi this in the vaiious eco-villages in
Nexico that uo theii own constiuction, with local mateiials, anu wheie eveiything is
hanu-built. P2P-0ibanism pioviues the key to successfully integiating the two
existing ways of uoing things: .) laige-scale planning that alone is capable of
pioviuing the necessaiy infiastiuctuie of a healthy city; anu ..) infoimal (anu most
often illegal) self-built settlements that aie giowing uncontiolleu in the ueveloping
woilu.
Foi maiginalizeu people, we can expect consequences similai to what has
happeneu with the use of fieeopen-souice softwaie in thiiu-woilu nations: local
expeitise is foimeu, a local economy follows, anu the whole countiy is eniicheu by
being able to take caie of its own pioblems.

"24534>?O <54:?=42:6 2C "#"E$:H?3>6I.
P2P-0ibanism is meant to tiansfei powei anu knowleuge fiom establisheu
aichitectuial piactice to common people. This may not be in line with the shoit-
teim monetaiy inteiests of the cuiient holueis of that powei.
We suggest an analogy with the use of fieeopen-souice softwaie. Even
ueveloping countiies like Peiu anu Biazil, which have saiu that they uon't like to use
piopiietaiy softwaie (geneially wiitten in the 0SA) because they feai that
espionage coue is embeuueu within the softwaie, enthusiastically commission
staichitect builuings that aie constiucteu accoiuing to a "seciet" coue. They uon't
iealize the tiemenuous contiauiction of this action. Those who uo, anu who stait
18
uoing theii own uesign anu constiuction, coulu save an enoimous amount of money
by iefusing to commission signatuie aichitects to uesign theii cities. 0bviously
those aichitects will not be happy with that piospect!
Bespite supeificial appeaiances (anu a lot of self-seiving piopaganua), the thieat
fiom non-auaptive anu eneigy-wasting uiban foims anu typologies is just as stiong
touay as it was immeuiately aftei the Seconu Woilu Wai. That was when histoiic
city centeis weie gutteu anu people foiceu into piison-like high-iises, following a
psychotic planning vision of "geometiical funuamentalism" (an iueology that aims to
impose simple geometiical solius such as cubes, pyiamius, anu iectangulai slabs on
the built enviionment) (12). This event moie than anything else uefineu uiban
alienation. The most fashionable aichitectuial anu uiban piojects (i.e. those that win
commissions anu piizes) completely avoiu oi uestioy existing human-scale
uibanism, to impose giant foims built in an extiemely expensive high-tech style.
Such outiageously costly piojects aie ioutinely awaiueu by centializeu powei
without any genuine citizen paiticipation.
Novements like "Lanuscape 0ibanism" have even tiieu to ie-uiess the cuiient
piactice with the auuition of beautiful "gieen" space, which unfoitunately only
seives to mask the funuamentally anti-natuie qualities of those high-tech builuings
as betiayeu by theii geometiy. The suiiounuing gaiuens aie wonueiful anu the
builuings blenu veiy nicely with the gaiuens in magazine ienueiings anu pictuies,
but the actual builuings aie the same anti-uiban inuustiial shapes. These piojects'
attiactiveness is again only a supeificial image anu coiiesponus neithei to usei
paiticipation noi to auaptation to the human scale. Noieovei, by inseiting huge but
inaccessible wilu gaiuens in the miuule of cities, the common uiban space that
people can actually use is in fact iestiicteu.
We cannot oveiemphasize the iauical uepaituie of what is essentially a local
shaieable knowleuge base about auaptive uesign anu builuing (i.e. P2P-0ibanism),
fiom the geneiic inuustiial style known as the "Inteinational Style" wiuely auopteu
in the 2u
th
centuiy. That appioach to builuing piomotes centializeu heavy inuustiy
at the expense of local constiuction gioups anu community self-help; it ignoies local
auaptation anu tiauitional techniques, anu excluues P2P-0ibanism fiom even being
consiueieu as an alteinative to piesent-uay builuing piactice.
Theie has been a neai-total anu uelibeiate neglect in acauemia foi the topics that
make up P2P-0ibanism, anu the same neglect holus tiue foi the "official" means of
uisseminating infoimation as iepiesenteu by the glossy aichitectuie magazines.
Neveitheless, since P2P itself is founueu upon shaiing anu a common effoit on the
Inteinet, the seveie existing infoimational ioaublock is finally bypasseu thanks to
the techniques uevelopeu foi infoimation anu softwaie shaiing. Noie than being
just a set of iueas, P2P-0ibanism uepenus ciitically upon a univeisal means of fiee
uissemination anu tiansmission, anu ties into euucational anu infoimational
channels that bypass those contiolleu by the elitist champions of the global
consumeiist society.
19
Peihaps the failuie in Alexanuei's eaily pioject in Nexicali, Nexico tuineu New
0ibanists away fiom the commons. Alexanuei's ownei-built housing was veiy
successful but hau a common aiea that uiu not succeeu foi seveial ieasons, as
uesciibeu in the book "The Piouuction of Bouses" (1S). Neveitheless, the
phenomenal success of the New 0ibanists in builuing Neo-Tiauitional
uevelopments in the 0S was a uiiect iesult of following Alexanuei's auvice of
"plugging into the existing system". We (i.e. membeis of the gioup uefining P2P-
0ibanism touay) feel that the tensions between the piivatebusiness focus of the
New 0ibanists, anu the commons-oiienteu alteinative appioach of the P2P activists,
will soit itself out into a piactical scheme that is useful foi humanity as a whole.
Each faction can leain fiom the othei. The impoitant point is the commonality of
uesign methous: in both appioaches, the iules foi human-centeieu aichitectuie anu
uiban uesign aie open-souice anu aie fieely accessible to all.

123=O86>23.
"vitiuvius famously openeu the fiist tieatise on aichitectuie with the statement
that aichitectuie iequiies the inteiaction between piactice (2-4'.7) anu ieasoning
('-".()" (14). The 8"-"*8 X*( in the 2u
th
anu 21
st
centuiies, so fai, has been the
uomination of both piactice anu ieasoning by establisheu aichitectuial fiims anu
cential planneis. P2P-0ibanism tiies to fiee up this knowleuge anu take it to the
entiie human population.
Re-aligning uibanism to involve the useis has piofounu socio-political
implications that aie fuithei uevelopeu by P2P thinkeis beyonu uiban questions.
These possibilities neeu to be investigateu because it may veiy well occui that not
only will funuamental societal changes eventually uiive a ievision in thinking about
woilu uibanism, but also vice-veisa.
We see P2P-0ibanism applieu aiounu the woilu as the only antiuote to the
continuing hegemony of anti-uiban builuing schemes contiolleu by centializeu
authoiities. The physical outcome foi the city, which is a pictuie of the haimonious,
paitially peuestiian, anu humanizeu community, is necessaiily the piouuct of a ueep
socio-cultuial piocess; otheiwise it is a fake.

'=X32UO5<NI5346.
Nany thanks to Auuun Engh, Nichael Nehaffy, Agatino Rizzo, anu Eleni Tiacaua
foi theii invaluable input in ciiticizing anu contiibuting to this essay.

Y22432456.
1. Congiess foi the New 0ibanism http:www.cnu.oig
2. Smait Coue http:www.smaitcouecential.oig
S. Waiu Cunningham's Wiki http:c2.comcgiwiki
2u
4. Wikipeuia http:www.wikipeuia.oig
S. P2P Founuation http:blog.p2pfounuation.net
6. Peimacultuie http:www.peimacultuie.oig.au
7. }ohn F. C. Tuinei (1976) N(*8.+3 46 &%(:5%, Naiion Boyais, Lonuon
http:www.amazon.comBousing-People-Autonomy-Builuing-
Enviionmentsupu714S2S69Sief=ntt_at_ep_upi_1
8. Chiistophei Alexanuei, S. Ishikawa, N. Silveistein, N. }acobson, I. Fiksuahl-King
& S. Angel (1977) ! &-""%'+ V-+3*-3%, 0xfoiu 0niveisity Piess, New Yoik
http:www.amazon.comPattein-Language-Builuings-Constiuction-
Enviionmentalupu19Su19199ief=ntt_at_ep_upi_1
9. Chiistophei Alexanuei (2uu1-2uuS) >$% B-"*'% (2 Y',%'Z I((<8 Y+% "( )(*',
Centei foi Enviionmental Stiuctuie, Beikeley, Califoinia
http:www.amazon.comPhenomenon-Life-Natuie-Builuing-
0niveiseupu9726S2914ief=ntt_at_ep_upi_S
1u. Agatino Rizzo's CityLeft http:cityleft.blogspot.com
11. Nikos Salingaios, "Life anu the geometiy of the enviionment", !"$%+8
G.-5(3*%8 J@K(*'+-5, Baivaiu 0niveisity's Centei foi Bellenic Stuuies (Novembei
2u1u) http:zeta.math.utsa.euu~yxk8SSlifeanuthegeometiy.puf
12. Nichael W. Nehaffy & Nikos A. Salingaios, (2uu6) "ueometiical
Funuamentalism", Chaptei 9 of: ! >$%('6 (2 !'7$."%7"*'%, 0mbau-veilag, Solingen,
ueimany http:www.math.utsa.euuftpsalingai.olufunuamentalism.html
1S. Chiistophei Alexanuei, Bowaiu Bavis, }ulio Naitinez & Bonalu Coinei (198S)
>$% &'(,*7".(+ (2 N(*8%8, 0xfoiu 0niveisity Piess, New Yoik
http:www.amazon.comPiouuction-Bouses-Centei-Enviionmental-
Stiuctuieupu19SuS22SSief=ntt_at_ep_upi_8
14. Caiioll William Westfall, "Why We Neeu a Thiiu Aichitectuial Tieatise",
!9%'.7-+ !'"8 [*-'"%'56, volume 2S, Numbei S (2uu6) pages 14-22
http:nccsc.net2uu681Swhy-we-neeu-a-thiiu-aichitectuial-tieatise






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)34:2<8=4>23.
I woulu like to iesponu to Nichel Bauwens' iecent aiticles, which examine the
natuie of a bioau alliance that coulu be expecteu to auopt a new P2P (Peei-to-Peei)
woiluview (Bauwens, 2u1u). Bauwens coiiectly questions whethei the olu
LeftRight uiviue is still valiu. It piobably is, but it is ceitainly neithei the only noi
the pieuominant uivisoi of society into gioups with opposing woiluviews. I have
been exploiing contiasting viewpoints fiom the peispective of ait, aichitectuie, anu
uibanism foi some time, anu woulu like to suggest a view of contempoiaiy
pioblems. This appioach may hopefully yielu insights that coulu be exploiteu in
moving towaius a moie humanly-auaptive P2P society.
What I have leaineu fiom Bauwens is that the politicaleconomic spectium
consists of a myiiau of contiasting appioaches, anu that any simplistic
inteipietation is not only wiong but also uangeious. While a tianspaiently simple
inteipietation anu mouel is logically attiactive, especially to the scientifically-
22
minueu ieauei, such appioaches have leu to uiastic eiiois in the past. Examples aie
numeious. Peei-to-peei oiientations aie being uebateu on both siues of the political
spectium, anu any impoitant auvance has to emeige out of finuing a commonality in
a set of P2P piioiities. A P2P infiastiuctuie is a potentially emancipatoiy technology
that allows the fiee aggiegation of inuiviuuals, yet such coopeiative anu collective
oiganization is uistinct fiom the gioupthink pathology.
A cential theme of this essay is to uistinguish between inuiviuuality anu
gioupthink oiientations. The P2P appioach emeiges as an essentially netwoikeu
foim of inuiviuuality. In the best cases, the socially-embeuueu human being is
empoweieu by the P2P fiamewoik to cieate fiee communities baseu upon uiveisity.
Neveitheless, the uangei of falling into the gioupthink mentality is also piesent in
P2P piactices anu society, anu veiy much so. We have to focus on the waining signs
so as to be able to avoiu gioupthink when it happens, oi catch it as it is about to
happen. uioupthink oiienteu effects have occuiieu in collective piactices of
uecision-making, anu mainstieaming tienus now appeai on the Web.
Bauwens summaiizes the uiffeience that I uiscuss heie in othei teims (Bauwens,
2u1u). In his woius, both Left anu Right aie uiviueu by a centialistuecentialist
uynamic, wheieas P2P ie-intiouuces this uynamic of localization in human histoiy.
This uecentialist appioach anu movement iuns contiaiy to pievious uecaues of
gigantism anu centialization. By abanuoning the visible hanu of centializeu
planning, we move towaius mutual cooiuination on a global scale, involving
inuiviuual anu collective enueavois. While waiy of the invisible hanu of gieeuy
maiket foices that tieat the inuiviuual only as something to be exploiteu,
localization alone woulu be iegiessive anu unable to suivive centialist onslaughts
that aie alieauy fiimly in place. Nutual cooiuination thiough commonality anu
univeisality, howevei, assumes a laige enough mass that can effectively
counteibalance gioupthink.

"?:4>4>23>3N 62=>54L H54U553 >3<>S><8?O ?3< N:28@49>3X @2@8O?4>2367 495
:2O5 2C 495 5Z@5:4.
Let me uiviue woiluviews between peisonal valiuation, veisus the blinu
following of gioupthink. 0n the one siue, the inuiviuual ueciues that heshe
possesses enough biological capability to juuge complex events anu stiuctuies in the
woilu; on the othei siue, an inuiviuual ielegates the ability to juuge to some expeit.
This seconu alteinative is influenceu by the methou intiouuceu by science, wheie
people uo not usually possess the scientific tiaining that woulu enable them to make
scientific juugments. Science iequiies specialization, anu its applications in fielus
such as engineeiing, meuicine, etc. also uefine uomains of specialization. The
oiuinaiy citizen simply uoes not have the tiaining to match expeits in those fielus.
Even in economics, something as necessaiy as tax-ietuin piepaiation uiviues
inuiviuuals who can accomplish it on theii own fiom those foi whom the task is too
complex, anu iequiies paying a tax expeit to uo it foi them.
2S
The authoiity of the expeit, howevei, is commanueeieu by those peisons intent
on builuing a powei stiuctuie. With ieligion in its most oppiessive foims, an
inuiviuual is tolu what to think. In the fielu of ait, aichitectuie, anu uibanism, with
which I am involveu, an expeit class of enoimous extent anu powei has giown anu
now uictates gioup opinion about what is iight anu wiong (Salingaios, 2uu6). Beie
we have a pioblem in that much of contempoiaiy aitistic enueavoi is felt (i.e.
peiceiveu biologically, psychologically, anu visceially) to be noxious anu uamaging
to oui psyche. This uiiect impiession contiauicts what the expeits aie saying, as it
contiauicts what a vast economic infiastiuctuie consisting of contempoiaiy ait
museums, heavy anu expensive pictuie books, couises in oui univeisities,
publications by woilu-famous ciitics, inteinational shows anu competitions,
piestigious awaius anu piizes unifoimly suppoits.
The othei, equally negative face of this phenomenon involves conuemnation of
what the piesent aitisticaichitectuial elite uoes not like (because it ieminus us of
the past). What natuially appeals to a peison on the basis of evolveu human
physiology is veiy fiequently uismisseu as "kitsch" anu is haishly conuemneu as a
sign of moial uegeneiacy anu backwaiuness. I'm soiiy to say that much of the
woilu's tiauitional ait, aichitectuie, anu uibanism falls into this categoiy of foims
conuemneu by an immensely poweiful establishment. We theiefoie face a global
phenomenon of cognitive uissonance: what we feel is iight is supposeu to be wiong
accoiuing to authoiity, anu what we feel is wiong is supposeu to be iight.
So who is justifieu, the expeit suppoiteu by a tiillion-uollai inuustiy centeieu in
the woilu's Ait Capitals, oi the folks who buy gauuy souveniis anu paint theii house
inteiiois anu exteiiois with biight colois. Who can we safely believe. I claim that
we shoulu tiust oui own biological instincts above all else, not simply foi any
political ieason that shoulu automatically siue with the common peison out of
egalitaiianism, but as eviuenceu by oui own evolution. Nuch of the ieseaich
suppoiting my claims is veiy iecent anu is containeu, but is not limiteu to, the new
uiscipline of Biophilia (Kelleit, Beeiwagen & Nauoi, 2uu8). Science is coming to
beai, not on the siue of the expeit establisheu thiough hegemony, but on the siue of
the oiuinaiy human being. The pioblem is that this claiification comes seveial
uecaues too late, only aftei a monolithic powei stiuctuie has built itself up. The
powei the establishment wielus is enough to silence scientific iesults.
As is cleai fiom meuicine anu technology, expeits aie absolutely necessaiy in oui
society, yet to be useful they must be guiues anu helpeis. Expeits have to be
oiienteu towaius the inteiests of the citizens anu civil society to help make suie that
society makes the iight uecisions. We neeu expeits who aie conveisant with the
pattein appioach outlineu below, to ueiive, uocument, anu help society in
implementing patteins. The pioblem is how to iecognize an expeit with society's
inteiest in minu, anu to uistinguish himhei fiom someone who offeis eithei faulty
auvice oi a uelibeiately biaseu point of view that piomotes a special inteiest oi
iueology. This is an unansweieu question, anu has been so thioughout oui histoiy.

24
"?445:36 =95=X 495 S?O><>4L 2C 5Z@5:4 2@>3>23.
I suggest a methou of checking the cieuentials of any expeit who offeis auvice on
aichitectuie anu uibanism. Since the built enviionment touches human life in an
immeuiate anu visceial sense, we can apply the Pattein methou (Alexanuei %"= -5=,
1977; Salingaios, 2uuu). A Pattein as ueiiveu by Chiistophei Alexanuei is a
uiscoveieu solution that woiks, iepeateu thioughout human society anu in uiffeient
ages anu cultuies, anu founu in totally uistinct cultuial contexts. Foi example, the
Pattein "Light on two siues of eveiy ioom" is founu in the most pleasant iooms all
ovei the woilu inuepenuently of any othei factoi. Alexanuei anu his colleagues
catalogueu 2SS such uiscoveieu patteins in 1977, anu pioviueu scientific
explanations foi about half of them. Foi the iest, they simply stateu them baseu
upon theii phenomenological iecuiience.
An aichitectuial anu uiban pattein combines geometiy with biological anu social
function: i.e. it combines human behavioi, movement, health, subconscious
physiological iesponse, anu life with a faiily geneial geometiical conuition that
encompasses an infinite numbei of specific situations. The patteins apply to cieate
new configuiations that shaie an essential basis but which can all be uistinct in theii
uetails. In this way, a pattein is not a iigiu template to copy eveiy time, but iathei an
applicable template that geneiates new solutions eveiy time. (The Appenuix to this
essay iepiints a ieview of Alexanuei's "A Pattein Language" that I wiote foi
!9-M(+=7(9).
While Alexanuei's patteins aie extiemely useful in empoweiing gioups of people
to uesign anu builu theii own living enviionment, the iuea of pattein languages is
moie poweiful still. It is possible to unueitake a piogiam of "pattein mining",
wheieby a society woiks to uiscovei socio-geometiic patteins in aichitectuie anu
uibanism, which it then uocuments foi posteiity (Salingaios, 2uuu). The patteins
can be useu whenevei neeueu to paitially guaiantee a moie human enviionment.
We have alieauy seen the patteins movement in softwaie, wheie Alexanuei's iueas
have been applieu to ueiive catalogues of softwaie patteins; patteins of softwaie
uevelopment; patteins of infoimation technology; etc. }ust as in aichitectuie anu
uibanism, softwaie patteins aie solutions that can be ie-useu inuefinitely.
The value of what an expeit is offeiing can be checkeu against evolveu patteins
uocumenteu by a society. If the expeit's pioposals uiffei too iauically fiom the
patteins, then people shoulu be extiemely cautious in auopting guiuelines that
might totally change theii societal stiuctuie. Theie is an inheient conseivatism in
the patteins, which can save a society fiom uisastious ie-oiientations that eiase
what was goou in theii past anu piesent. Change foi the goou coulu come faiily
quickly, but within a pattein language change has to be evolveu, anu it veiy iaiely
offeis a complete bieak with the past. People aie extiemely eagei to jettison olu
piactices anu embiace the piomise of the new, with its utopian visions of solving all
pioblems with one iauical stioke. We know, howevei, that this nevei woiks as
piomiseu.
2S
In implementing a complete bieak with aichitectuial anu uiban patteins, oui
society (since the 192us) has not succeeueu in geneiating living enviionments anu a
human-scale uiban fabiic. We aie now seeing a ietuin to past typologies such as
peuestiian city centeis, a move away fiom gigantism, iestiicting exclusively high-
speeu tiaffic, abanuoning monofunctional zoning in cities, encouiaging mixeu-use
uibanism, implementing uiban uensification on the human scale, etc. All of these
aie veiy hopeful signs of piogiess towaius a new type of living city that ie-uses
oluei tiauitional solutions in a contempoiaiy context. We shoulu encouiage the
many tienus anu initiatives that go in a positive uiiection of enhancing quality of
life. Within this uiban movement theie aie also anti-uiban solutions that the
oiuinaiy citizen confuses with genuine solutions. Again, the methou useu to
uistinguish between a goou anu a haimful solution is by ueteimining how fai it
connects to known patteins.
0ne last woiu on anti-patteins. }ust because a typology has been useu foi some
time uoes not make it a pattein. Some eiiois aie seuuctive. We see examples of anti-
patteins that weie wiong to begin with, anu iemain wiong in eveiy subsequent
application. Anti-patteins aie moie often stuuieu in softwaie: they have been
catalogueu foi the benefit of softwaie engineeis who can thus iuentify anu avoiu
auopting an anti-pattein (anu thus compiomise theii pioject). In aichitectuie anu
uibanism, ceitain typologies on wiuely uiffeient scales have peisisteu since the
192us even though they geneiate malaise in human useis (Salingaios, 2uu6). 0ne of
these is the isolateu glass-anu-steel skysciapei sitting in a paiking lot, lawn, oi haiu
plaza. Any society that uiives itself to extinction oi self-uestiuction is following
some foim of tiauition that has tiagically incoipoiateu anti-patteins. This shift is
maikeu by the tiansition into a gioupthink society.

"#" ?3< @?445:3 49>3X>3N.
P2P piinciples play a key iole in two uistinct stages of the pattein appioach to
society anu aichitectuie. Fiist, a pattein is evolveu thiough collective action by
many inuiviuuals anu ovei many geneiations. Builuing a useful anu pleasant
enviionment was the cential aim of aichitectuie foi all geneiations pievious to oui
own, thus typologies anu innovations tenueu to evolve into the most life-enhancing
solutions, limiteu only by the constiaints of available technology anu mateiials. A
pattein is theiefoie the iesult of collective actions, with many people contiibuting to
its uevelopment. Patteins weie copieu anu auapteu to uiffeient ciicumstances: the
univeisally applicable ones weie useu unalteieu, wheieas patteins uepenuent upon
specific situations weie auapteu to fit.
Seconu, using pattein languages to uesign anu builu oui enviionment uepenus
upon the P2P ethic. Besign infoimation is open to all, anu patteins encouiage
collaboiative uesign anu builuing. Evei since Alexanuei's book appeaieu in 1977,
aichitectuial patteins have spieau infoimally, piimaiily thiough peei-to-peei
netwoiks outsiue foimal aichitectuie piactice anu acauemia. Reaueis who have
gone thiough aichitectuie school know that Pattein Language is not taught as a
26
stanuaiu pait of the cuiiiculum. The ieason is that the empoweiing aspect of
pattein languages contiauicts the cential message of contempoiaiy fashionable
aichitectuie: the aichitect as a lone genius who possesses seciet (i.e. piopiietaiy)
knowleuge about uesign, which can nevei be shaieu with oiuinaiy people. Even the
aichitect's clients aie supposeu to be ignoiant, anu have to pay exoibitant sums of
money foi an "oiiginal" aichitectuial cieation they themselves can nevei
unueistanu.
In shaip contiast to this "genius" mentality fosteiing aitificial scaicity, people
woiking with patteins begin with the assumption that anyone can unueistanu how
to uesign anu builu iooms, houses, uiban spaces, anu cities. All they neeu is some
technical infoimation, a few iules of what not to uo, anu those iules aie ueiiveu
fiom past piactice (anu leaining fiom past mistakes). Besign patteins aie meant to
be shaieu fieely. The laigei the pioject, the moie we neeu technical assistance, but
this has to uo with technology anu implementation, not with the uesign itself.
Alexanuei has always emphasizeu that societies useu theii collective intelligence to
builu uuiing eveiy peiiou of human histoiy in the past, anu only stoppeu uoing so in
the miu-2uC.
Theiefoie, even as pattein thinking shoulu be coiiectly inteipieteu as a
continuation with oluei tiauitional uesign methous, it uoes not continue the system
now in place in the wealthy countiies. Theie exists a shaip uistinction between the
olu (2uC inuustiializeu anu globalizeu top-uown uibanism) anu the new (P2P
uesign by empoweieu inuiviuuals helping each othei). Infoimal settlements
compiising a laige peicentage of what is built touay will expeiience a smooth
tiansition as P2P anu pattein methous can uiastically impiove theii quality.
0nsustainable fantasies of high technology imposeu upon a countiy by a global
financial elite have founu theii natuial anu physical limits, howevei. Theie can be no
continuation because those iepiesent such a iauical negation of human biology anu
sensibility that they aie impeivious to auaptation.
Business implementations of the mouel I am uesciibing all uefine a commons
with maiket value auueu on top of the fiee iesouice. Assuming that a pattein
language foi uesign is available (people use Alexanuei's patteins plus a iepeitoiie of
patteins that they have themselves uevelopeu), an inuiviuual oi community can hiie
someone with expeiience in implementing the patteins to help save time anu costly
mistakes. The uesign infoimation is mostly fiee, anu the client pays foi expeit
auvice. The New 0ibanist Smait Coue, which giew out of patteins, is available fiee
online (Buany, Wiight & Soilien, 2uu9). Nany New 0ibanists offei theii seivices to
calibiate (i.e. aujust the coue to local ciicumstances) anu to help in its
implementation. That is how they make theii money. Again, the uesign iesouice is
fiee anu the piofit comes fiom the auueu maiket value. I shoulu mention that the
aichitectuial establishment slanueis New 0ibanism by labeling it as only foi the
wealthy; howevei, my New 0ibanist fiienus anu I have alieauy applieu those iueas
to help in builuing anu upgiauing infoimal settlements anu social housing.

27
B>64>3=4>23 H54U553 >3<>S><8?O`N:28@49>3X ?3< /5C4`%>N94 @?:4>4>236.
The inuiviuualgioupthink paitition uefines a uistinct political uiviue fiom the
olu LeftRight paitition. I will look foi oveilaps anu contiauictions. }ustifying the
feelings of common people against an elitist society that manipulates the meuia is a
classic iesponsibility of the political Left. But this same iuea is just anothei siue of
the insistence of the political Right that the inuiviuual shoulu have the ability to
ueciue foi himheiself, anu not be bullieu into accepting a geneiic woilu imposeu by
the majoiity society which coulu iepiesent the lowest common uenominatoi. In this
ciucial point of inuiviuualism, the Left anu Right paitially inteisect.
It is also impoitant to point out how both Right anu Left have histoiically
encouiageu the paitition as I have just uefineu it. The Right is often enamoieu with
expensive things anu the latest fashions, anu this consumeiist uige is piecisely what
uiives inhuman ait, aichitectuie, anu uibanism. Expeits aiise within, anu aie
piomoteu by the unstoppable engine of global consumeiism, initially veiy much a
phenomenon of the Right. Theie is a lot of money to be maue fiom piomoting
useless anu even noxious piouucts, whethei they be ait objects, fashionable-looking
builuings, oi entiie new cities uesigneu by a "stai" aichitect (who may in fact have
absolutely no giasp of the piinciples of uibanism). The meuia aie contiolleu by the
maiket, which itself exists in a self-feeuing cycle within the global consumeiist
engine.
The Left is not blameless, howevei. Foi much of its histoiy, it has fallen piey to an
iueology that falsely couples libeiation anu piogiess to abstiact images of a futuie
moueinity, even long aftei such images tuin out to be inhuman anu uysfunctional in
application. Well-meaning piogiessives bought into the piomise of mass-
piouuction, especially its moie noxious (anu unnecessaiy) aspect emphasizing the
machine aesthetic. We aie theiefoie still weuueu to utopian aichitectuial anu uiban
typologies of the 192us, piomiseu at that time to be libeiating foi the oppiesseu
woiking class, anu since implementeu by both uemociatic anu totalitaiian
goveinments of both Left anu Right. Eveiy application has been a uismal failuie, yet
oui univeisities continue to teach the "socially libeiating" iueal of the Bauhaus
aesthetic as it applies to lamps, winuows, builuings, anu entiie cities.
The Left was initially complicit in the sins of moueinity, with which it shaieu the
same piesuppositions. It blinuly believeu in abstiact social piogiess anu social
engineeiing fiom above. Inuiviuuals on the Left, howevei, soon iesponueu with
stiong ciitiques of this naiiow image-baseu oi iueology-baseu moueinity as it leu to
a centialist uynamic that unuiu inuiviuual fieeuoms anu maue inuiviuual input
ieuunuant. As Bauwens cogently pioposes, the healthy solution envisions the state
as a meie vehicle foi coexistence: a paitnei anu seivant of civil society, iathei than
the mastei of the stiategy of social change. The pioblem is to influence the state
itself to assume this iole. Bauwens wains against the extieme anti-statist ieaction of
libeitaiians anu insteau encouiages collaboiation among the uispaiate thieaus that
cieate a civil society.
28
Tiauitional aichitectuie anu uibanism tenu to be conuemneu by some of the
cieatois of the gioupthink society, often in the haishest possible teims. Applying
negative meme encapsulation, the globally-contiolleu meuia teiioiize society with
the waining that any tiauitional-looking majoi builuing such as a public builuing,
theatei, school, museum, oi oiganization heauquaiteis, anu histoiical-looking uiban
fabiic, aie an immeuiate thieat to libeity anu even to technological piogiess. The
majoiity of people buy that lie because of meuia conuitioning (Salingaios, 2uu6).
The Left has been unfoitunately complicit in conuemning tiauitional aichitectuie
anu uibanism because of a tiagic misinteipietation that conflates social foices with
abstiact images.
At the same time, howevei, unsustainable subuiban spiawl that uiove the iecent
financial collapse is baseu upon builuing gieat numbeis of isolateu houses anu
shopping malls that look veiy tiauitional. Beie, the most supeificial images of
tiauition aie abuseu to sell a uefective anu shouuily-built piouuct to the gullible
masses who ueep uown yeain foi some moie tiauitional connection to theii woilu.
0ibanism that isolates people, uestioys agiicultuial lanu, anu wastes iesouices has
become a coiollaiy of the junk foou inuustiy, uiiven as it is by images anu
auveitizing. Theiefoie, uespite what seems to be a tiauitional movement in mass-
piouuceu iesiuences, this is ieally an image coveiing up an unsustainable anu
eneigy-wasting uespoliation of the natuial enviionment.

"#" @:>3=>@O56 :5>3C2:=5 495 65OCE2:N?3>P>3N 62=>54L.
P2P piactices anu iueas help to balance out the tension between the two paits in
the inuiviuualunthinking paitition of society. Reaueis will immeuiately offei that
impioveu euucation woulu pievent oiuinaiy, intelligent people fiom following
obviously iestiictive anu oppiessive iueologies. People ieason foi themselves. Anu
yet, we see the same phenomenon iepeating thioughout histoiy, wheie pseuuo-
ieligious cults anu extiemist political movements uiag entiie nations along in a
nihilistic fienzy. Nany classic cases involveu societies with a highly-euucateu
citizeniy. Cleaily, euucation is not enough to combat the phenomenon of
biainwashing, especially as touay, a majoi sectoi of Westein economy (e.g.
auveitising anu political campaigns) is uevoteu to it.
P2P piactices, on the othei hanu, have both the coiiect appeal anu the iight
message to accomplish the job. Since its inception in the slightly subveisive woilu of
open softwaie, P2P has caught on with those who wish to siuestep a monolithic
powei establishment. Euucation in the P2P aiena offeis the peiception that its
content lies outsiue, anu is thus potentially fai moie valuable, than infoimation
pumpeu thiough the iegulai channels by an establishment inteiesteu piimaiily in
contiolling the minus of citizens. While this may be an extieme view, it neveitheless
concoius with the open-souice movement that libeiates the tools of Infoimation
anu Communications Technologies so that the iest of the woilu outsiue the global
elite can piofit fiom them.
29
The basis foi P2P philosophy iequiies INBIvIB0ALS helping each othei, anu its
iuealization is achieveu when this multiple connectivity finally cieates a "collective
intelligence". I holu the view that this type of collective thinking piocess is veiy
uiffeient fiom the psychology of ciowus that occuis when masses of people aie
uiiven by an iueology anu gioupthink. As pieviously mentioneu, the fieice
inuiviuualism of conseivative thought combines to geneiate a highei level of gioup
intelligence that is paiticipatoiy iathei than simply blinuly ieinfoicing a single
message. This collective intelligence among peeis hopefully possesses a vastly
impioveu analytical skill, which peimits it to analyze social manipulation such as
that piacticeu by the mass meuia. P2P society keeps its components as inuiviuuals,
wheieas consumeiist society conveits them into one unthinking mass.
Patteins iepiesent the woikings of collective intelligence ovei seveial
geneiations to evolve socio-geometiical solutions. Assuming that a pattein has been
accuiately uocumenteu (uiscoveieu anu not inventeu), it stanus foi a fai gieatei
authoiity than cuiient aichitectuial fashion. A style that is the iuea of a single
aichitect, although it may be copieu by otheis, is in fact populai because a poweiful
establishment usually suppoits it. When theie is conflict between aichitectuial
patteins anu an inuiviuual aichitect, paiauoxically, the pattein is the one
coiiesponuing to fiee aggiegate inuiviuual thought because it is valiuateu in P2P
teims. By contiast, the iueas of a famous aichitect lack collective valiuation, anu aie
suppoiteu insteau by gioupthink abetteu by the contiolleu global meuia.

$:H?3>6I ?I23N 495 N:28@49>3X 62=>54L.
Beginning in the 192us, the sleek, mechanical images of a new futuie uefineu a
built enviionment maue of glass cuitain walls, steel fiames, ieinfoiceu conciete, anu
the isolateu fieestanuing high-iise builuing (Salingaios, 2uu6). Neithei the Left noi
the Right questioneu these typologies, as massive constiuction put up apaitment
blocks anu office toweis fiom Nagnitogoisk, to Betioit, to Teheian. These
stubboinly neat geometiical visions contiasteu with ownei-built housing that is
moie tailoieu to human sensibilities, though most often constiucteu with veiy pooi
mateiials. Self-built settlements aie unifoimly conuemneu as not confoiming to the
accepteu image of piogiess (in tiuth that of iefoimist 192u's Euiope). uoveinments
of eveiy political oiientation make it theii ueteimineu objective to bulluoze
infoimal cities anu ieplace them with neat-looking but inhuman towei blocks. This
is one of the most seiious actions against P2P uibanism, since paiticipatoiy builuing
occuis only when it is suppoiteu by local help anu connectivity, anu nevei by
implementation fiom above.
The philosophical Right offeis a bulwaik against this piopaganua, because it
continues to value oluei, tiauitional foims. Peihaps valiu foi a subset of the iight
ieasons, conseivatives maintain an appieciation of tiauitional things, anu uo not
iush to uispose of eveiything olu just because a political iueology ueclaies that such
a saciifice is necessaiy foi piogiess. Conseivatives aie moie immune to this uige to
jettison all that has evolveu in oui past; they maintain the belief that the past is
Su
connecteu to the living piesent anu cannot simply be thiown away. Beie, howevei,
we iun into the collusion of the economic Right with powei (with iuentical iesults to
the collusion of the Left with powei): nothing is sacieu if it poses an obstacle to
making a vast piofit.
It is not necessaiy to convince those on the Right of the sacieu value of
pieseiving the gieat human achievements of the past, but less easy to unueiscoie
the value of folk ait anu aichitectuie anu iiiegulai uibanism. Those aie too closely
tieu to the pooi, anu so uo not often gain auequate suppoit fiom the Right. Anu yet,
the salvation of the built enviionment iequiies foi the Right to accept anu embiace
the neeus of human beings fiom all classes. "Bigh" anu "folk" ait anu aichitectuie
meet, inteiact, anu ieinfoice each othei, uiiven by bottom-up foices playing out in
the fiamewoik of patteins, while all of this is uiiven by the upswell of human
sentiment. When ait is iooteu in humanity iathei than intellect, it can bettei iesist
the uevelopment of sick anu sauistic expiessions that have become fashionable anu
highly maiketable in iecent uecaues.
Woilu piouuction of veinaculai ait, aichitectuie, anu uibanism tenus to come
fiom those on the Left, simply because they aie less well off. But the pioblem heie is
that these same people aspiie to values instilleu in theii minus by the globally-
contiolleu meuia, anu thus iefuse to value what they themselves piouuce. They aie
easily manipulateu in a global game of unsustainable consumeiism that piofits only
the multinationals. The goal of consumeiism is to unueivalue what can be piouuceu
easily in a P2P society, anu to cieate a uepenuence upon a piopiietaiy piouuct.
Theiefoie, the woilu touay has almost entiiely been taken ovei by an elite that is
conveiting it into the gioupthink society, uiiving global consumeiism anu the
economic engine that supplies it. Nost people have no qualms about the massive
inuoctiination that is necessaiy to maintain the global consumeiist society. At the
same time, howevei, we aie wasting the eaith's iesouices.

F95 "#" =>4L6=?@5 84>O>P56 28: O?4564 45=932O2NL.
Lest a ieauei get the wiong impiession that I am piomoting a ietuin to the 18C
city anu the abanuonment of all technological piogiess, let me cleai things up.
Woilu cities befoie the 2uC weie unhealthy places, anu most iemain so still. We
ueluue ouiselves by limiting oui attention to small poitions of wealthy cities in the
Westein Woilu, yet a laige poition of humanity lives unuei teiiible sanitaiy
conuitions. Foitunately, we now possess the technological iesouices to make a
tiemenuous auvancement that woulu enhance the quality of life foi a majoi pait of
the woilu's uiban population. Foi example, the uiameen Bank has lifteu millions out
of poveity by giving out a veiy laige numbei of veiy small loans. Technological
auvances such as poitable telephones anu low-cost local powei geneiation have
solveu pioblems that plagueu humanity foi millennia. The latest technological
auvances can be applieu in a bottom-up fashion to benefit inuiviuuals. This small-
scale appioach helps much moie than uoes technological gigantism, which noimally
ignoies the inuiviuual.
S1
What I am pioposing is that we follow aichitectuial anu uiban patteins, that we
iespect the geometiy of the living city (i.e. tiauitional human-scaleu uiban
geometiy), anu not tiy to ieplace living human fabiic with utopian images of a shiny
futuie. Insteau, use a P2P appioach to upgiaue oui cities, uiiven by ciowusouicing
anu fieely-shaieu infoimation on how human beings can live bettei. 0seful expeit
auvice uoes not come fiom the aichitectuie ciitic who pioposes ieplacing ownei-
built uiban fabiic by giant skysciapeis built out of impoiteu glass anu steel. We
shoulu insteau accept auvice on how to apply patteins anu small-scale technology to
fix what we have. "0fficial" infoimation souices tenu to be mouthpieces of veiy
poweiful political anu economic inteiests, anu those have the most to gain fiom the
laige-scale appioach that ignoies human scale.
The key aspect of P2P society is uiffuse non-expeit public involvement. P2P can
play a ciucial iole to open people's eyes, heietofoie constiaineu (eithei by custom
oi by ciicumstance) to follow expeit auvice that may be uestiuctive. Now as nevei
befoie so many people have access to essential infoimation, incluuing patteins, that
they can use to change theii woilu into something bettei foi all. While Alexanuei's
patteins aie not yet available fiee online, all it takes is one peison familiai with the
Pattein Language to biing one copy of the book into a community anu to help plan
theii futuie. A few volunteeis can euucate people aiounu the globe on the value of
thinking about patteins, using the inteinet as the uistiibution meuium. The same is
tiue foi bottom-up help when an honest Nu0 comes to install local powei souices
anu infiastiuctuie using available laboi anu mateiials.

":245=4>3N 495 3?48:?O :5628:=56 2C 495 U2:O<7 O2S5 ?3< 2U35:69>@ 2C 495
=2II236.
I woulu like to exploie the founuations of a P2P appioach connecting to anu
eventually piotecting oui woilu. Fiist anu foiemost, the basic concept of the
commons neeus to be establisheu by physicality, not iueology. In my expeiience
with uiban foims anu spaces, people uo not iuentify with a paiticulai place unless
they feel they own it in some way. Foi that to occui, they must take emotional
owneiship. I believe that this is possible only if theie is a shaieu feeling of love foi
the physical object, anu even then only when this feeling is quite intense. If we love
something, we caie to pieseive it. We can love something that is not exclusively
ouis, anu then it becomes a common goou. Nuch of the time, we love something that
we have paiticipateu peisonally in cieating.
Consiuei the uiban squaie of a village built by its inhabitants, the small chuich oi
temple in a village also built by its inhabitants, the gieat catheuial that was
neveitheless the common enueavoi of the people in a city foi ovei a centuiy. In all
these cases, the useis "own" the stiuctuie because they helpeu to cieate it, anu they
love it foi the same ieason. They will piotect it against uamage anu uestiuction
because they connect to it emotionally, psychologically, anu visceially.
We uon't love the mouein chuich uesigneu by a "name" aichitect because it is not
pait of us; it is alien. Its geometiy anu suifaces contiauict its claim of being sacieu
S2
thiough an unmistakable visceial message that tiiggeis a negative physiological
iesponse in oui bouies. It has been solu to us by a coiiupt meuia thiough
inuoctiination, in a political powei game wheie a seivile gioup is piouu to execute
the wishes of the uominant elite. In the same way, we uon't love the haiu alien plaza
uesigneu by anothei "name" aichitect, noi the giant anu absuiu abstiact sculptuie
that occupies anu spoils what coulu have been a veiy nice uiban space. None of
these objects can evei become pait of the commons, uespite the enoimous meuia
expense tiying to convince us of theii woith in iueological teims baseu upon an
ephemeial fashion.
Shaheu Khan poses the uistuibing question of whethei the society that
collaboiates to collectively builu a Nosque oi Catheuial is uiiven by iueology anu
gioupthink. The people aie uefinitely motivateu by a shaieu belief, anu the iesulting
stiuctuie is a common goou to be enjoyeu by membeis of the majoiity society. I
believe that the enu iesult is one of love: a woishippei loves hishei temple, anu
even moie so if heshe has helpeu to builu it. The gloiious ieligious stiuctuies
thioughout oui histoiy give an incieuibly intense biophilic feeuback that nouiishes
the usei. Someone fiom anothei ieligion expeiiences this positive biophilic effect
(Chiistians visiting a 1SC Nosque oi Binuu temple aie moveu emotionally; Nuslims
anu Binuus visiting a Neuieval Catheuial aie similaily moveu; eveiyone visiting the
Paithenon, etc.). uioupthink, by contiast, is most often associateu with hate, not
love. It polaiizes one gioup of people against anothei, it uenigiates anu conuemns
the othei's woik by uenying the love that went into piouucing it, anu by uenying the
commonality all human beings have foi the things they love even as those things
may uiffei. uioupthink channels human foices towaius uestiuction.
As Bauwens ieminus us, the commons can also be viitual, such as an online
community that shaies a commonly-cieateu commons of softwaie oi uesign
uepositoiy. A piime canuiuate foi such a commons woulu be an online Pattein
Language. The incieuible giowth of social netwoiks testifies to the human neeu to
connect, anu to the feeling of belonging to each othei anu to a "meeting place" that is
easy to get to (anu which enables the inteipeisonal meetings to take place). An
online websitefoium is an example of a successful anu conciete collective
infiastiuctuie.
Anothei uimension of love anu owneiship uevelops ovei time, aftei seveial
geneiations have expeiienceu connection to a paiticulai place oi builuing. 0ui
ancestois coulu have built it, so owneiship anu love of that place oi builuing iuns in
oui family. Tiauitional societies value the continuity of connection that establishes
an inuiiect link with oui ancestois, anu the same link continues into the futuie to
incluue oui uescenuants. Conseivatives place a high value on this continuity that
links geneiations of people acioss time thiough the inteimeuiaiy of paiticulai
shaieu places. 0nfoitunately, heie the Left is less helpful because of its uige to unuo
past society so as to move foiwaiu towaius ieal oi imagineu piogiess. When the
past is seen as a baiiiei to emancipation anu auvancement, theie is little to uo to
convince a society of the value of pieseiving at least some continuity.
SS
The LeftRight uiviue uissolves in a uangeious mannei when the gioupthink
society is biainwasheu into a fanatical hatieu of its own past. In a phenomenon that
is now iefeiieu to as Ecophobia, both Left anu Right have tuineu against theii built
heiitage anu unthinkingly embiace images of builuings that aie totally inhuman.
The simple necessity of uemolition in histoiic city centeis in oiuei to eiect these
new stiuctuies has spawneu a piopaganua wai against histoiical anu tiauitional
built foim, with the aim of ieplacing them. All the techniques uevelopeu in the
auveitising inuustiy aie applieu in a clevei mannei to piomote alien images of new
builuings, while at the same time the complementaiy techniques of negative meme
encapsulation, uevelopeu in the militaiy iathei than in Nauison Avenue, aie applieu
to conuemn histoiical anu veinaculai aichitectuie anu uibanism. An "outuateu"
geometiy is maikeu foi elimination, anu the people aie convinceu by the meuia of
the necessity of intiouucing as iapiuly as possible the new "signs of piogiess" that
aie the piouucts of the global aichitectuial elite.

%5O>N>23J =8O46J ?3< 495 /5C4`%>N94 @2O?:>4L.
Religion shapes oui woiluview, anu it can be foi the bettei oi woise. Pietenuing
that this uoesn't occui only opens up society to be taken ovei by a substitute
ieligion. In the past, tiauitional ieligions incoipoiateu anu suppoiteu gioups of
evolveu patteins anu thus pioviueu positive ieinfoicement. Substitute ieligions
impose theii own iueology anu images: foi example, the sleek inhuman visions of
machine moueinity now almost univeisally woishippeu by people aiounu the woilu
(Salingaios, 2uu6). The ubiquitous images of inuustiial piogiess have assumeu the
status of ieligious iuols. Eveiy othei aspect of the establishment's powei base is
ciiticizeu with a giounuswell movement aiising fiom the bottom up anu feu by
P2P infoimation exchange except foi aichitectuie anu uibanism. Religious
valiuation of inhuman aichitectuie anu uiban spaces as uogma piecluues a
spontaneous ieaction against them in oui westein-baseu netwoikeu society.
The ueveloping woilu, wheie laige sections of society aie much moie
tiauitionally ieligious than in the wealthy westein nations, ieacts in the opposite
mannei. Beie, the polaiity between tiauitionalcontempoiaiy aichitectuie anu
uibanism is inteipieteu in pieuominantly ieligious teims. The West still has not
unueistoou this phenomenon, uismissing it thus fai simply as economic anu
political hostility. I believe that uiamatic anu shaiply conflicting foices aie acting
out heie: westein inuustiial foims so eageily accepteu by the gioupthink society aie
coiiectly inteipieteu by people iooteu in a tiauitional ieligion as a thieat to theii
tiauitional woiluview. The people ieact against this westein intiusion, sometimes
violently. P2P society can iecognize the foices behinu this ieaction, anu offei moie
appiopiiate alteinatives consistent with human-scale uibanism that iespects
tiauitional society.
The basis foi P2P society is funuamentally sounuei than what we have iight now,
yet we still iequiie a iappiochement on the issue of ieligion (iefeiiing to both
tiauitional beliefs anu the cult of inuustiial images) as a pieiequisite foi auopting
S4
patteins anu iejecting piopaganua. The Left wants emancipation, which incluues
emancipation fiom cultuial patteins that aie seen as impositions on the soveieignty
of the inuiviuual anu the enjoyment of the eteinal piesent. Authoiitative cultuial
patteins aie of couise at ouus with the Enlightenment iationality. The
establishment has useu inuiviuualism, mateiialism, uemociacy, anu piogiess
thiough science anu technology to uestioy eveiy human link to tianscenuence.
These woithy iueals of the Enlightenment weie abuseu by both Left anu Right to
cieate a powei base foi the benefit of the few.
To give cultuial patteins the weight they neeu to stanu up to opposition anu
peifoim theii function, patteins have to be seen as backeu by some piinciple that
tianscenus paiticulai anu ephemeial human goals, anu is at least as authoiitative as
expeits anu auveitising images. Tiauitional societies valiuateu theii evolveu anu
ueiiveu patteins by making them sacieu, so that ieligion seiveu this useful function
of piotecting patteins essential to a healthy emotional life. We will have to pioviue a
novel, science-baseu mechanism foi linking patteins to some oiuei highei than the
eveiyuay. The inception of a P2P society baseu upon fiee thought iesiues in
libeiating access to useful infoimation such as Alexanuei's patteins. Without some
soit of commonly-accepteu suppoit, howevei, evolveu patteins become piey to
iueologies anu images that uegiaue humanity. A society can fall unuei the spell of a
substitute ieligion that uses biilliant slogans to ieciuit conveits anu to keep the
faithful in line as unthinking consumeis of mateiial anu iueological junk.
P2P self-oiganization is especially valuable as a foim of iesistance to the ieal ioot
of political pioblems: egotism, heuonism, coiiuption, nihilism evolving into sauism
in the aits anu aichitectuie, etc. Fiee inuiviuual uecision insteau of gioupthink helps
establish uesiiable social functioning anu counteis a tenuency towaius extieme
centialization. Patteins that enable inuiviuuals to ueal with theii lives in satisfying
ways without having some expeit oi meichanuisei tell them what to uo aie not just
exteinal pieces of infoimation they can get off the web. Cultuial patteins uefine the
ieality of things foi inuiviuuals anu help them become the kinu of peison they aie:
socio-geometiic patteins shape people's woiluview anu consequently theii veiy
place in the woilu.

*=?O56 49?4 4:?36=53< 495 3?4>23 64?45.
Some questions go fai beyonu the topic of this essay, anu will have to be
uevelopeu elsewheie. P2P society tianscenus the nation state, fieely ciossing
national bounuaiies, since its membeis shaie moie with like-minueu citizens of
anothei countiy than with the powei establishment of theii own countiy. P2P uoes
not have a national boiuei. The oiiginal uieam of the Left in uniting the woiking
classes of the woilu heie takes on a uiffeient meaning, but one that coulu be equally
thieatening to notions of national soveieignty. Conseivatives neeu not be alaimeu,
howevei, because P2P empoweis inuiviuuals towaius a bettei quality of life insiue
theii own countiy anu within theii own society haimoniously, anu is not uiiecteu
SS
towaius woilu ievolution. The only ievolution conceins itself with libeiating access
to useful infoimation.
The basic iuea of P2P anu people helping themselves anu each othei encouiages
co-existence among uiffeient gioups that woulu otheiwise be competing foi
iueological ieasons, anu foi iesouices maue aitificially scaice by cential gieeu anu
mismanagement. A P2P woiluview theiefoie helps the situation of minoiities within
a majoiity society. At the same time, if people choose to follow the
conseivativepiogiessive alliance that I'm pioposing heie, national iuentity
becomes a positive factoi. uetting away fiom the gioupthink nationalism that uiives
countiies to aggiession against each othei, iecognizing national cultuial
achievements the opposite of the homogenization piomoteu by the global meuia
is a sustaining souice of national piiue. Nuch of the fabiic of national piiue has
been eiaseu by globalization that ieplaces local achievements with nonuesciipt anu
geneiic commeicial piouucts.
Shaheu Khan anu Agatino Rizzo iaise the point that the inuiviuualgioupthink
uichotomy fails to biing minoiity gioups into the uebate. It is tiue that a uominant
gioup exeicises hegemony ovei othei gioups in a society, anu that uominance is
exaceibateu in a gioupthink mentality. Neveitheless, I believe that a P2P appioach,
by tiying to impiove the quality of life thiough coopeiation, offeis much bettei
piospects foi a positive foim of society that is inclusive anu which can celebiate
uiveisity. We see the successful comingling in multicultuial societies all aiounu the
woilu whenevei a society values all factois leauing to impioving the quality of life
thiough biological feeuback.

123=O86>237 42U?:<6 ? 35U ?OO>?3=5.
I hope to have helpeu make cleai pait of what is iequiieu foi a P2P society.
Boubtless, we aie only at the beginning of thinking about this effoit, making plans
foi the fiist implementations, anu theie is much moie that will neeu to evolve anu
uevelop. But we can summaiize the fiist steps to take towaius this goal. Ny
uiscussion has been ianging between uibanism anu politics, anu ceitainly uoes not
incluue the othei significant components that aie ciucial foi a P2P iestiuctuiing of
institutions into a self-oiganizing society.
The conclusion is obvious: a consumeiist fienzy uiiven by a massively global
economic-political establishment is eating up the eaith's iesouices. In oiuei to
function, it hau to cieate a gioupthink society, anu it continues to uo so thiough its
absolute contiol of the global meuia. This much is immeuiately giaspeu by pait of
the Left, which eageily embiaces P2P iueas because it sees in them an alignment
with its own anti-establishment iueals. Neveitheless, while these points aie
necessaiy they aie not sufficient to uevelop a new P2P society.
The othei component of P2P is the ie-utilization of patteins of geometiy, of
socio-economic actions, of tiauition, which have woikeu in the past. Nost (though
ceitainly not all) of these tiauitional patteins aie intiinsically sustainable because
they aiose out of necessity, anu apply on the human scale. Beie we aie in the
S6
tiauitional uomain of the Right. The Right pieseives the essential iespect of
tiauitions by making them sacieu. The cultuial baggage of conseivatives incluues
not only an essential unueistanuing of what is woith saving, but also the woiluview
that gives an inuiviuual the stiength of chaiactei to oppose the massive
biainwashing that is conveiting the woilu into a gioupthink population. The Left
might be suipiiseu to iealize that it neeus essential tools fiom the Right in oiuei to
complete the basic iequiiements foi a P2P society.
We can piofitably aigue the viewpoint that the woilu has been uiviueu accoiuing
to a new paititioning, which is non-political. The olu LeftRight paititioning is not
veiy useful in implementing a new P2P society. Any component of eithei siue of the
olu political uiviue that suppoits P2P can anu shoulu be incoipoiateu into a new
woiluview. As soon as the woilu iealizes this, it will become easiei to cioss ovei the
olu political uiviue in oiuei to implement new iueas towaius a sustainable society.

'=X32UO5<NI5346: Let me mention that my piincipal influences aie Chiistophei
Alexanuei, Nichel Bauwens, anu Rogei Sciuton. I am most giateful foi constiuctive
ciiticism on eailiei uiafts of this essay by Nichel Bauwens, }ames Kalb, Shaheu
Khan, Ryan Lanham, Agatino Rizzo, Ray Sawhill, anu Stefano Seiafini. I have
enueavoieu to utilize all of theii comments.

&)&/)-0%'"K^.
Chiistophei Alexanuei, S. Ishikawa, N. Silveistein, N. }acobson, I. Fiksuahl-King &
S. Angel (1977) ! &-""%'+ V-+3*-3%, 0xfoiu 0niveisity Piess, New Yoik.
Nichel Bauwens (2u1u) "With whom can we woik togethei: is it possible to ally
piogiessives anu conseivatives aiounu P2P themes anu piioiities.", &F&
)(*+,-".(+, S Apiil 2u1u <http:blog.p2pfounuation.netwith-whom-can-we-
woik-togethei-is-it-possible-to-ally-piogiessives-anu-conseivatives-aiounu-p2p-
themes-anu-piioiities2u1uu4uS>.
Anuis Buany, William Wiight & Sanuy Soilien (2uu9) Smait Coue, veision 9.2,
G*-+6@&5-"%'@^64%'< <http:smaitcouecential.comsmaitfilesv9_2.html>.
Stephen R. Kelleit, }uuith Beeiwagen & Naitin Nauoi, Euitois (2uu8) I.(:$.5.7
G%8.3+Z "$% >$%('6/ C7.%+7% -+, &'-7".7% (2 I'.+3.+3 I*.5,.+38 "( V.2%, }ohn Wiley,
New Yoik, 2uu8. Ny contiibution is Chaptei S co-authoieu with Kenneth Nasuen:
"Neuioscience, the Natuial Enviionment, anu Builuing Besign", pages S9-8S.
Nikos A. Salingaios (2uuu) "The Stiuctuie of Pattein Languages", !'7$."%7"*'-5
L%8%-'7$ [*-'"%'56, 4, pages 149-161. Repiinteu as Chaptei 8 of &'.+7.:5%8 (2 D'4-+
C"'*7"*'%, Techne Piess, Amsteiuam, Bollanu, 2uuS.
Nikos A. Salingaios (2uu6) "Aichitectuial Nemes in a 0niveise of Infoimation",
_(+,%8 )'-+7(:$(+%8 (Febiuaiy 2uu6)
<http:monuesfiancophones.comespacescybeiespacesaichitectuial-memes-in-
S7
a-univeise-of-infoimation>. Reviseu veision is Chaptei 12 of ! >$%('6 (2
!'7$."%7"*'%, 0mbau-veilag, Solingen, ueimany, 2uu6.


'""R(B)a: Ny ieview of Chiistophei Alexanuei's "A Pattein Language" foi
Amazon.com was oiiginally publisheu online in 1998. It then mysteiiously
uisappeaieu fiom the Amazon site (something I have nevei seen with othei book
ieviews). I hau to ie-loau it in 2uu7.
"-35 2C 495 N:5?4 H22X6 2C 495 =5348:L. Alexanuei tiieu to show that
aichitectuie connects people to theii suiiounuings in an infinite numbei of ways,
most of which aie subconscious. Foi this ieason, it was impoitant to uiscovei what
woiks; what feels pleasant; what is psychologically nouiishing; what attiacts iathei
than iepels. These solutions, founu in much of veinaculai aichitectuie, weie
abstiacteu anu synthesizeu into the &-""%'+ V-+3*-3% about 2u yeais ago.
0nfoitunately, although he uiu not say it then, it was obvious that contempoiaiy
aichitectuie was puisuing uesign goals that aie almost the opposite of what was
uiscoveieu in the pattein language. Foi this ieason, anyone coulu immeuiately see
that Alexanuei's finuings invaliuateu most of what piacticing aichitects weie uoing
at that time. The &-""%'+ V-+3*-3% was iuentifieu as a seiious thieat to the
aichitectuial community. It was consequently suppiesseu. Attacking it in public
woulu only give it moie publicity, so it was caiefully anu off-hanueuly uismisseu as
iiielevant in aichitectuie schools, piofessional confeiences anu publications.
Now, 2u yeais latei, computei scientists have uiscoveieu that the connections
unueilying the Pattein Language aie inueeu univeisal, as Alexanuei hau oiiginally
claimeu. Bis woik has achieveu the highest esteem in computei science. Alexanuei
himself has spent the last twenty yeais in pioviuing scientific suppoit foi his
finuings, in a way that silences all ciiticism. Be publisheu this in the foui-volume
woik entitleu >$% B-"*'% (2 Y',%'. Bis new iesults uiaw suppoit fiom complexity
theoiy, fiactals, neuial netwoiks, anu many othei uisciplines on the cutting euge of
science. Aftei the publication of this new woik, oui civilization has to seiiously
question why it has ignoieu the &-""%'+ V-+3*-3% foi so long, anu to face the blame
foi the uamage that it has uone to oui cities, neighboihoous, builuings, anu psyche
by uoing so."




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Bow can people live in a way that is moie fully human. Quality of human life
comes in laige pait fiom contact with natuie, anu fiom piocesses that evolveu fiom
oui intimate contact with natuie. Inuustiialization anu mass piouuction have
unfoitunately leu to uehumanization. Confusing humans with machines iepiesents
the negative siue of the inuustiial woiluview. In paiallel with scientific anu
technological auvances that iaiseu the quality of life to unpieceuenteu levels
compaieu to what humankinu hau to accept befoie the inuustiial age, theie
S9
followeu a concomitant loss of human qualities. The pieuominant woiluview in the
uevelopeu countiies now neglects effects on quality of life that come fiom non-
quantifiable souices.
The machine aesthetic is pait anu paicel of the machine society. A mechanistic
woiluview negates the complex mathematical piopeities of natuie, anu in so uoing
it ieuuces natuie anu uetaches human beings fiom the biospheie. Incieasing
efficiency has to uo with inuustiial piouuction, but nothing to uo with human
wellbeing uiiectly. Society by the 19Sus hau accepteu the faulty equation linking the
quality of life piopoitionally with eneigy expenuituie. This ielationship is false: it
helu tiue foi a biief peiiou in oui histoiy, but the effect is inuiiect anu is
misinteipieteu. uoveinments the woilu ovei now piomote social fulfillment
thiough incieasing eneigy use, which is catastiophic because it is unsustainable.
Following Chiistophei Alexanuei (2uu1-2uuS) I will intiouuce uiffeient metiics to
measuie the quality of life thiough factois that uo not uestioy oui natuial
enviionment.
Re-oiienting oui woiluview means ieuiscoveiing the biological connection
between humans anu theii sensoiy space. Ceitain veiy specific geometiical
piopeities of the natuial anu built enviionments exeit a positive, uplifting effect
upon oui oiganism (Alexanuei, 2uu1-2uuS). The mechanism uepenus upon the
intimate infoimational connection between human beings anu natuie. Theiefoie,
enhancing quality of life incluues couing the geometiy of the built enviionment to a
consiueiable uegiee. This effect uoes not iequiie the expenuituie of eneigy: on the
contiaiy, obtaining infoimational nouiishment fiom the built enviionment coulu
ieplace the piesent alaiming consumption of fossil eneigy in the puisuit of a
consumeiist lifestyle.
The ciux of the biophilic effect in the aitificial enviionment is that science has
uiscoveieu anu uemonstiateu patteins in builuing that eithei objectively contiibute
to, oi uetiact fiom oui psychological anu spiiitual wellbeing. Cuiient Westein-
inspiieu aichitectuie not only lacks such patteins; it teaches aichitects anu planneis
to builu in such a way that the biophilic patteins aien't piesent. The iiony is that we
woiship an image of science that is not scientifically cieuible. To make that point
cleai, we neeu to set the stage foi a change in consciousness in the ieauei.
The new scientific uiscipline of Biophilia uesciibes how we connect in an
essential mannei to living oiganisms. Intiouuceu by the Ameiican biologist Euwaiu
0. Wilson, biophilic effects aie incieasingly well uocumenteu, anu these incluue
fastei postopeiative healing iates anu lowei use of pain-suppiessing meuicines
when patients aie in close contact with natuie (Salingaios anu Nasuen, 2uu8).
Biophilia incluues the theiapeutic effect of contact with uomestic animals.
Explanations of the biophilic effect aie still being uevelopeu, yet what is
incontioveitible so fai is that the veiy special geometiy of natuial anu living
stiuctuies exeits a positive effect on human wellbeing. It coulu be that Biophilia is a
laigely mathematical effect, in which oui peiceptual system iecognizes anu
piocesses special types of stiuctuies moie easily than otheis.
4u
The most basic component of Biophilia is the human iesponse to natuial
enviionments, anu suiiounuings that contain a high uegiee of living mattei. Since
we evolveu in living enviionments, we piocess that infoimation in an especially
easy mannei, anu even ciave it whenevei it is absent fiom aitificial enviionments
that we ouiselves builu. Bence the piimoiuial human uesiie foi a gaiuen, oi an
excuision to the countiysiue to iestoie oui inteinal equilibiium.
An infoimation-theoietic appioach to Biophilia woulu make sense out of oui
evolution as it occuiieu in veiy specific visual enviionments. Yannick }oye is
woiking on this theoiy (}oye anu van Ben Beig, 2u1u). 0ui neuio-peiceptive system
moie easily piocesses a stiuctuial enviionment that embouies fiactal piopeities
anu the oiganizeu complexity founu in natuie, than an enviionment whose
geometiical oiuei contiauicts the spatial complexity of natuial stiuctuies. 0ui
instinctive ability to iecognize unnatuial objects thiough alaim lies ueep within oui
neuiological makeup anu is iesponsible foi oui being heie touay uue to
evolutionaiy auaptation. Ceitain geometiies that we peiceive as "unnatuial"
geneiate anxiety anu alaim, anu thus uegiaue psychological anu physiological
comfoit when we aie exposeu to them foi too long.
In the thesis pioposeu heie, a majoi component of human physiological anu
psychological wellbeing is uiiectly attiibutable to biophilic effects fiom the
enviionment. Theiefoie, quality of life uepenus upon the piesence of those veiy
special mathematical piopeities. Since a majoi factoi of Biophilia iequiies having
intimate contact with natuial foims, then saving the natuial enviionment becomes a
piioiity that is uistinct fiom the usual aiguments foi conseivation. 0p until now,
Westein conseivationists have aigueu that saving the enviionment is necessaiy to
maintain biouiveisity, which is an explicit benefit foi the biospheie anu an implicit
benefit foi humankinu. I am aiguing that the natuial enviionment has immeuiate
benefits to oui health, so that saving it pioviues not an implicit, but an EXPLICIT
benefit foi humankinu.

c9?4 >6 &>2@9>O>?d
Buman evolution occuiiing ovei the past seveial million yeais (fiom the eia of a
common ape ancestoi not iecognizably human who howevei possesseu all of oui
sensoiy appaiatus) ueteimines how we inteiact with oui enviionment. Living in
natuie pieuisposeu us to piocess fiactal infoimation, coloi, anu to inteipiet spatial
expeiiences in a veiy piecise mannei to guaiantee oui suivival. 0ui neuiological
impiinting then ueteimineu how we began to constiuct oui built enviionment,
mimicking anu ueveloping upon piototypical concepts of spatial expeiience, with
inteiesting natuial uetails becoming oinament, anu coloi useu to enhance anu
pioviue joy in the aitificial enviionment. In this mannei, the mathematical stiuctuie
of the built enviionment evolveu iight along the lines uefineu eailiei by human
biological anu social evolution. As in all evolutionaiy uevelopments, subsequent
auaptations hau to iely upon pievious elements in place. It is theiefoie essential to
41
ie-uiscovei aichetypal qualities that geneiate human wellbeing uiiectly fiom the
built enviionment.
To apply Biophilia to the aitificial enviionment, consiuei oui sensoiy appaiatus.
We have evolveu to piocess complex infoimation that is of a veiy specific
mathematical type: oiganizeu complexity wheie a lot of infoimation is piesenteu in
teims of uetail, contiast, pattein, coloi, anu textuie that mimics in an essential
mannei similai infoimation alieauy founu in natuie. At the same time, all of this
infoimation neeus to be oiganizeu using mathematical techniques such as
connections, symmetiies, patteins, scaling symmetiies, haimony among uistinct
colois, etc. (Salingaios, 2uu6). A uelicate balance between the two complementaiy
mechanisms of incieasing infoimation anu incieasing infoimational coheience
geneiates an optimal state of biophilic infoimation in the aitificial enviionment.
Theie aie significant implications of this thesis to the laige scale. The oiiginal
geometiy of human settlements unueilies a foim of "uiban genetic coue", anu
subsequent uevelopments in the inuustiial anu electionic ages uevelop on top of
these oiiginal pieces of coue. We can uiscovei these eaily segments of uiban coue as
"patteins": builuings enclosing a cential plaza, low-iise but high-uensity occupation
anu mixeu-use builuings, a peuestiian netwoik connecting uistiibuteu plazas, a
vehiculai netwoik supeiimposeu on the peuestiian netwoik, etc. (Alexanuei %"= -5=,
1977). When cities aie insteau planneu accoiuing to abstiact anu foimal uesigns,
then we have iejecteu the uiban coue that evolveu along with us. Replacing genetic
coue in biological systems coulu leau to an unsustainable uisastei because evolution
has been violateu. That is analogous to species extinction oi even genociue, since the
piocess is uelibeiate anu is caiiieu out by humans themselves upon a paiticulai set
of inheiiteu "genetic" infoimation.
In the uiban case, builuing cities accoiuing to a coue that is neithei evolveu noi
testeu geneiates one of thiee situations: a) a uysfunctional iegion that is abanuoneu
by its oiiginal inhabitants anu may latei be occupieu anu tiansfoimeu by squatteis;
b) a uysfunctional iegion that cannot be abanuoneu (e.g. social housing blocks)
whose biutal geometiy geneiates iage, ciime, anu self-uestiuctive behavioi; oi c) an
uiban iegion that is kept functional only via a tiemenuous expenuituie of eneigy.
Cities with an uiban geometiy pooily auapteu to human activities can inueeu be
pioppeu up by extenuing the noimally iequisite eneigy anu tianspoit netwoiks that
uiive a city to function, but theii geometiy iequiies wasteful eneigy expenuituie.
Nost cities touay suffei fiom the imposition of such non-evolveu uiban typologies,
misleauingly labeleu as "mouein". Someone pays foi showcasing the sculptuial
geometiy of such non-evolveu uiban fabiic.
The fiist human settlements uefineu a connective geometiy that enables people
to inteiact on the peuestiian scale, anu to cooiuinate the many uistinct functions of
simple human society within a veiy compact spatial iegion. That is the uefinition of
a city built on the human scale. Contempoiaiy cities aie most successful in those
iegions wheie the oiiginal "genetic" mateiial has been iespecteu, anu a hieiaichy of
subsequent uevelopments has been auueu on top of the oiiginal coue. By contiast,
wheie the oiiginal coue has been eiaseu anu substituteu entiiely by twentieth-
42
centuiy uiban typologies, the uiban fabiic is founu to be uysfunctional,
unsustainable, oi ueau. Tiue, in laige metiopolises the population foices aie so
stiong that even ueau uiban fabiic can be kept aitificially alive, but the eneigy cost
is tiemenuous, anu the cost to iesiuents in teims of psychological stiess is even
gieatei.

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:5N535:?4>23.
Seveial factois contiibute to a positive quality of life foi human beings. I am
going to focus on those factois that aie ielateu to the immeuiate enviionment (anu
thus ielevant to aichitectuie anu uibanism) anu ignoie all the otheis. Let me list
some of the necessaiy points heie:

1) Access to clean aii, watei, sheltei, anu living space.
2) Access to biophilic infoimation in the natuial enviionment: plants, tiees, anu
animals.
S) Access to biophilic infoimation in the built enviionment: textuie, coloi,
oinament, anu ait.
4) Access to othei human beings within an anxiety-fiee enviionment: public
uiban space, open-access iesiuential anu commeicial spaces.
S) Piotection fiom anxiety-inuucing objects: high-speeu tiaffic, laige vehicles,
thieatening human beings, cantileveieu anu oveihanging stiuctuies.

I cleaily uistinguish between nouiishing anu anxiety-inuucing enviionmental
infoimation. Although this uistinction is funuamental, events in the ait woilu have
confuseu oui natuial instincts with fashions (but uiscussing this issue geneiates
contioveisy). It just so happens that much contempoiaiy ait avoius connecting
positively to a viewei via visceial physiological iesponses. Regaiuless of how this
type of Ait may be valueu in the ait-galleiy ciicuit, appiaiseu on the ait maiket, anu
piomoteu in the piess, it is not healing. Any uoubt is iesolveu by iefeiiing to
Biophilia. Bealing emotions incluue a set of physiological iesponses that ieuuce
uistiess anu empowei the bouy's natuial uefenses to woik so as to maintain a
healthy steauy state. Ait that geneiates healing emotions uses oui neuiophysiology
to inuuce positive neuiological, hoimonal, anu othei iesponses within oui bouy, but
Ait is not healing if it geneiates the opposite feelings of alaim anu anxiety.
Fiom galleiy-type ait objects, sculptuies, installations, etc. we move into
public ait such as uiban installations in public places: laige sculptuies, fountains,
monuments, benches, tiee planteis in plazas, etc. Foi the past seveial uecaues, such
public ait objects have also been iepiesentative of geometiies that aie not biophilic.
Those objects tenu to iange fiom non-healing (neutial) to anxiety-inuucing
4S
(negative) piovocations anu theiefoie uiiectly influence the quality of the uiban
space in which they aie placeu. Foi stylistic ieasons, veiy little biophilic stiuctuie is
now being eiecteu in the public iealm. Anu yet, oui expeiience of a public space is
ueteimineu to a laige extent by its public ait installations. Woist of all, aichitects
aie being commissioneu to "upgiaue" an oluei public space by inseiting non-healing
objects, anu by so uoing uestioy the space's useful biophilic function.
Eveiy human being iesponus physiologically in the same mannei, anu thus is
able to juuge visceially whethei a woik of ait oi aichitectuie is pioviuing emotional
nouiishment, oi its opposite. This is ieally a key point. In my uesciiption above of
what healing emotions entail I assume that psychological conuitioning cannot altei
oui biology, anu oui instinctive ieaction is the one we neeu to pay most attention to.
It matteis veiy little to the usei's physical expeiience if a non-biophilic object oi
builuing is piaiseu in the piess anu by newspapei anu magazine ciitics. Whenevei
peisons face such a ueep contiauiction between emotions anu bouily iesponses that
aie antithetical to the authoiity of expeits, the inuiviuual goes into cognitive
uissonance anu is confuseu. A peison can eithei iemain in cognitive uissonance
inuefinitely (itself a state of high emotional anu physical stiess), oi eventually come
out of it by ueciuing to tiust hishei own bouily iesponses. The anxiety-inuucing
objects aie suppoiteu by an iueology oi selfish agenua.
Let me now uiscuss the five points listeu above foi the quality of life. The fiist
iequiiement, Point 1, conceins a peison's piivate uomain, the insiue of one's
uwelling. Foi a laige poition of humanity basic housing itself still iemains a
pioblem, because theie aie not enough living quaiteis. People in the ueveloping
woilu have to builu theii own houses out of sciap mateiial, often in unhealthy oi
uangeious teiiain. The iesult is the slums anu infoimal settlements of the woilu.
Neveitheless, it shoulu be noteu that many slums aie economically vibiant, anu the
quality of life theie is enhanceu by oinamentation by theii owneis, something that
is foibiuuen in a state-sponsoieu social housing block (Tuinei, 1976). As outlineu
elsewheie (Salingaios %"= -5., 2uu6), the foiceu move fiom infoimal settlements to
goveinment-built social housing blocks gains in health but loses in biophilic
qualities.
Point 2 auuiesses oui contact with natuie. It is possible to achieve a balance with
the natuial enviionment such as occuis in tiauitional villages anu cities that aie not
too pooi. Even in slums, if vegetation is abunuant, the iesiuents piofit by having
intimate contact with natuie. Neveitheless, theie aie examples of the uegeneiation
of the natuial enviionment in infoimal settlements that ianges fiom uwellings built
among vegetation towaius the othei extieme of a city built fiom junk without any
tiace of plant life. The neeu to use woou foi heating anu cooking can soon uestioy
the biophilic component of an infoimal settlement. 0n the othei hanu, the
wealthiest Westein societies habitually cut uown tiees to builu subuiban spiawl,
anu ieplace the native vegetation with lawn. The giass that makes up a lawn is a
monocultuie plant that is non-native to the majoiity of spiawling subuibs. A lawn is
thus a ieuuction of natuie anu a ciuel joke on people who buy those subuiban
houses.
44
0ibanists aftei Woilu Wai II cieateu a city fit only foi the cai, applying a
funuamentally ieuuctive conception of natuie. "uieen" in the city oi subuibs is
substituteu by its supeificial appeaiance fiom afai, thus lawn glimpseu as one
uiives by is juugeu to be enough foi a contact with natuie. But this is a ueception:
the biophilic effect uepenus upon close anu intimate contact with natuie, anu
uefinitely incieases as the complexity of the natuial enviionment incieases. Buman
beings expeiience its healing effects fiom having contact with a faiily complex
natuial ecosystem, even if that only means a tiee with some bushes, but not fiom
just looking at lawn. Biophilic inteiventions in hospitals cieate small complex
gaiuens insiue hospital public spaces, anu inteiweave complex gaiuens with the
fabiic of the hospital wall so that patients can expeiience the plant life at an
immeuiate uistance.
Point S conceins aichitectuie itself, anu unueilines a uiastic schism between the
aichitectuie of the twentieth centuiy anu all aichitectuie that occuiieu befoie then.
0inamentation was banneu fiom the built enviionment aftei 19u8 (minimalist
enviionments becoming a fetish with aichitects theieaftei), so that we
piogiessively lost the healing effects of oinamentation in both inteiioi anu exteiioi
built spaces. The intensity of the effect is not in question heie: stuuies of Biophilia
iepeateuly uemonstiate that oinament which is ueiiveu fiom natuial stiuctuies
inuuces the same healing effects as actual natuial stiuctuies themselves, only to a
lessei extent (Salingaios anu Nasuen, 2uu8). Although some aichitects iefei to this
as meie "copying", I uo not believe this to be the case. Yannick }oye aigues that the
biophilic effect uepenus upon the biain's ability to effoitlessly piocess complex
infoimation, anu thus it is iiielevant whethei this biophilic infoimation comes fiom
a living oi an aitificial souice (}oye anu van Ben Beig, 2u1u).
Point 4 foices us to focus on the uestiuction of the public peuestiian iealm in oui
cities following planning piactices aftei Woilu Wai II. uoveinments the woilu ovei
engageu in a fienzy of iebuiluing that ieplaceu human-scaleu city centeis with
enviionments fit only foi fast-moving vehicles. The human peuestiian city was
eiaseu by foices linking the automotive inuustiy anu the steel inuustiy with
goveinments that satisfieu eveiy wish of those poweiful political lobbies. }ust as
public space was eiaseu fiom the built enviionment, howevei, piivate space was
being offeieu in shopping centeis outsiue cities, isolateu within a cai enviionment.
People still ciave peisonal contact in an uiban space, but in many locations this is
only possible in a commeicial shopping centei oi mall. uoveinments now useu to
woiking with builueis anu ieal-estate uevelopeis who builu such malls piomote this
mouel.
Point S focuses on ceitain enviionmental foices fiom which we have to piotect
ouiselves, because they uegiaue oui quality of life. The giowth of the cai city means
that most outuooi enviionments aie now thieatening to humans unless they aie
piotecteu insiue theii cai. Automobile connectivity anu the infiastiuctuie it
iequiies have been alloweu to take ovei anu ieplace the human-scale city.
Theiefoie, the vast open spaces in the woilu's cities aie eithei psychologically
unsafe, oi aie fast becoming so. Such spaces aie not spaces to live in, because they
4S
aie thieatening anu anxiety-inuucing. The actual living city of shelteieu peuestiian
expeiience has theiefoie been ieuuceu to inteinal space, whethei piivate living
space, piivate commeicial space insiue iestauiants oi bais, oi to equally piivate
commeicial space in shopping malls.
Anothei aspect of being piotecteu fiom anxiety iegaius stiuctuies peiceiveu as
thieatening, anu this can occui foi seveial uiffeient ieasons. We cannot ie-wiie oui
peiceptual appaiatus to suppiess neuiological signals of alaim at builuings anu
stiuctuies that aie twisteu, unbalanceu, oi which piotiuue towaius us. Such
builuings geneiate feelings of alaim. Peihaps they aie inteiesting to look at fiom
afai, but having to be next to them, entei them, anu use them geneiates
psychological anu physiological anxiety. The same is tiue foi sheei impenetiable
walls anu glass floois: the foimei communicate exclusion anu lack of escape,
wheieas the lattei geneiate anxiety anu veitigo. These anxiety-inuucing featuies
ioutinely appeai in contempoiaiy builuings, but that uoes not change theii negative
effect on oui sense of wellbeing within the built enviionment.

RZ@5:>53=5< 6@?=5 ?3< 62=>2EN52I54:>= =2335=4>S>4L.
The twentieth centuiy's scientific anu technological auvances enableu a whole
new level of living that biought quality of life in teims of vastly impioveu meuical
caie, tianspoit, eneigy availability, anu communications. In oui time we have come
to take all of this foi gianteu. Neveitheless, in paiallel with these uevelopments,
humankinu lost a timeless connection to the woilu that uiu not involve science,
because this connection is not quantitative (Alexanuei, 2uu1-2uuS). We tenu to
foiget anu uismiss oui inheiiteu socio-geometiic patteins whenevei they cannot fit
into the mentality cieateu by auvancing technology. This loss of patteins has causeu
the loss of essential aspects of human existence, anu it has piofounu implications foi
eneigy use (Salingaios, 2uuu).
Talking about connecting visceially to a builuing chaiacteiistically makes people
in oui contempoiaiy cultuie uneasy. We have lost pait of oui sense of attachment to
a place, even if we noimally uon't notice it consciously. We have giown accustomeu
to builuings that emphasize the look anu feel of technology: builuings that aie, in
fact, little moie than an image. Bow, ieally, uo we connect with a builuing, with a
space, with a place. Bow uo the paits of a builuing connect with each othei.
Connectivity can be uesciibeu in mathematical teims thiough piocesses occuiiing
in space; it uepenus on how we peiceive that space. Foi millennia, oui ancestois
built sacieu places anu builuings that connect us to something beyonu eveiyuay
ieality. Foi them, living in a pie-inuustiial age, it was easiei to unueistanu this
connection than it is foi many of us touay.
We connect to oui enviionment as uistinct fiom meiely ieacting to it only
thiough coheient complex stiuctuies. Coheience anu symmetiies of foim make
possible the continuation of the biophilic effect fiom living systems into aitificial
complex uesigns oi stiuctuies. Twentieth-centuiy anu contempoiaiy builuings that
have eithei minimalist oi uisoiueieu foims cannot connect with the usei. The iesult
46
is an intentional lack of coheient complexity in the built enviionment (Salingaios,
2uu6).
A uiamatic uemonstiation of the piinciples of Biophilia anu human socio-
geometiic patteins can be seen when they aie violateu. Failing to iespect evolveu
aichitectuial anu uiban typologies, twentieth-centuiy aichitects anu uibanists went
aheau anu constiucteu block housing anu high-iises with segiegateu functions as
the solution to uiban pioblems. These implementations weie unifoimly uisastious.
Fiistly, aichitects anu planneis ignoieu evolveu uiban coues that hau pioveu
themselves thiough the centuiies. Insteau, they built monstious blocks. These
aichitects showeu incieuible aiiogance in theii appioach to uesign, believing they
coulu foice theii will on both people anu uiban functions anu oveiiiue foices that
shape uiban foim anu human use. Foi example, they uesignateu the fouith stoiey
anu ioof foi specific commeicial activities that nevei took place. Socio-geometiic
patteins of human use piecluue such spaces anu locations fiom evei being useu in
the imagineu mannei, just as the "playgiounus" anu "plazas" uesigneu accoiuing to
some abstiact geometiy have iemaineu uespiseu, feaieu, anu unuseu.
Seconuly, aichitects anu planneis constiucteu uwellings anu neighboihoous
uevoiu of any intimate contact with natuie. A family isolateu insiue an immense
block housing pioject is uetacheu fiom natuie. Theii quality of life uiops. Even the
funuamental pattein of "2 Netei Balcony", which coulu at least be useu to giow
plants, is stubboinly ignoieu by aichitects of apaitments in high iises (Alexanuei %"=
-5=, 1977). Baving some tiees in a vast winuswept plain outsiue the block is totally
useless. Nost twentieth-centuiy attempts at living enviionments have faileu
because they contiauict all the iules foi the tiauitional uesign of uiban spaces anu
gaiuens in the inteiest of a "new style" that is image-baseu.
Thiiuly, aichitects anu planneis cieateu monofunctional uiban segiegation,
which violates the most basic uiban patteins that make a city giow in the fiist place.
Cities exist in oiuei to connect people with each othei anu to mix activities.
Incieuibly, twentieth-centuiy uibanism took the anti-uiban slogan of spatially
sepaiateu uses as a staiting point, anu goveinments useu it to ieconstiuct theii
cities aftei Woilu Wai II. These anti-uiban piactices weie legislateu into zoning
laws so that it became illegal to builu living uiban fabiic. The pioblem is that self-
pioclaimeu expeits weie offeiing toxic auvice on aichitectuie anu planning, anu
some of these people helu positions of gieat acauemic anu meuia piestige.
Politicians anu uecision makeis followeu theii auvice simply out of iespect foi
authoiity.

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I highlight heie questions about connecting to place in a moie complete mannei.
Bow fai can we intensify oui emotional connection anu still explain it biologically.
Emotional highs come fiom love, music, ait, aichitectuie, poetiy, anu liteiatuie.
Nechanisms of iesponse aie all biological (sensoiy appaiatus), although the most
impoitant elements aie still incompletely unueistoou. Connection is achieveu
47
thiough uance, music, ait, anu aichitectuie. The common piopeities among these
cieations incluue patteins, iegulaiity, iepetition, nesting, hieiaichy, scaling, anu
fiactal stiuctuie. They aie uemonstiable geometiical patteins, not mystical
piopeities. uoing fuithei, the highest aitistic expiession is ielateu to ieligion. Bach,
Nozait, Botticelli, Nichelangelo, geneiations of anonymous aitists anu aichitects of
Islamic ait anu aichitectuie, anu mystics of the woilu achieveu such piofounu
connection. By seeking uou thiough beauty, human beings have attaineu the highest
level of connection to the univeise (Alexanuei, 2uu1-2uuS).
Foi millennia, human beings have sought to connect to some sacieu iealm
thiough aichitectuie. Though we have as yet no scientific explanation foi such a
phenomenon, we cannot ueny eithei its existence oi its impoitance foi the quality of
human life. We expeiience this connection a visceial feeling in a gieat ieligious
builuing oi a place of gieat natuial beauty. The Egyptian aichitect Bassan Fathy
speaks about the sacieu stiuctuie even in eveiyuay enviionments (Fathy, 197S).
Chiistophei Alexanuei (2uu1-2uuS) uesciibes connecting to a laigei coheience, anu
such a connection is in fact one of the piincipal factois in enhancing oui quality of
life. Neveitheless, we haiuly even have the vocabulaiy to talk about it.
Without specifying any paiticulai oiganizeu ieligion, spiiituality giounueu in
physical expeiience can leau to connectivity. Is this connective mechanism by which
we tiy to inteiact with oui cieatoi the same mechanism as Biophilia. Naybe it is,
only possibly moie auvanceu anu thus a fai moie intense souice of emotional
nouiishment than that obtaineu fiom stiictly physical expeiience. Can we tianscenu
biological connection so as to achieve an even highei spiiitual connection. As
opposeu to ieligious expeiience oi a ieligious attituue, ieligious belief itself is
abstiact, being iesiuent in the minu. But the connection associateu with ieligious
expeiience can occui thiough geometiy, the physical senses, music, ihythm, coloi,
etc. Religious connection can be veiy physical, oftentimes intensely so. This physical
connection gives us the mateiialization of sacieu expeiience.
Bance, song, anu music expiess tempoial ihythm. Bhaiatnatyam, classical Inuian
uancing, Afiican shamanic uance, Native Ameiican ieligious uance, whiiling
ueivishes in Nevlana, Tuikey, anu Bassiuic uances aie all mystical uance foims that
contain geometiic qualities of peiiouicity anu tempoial scaling coheience. uieek
cultuie histoiically inteilaceu mystical uance with musical expeiience giving biith
to Classical Tiageuy, featuies that evolveu into the main emotional component in
the celebiation of Chiistianity. In the West the Nasses of Bach, Bayun, anu Nozait
show fiactal tempoial stiuctuie an inveise powei-law scaling. Sacieu chant in all
ieligions connects human beings to a stoiy, iitual, anu piecious cultuial iefeience
point. Boly uays aie maikeu by special song, such as the Byzantine Eastei seivice,
Passion Plays, Kol Niuie uuiing Yom Kippui, Buuuhist ceiemonial chant, etc.
In aichitectuie all ovei the woilu, the Bouse of uou uisplays the connective
qualities we seek, often to theii highest possible extent. Inuepenuent of the
paiticulai ieligion oi style, this effect is founu among all ieligious builuing types.
Aichitects of the past instinctively built accoiuing to iules foi geneiating scaling
coheience. All the examples I have mentioneu whethei music, uance, ait, oi
48
aichitectuie have common mathematical qualities: fiactals, symmetiies, ihythm,
hieiaichy, scaling uistiibution, etc. Belibeiate cieations by tiauitional humanity the
woilu ovei weie tiying to connect to something beyonu eveiyuay expeiience.

*@2362:5< <>6=2335=4>23.
Within this biophilic fiamewoik, some ieligions have been moie successful than
otheis in fighting against the uespoliation of natuie anu the uehumanization of
human beings. The moie conseivative of the oiganizeu ieligions seem to have faieu
much bettei at saving theii heiitage in iecent uecaues. Feaiing the intiusion of
foieign cultuies anu the exploitation by foieign commeicial inteiests, they have
tiieu to shielu themselves fiom what aie iightly peiceiveu as consumeiist anu
nihilistic cuiients in Westein ait anu cultuie. Iionically, many establisheu ieligions
in the West have embiaceu those same aitistic tienus in an effoit to iemain "up-to-
uate" so as not to lose membeis. We have conciete examples in iecent chuiches that,
fai fiom evoking the love anu image of uou, insteau conjuie the image eithei of
seculai neutiality (waiehousegaiage) oi an expiession of evil
(slaughteihouseciematoiium).
An establisheu Chuich that sponsois anu builus ieligious ait anu its own temples
in a style that inuuces anxiety will likely be juugeu as an accomplice to a global
nihilistic movement. Builuings that geneiate anxiety, consciously oi unconsciously,
compiomise the veiy continuity of such a Chuich. Anxiety, alienation, anu
consumeiism have little to uo with love, chaiity, anu compassion. Anxiety-inuucing
foims aie insteau associateu with powei, tiansgiession, anu sauism; theiefoie theii
attiaction is that of a cult of powei. Negative ieaction by moie tiauitional ieligious
authoiities against contempoiaiy chuich builuings in the West is not usually
iepoiteu because of its politically explosive implications, but it exists, anu it is
uamning. New chuiches that aie piaiseu by the westein piess aie conuemneu as
anti-ieligious by Eastein ieligious authoiities (who appaiently have not lost as
much of theii sacieu connection) on the basis of the fashionable chuiches'
geometiy.
A State, too, can commission piominent public builuings that thiough theii style
objectively evoke anxiety. A hostile ieaction to builuings in a nihilistic style that the
goveinment has sponsoieu tuins into hostility against the goveinment itself. This
uoes not boue well foi political stability in the coming uecaues, when citizens wake
up to the fact that public money spent on anxiety-inuucing builuings piomoteu by
an iueological elite uiove theii countiy into uebt. The past few uecaues have seen a
builuing spiee of inhuman stiuctuies (museums, ait galleiies, schools, hospitals,
libiaiies, goveinment builuings, monuments, etc.) anu enviionments in an ill-
conceiveu uesiie to confoim to a "contempoiaiy" aichitectuial fashion.
We have alieauy witnesseu foieign ieaction to inhuman builuings in the iich
Westein countiies but we misinteipieteu it as hostility towaius the West's
economic wealth iathei than a legitimate ciitique of the aichitectuie piopei.
Neveitheless, similai builuings anu uiban iegions built in ueveloping countiies by
49
those same "stai" aichitects who builu showcase builuings in the West aiouse the
same hostile sentiments among the local population. I believe that a coiiect
inteipietation of the negative ieaction oiuinaiy people expeiience aiounu
contempoiaiy builuings in the fashionable style is baseu upon its iejection of
Biophilia, but the soununess of this negative ieaction is conveniently negateu by a
poweiful aichitectuial establishment that piomotes such builuings all ovei the
woilu. The accusations of nihilism fiom both within anu without Westein society
aie ueflecteu onto "foieigneis", while ciitics of Westein fashionable aichitectuie aie
ueemeu not sufficiently "contempoiaiy".

*@?4>2E45I@2:?O :9L49I6 >3 495 =>4L 49?4 ?44:?=46 4?O534.
A living city woiks well because it encouiages actions, inteiactions, anu
movements, all of which uepenu upon ceitain scales in space anu time. Spatial scales
aie uefineu by physical stiuctuies fiom the size of a Smm oinament on a paik bench
oi public lamppost up to the size of a city's iegion that can be iuentifieu as moie-oi-
less coheient within itself. Biophilia iequiies the existence of the entiie iange of
scales coiiesponuing to the human bouy (1mm to 2m) extenuing into the iange of
scales of peuestiian movement (2m to 1km). With vaiious foims of tianspoit oui
spatial expeiience expanus to scales of the entiie city anu beyonu. Quality of life
uepenus piopoitionally on how we can expeiience all scales in a non-thieatening
mannei, with a piioiity placeu upon the smallei scales coiiesponuing to the human
bouy.
Twentieth-centuiy uibanists uisuaineu the human scales, tuining against them
because smallei scales aie a uefining featuie in tiauitional uibanism. The complex
spatial ihythms of tiauitional enviionments aie theiefoie missing by uesign fiom
city iegions constiucteu uuiing the past centuiy. Even when a new enviionment is
labeleu as being a "quality" enviionment, that label most often iefeis to how closely
the built stiuctuie (builuing, clustei of builuings, uiban plaza, public sculptuie, etc.)
follows a minimalist sculptuial iueal that eschews complex spatial ihythms. In the
built enviionment of the past seveial uecaues we finu scales iiielevant to the iange
of human scales, except in those ciucial exceptions (iestauiants, shopping malls)
wheie ietail oveiiiues uesign iueology.
An even moie neglecteu aspect of uiban life conceins its tempoial ihythms
(Biewe, 2uuS). Eveiyuay life is uefineu as a complex coheient system of actions anu
movements on many uiffeient time scales. Some time phenomena aie spatially
inuepenuent, but many uepenu ciitically upon the uiban geometiy. Again, the
shoitei peiious affect us most, as they have an immeuiate coiielation with oui own
bouily ihythms. We aie uepenuent upon events that occui ovei times of 1 sec to 24
houis. Quality of life can be positive oi negative uepenuing on whethei oui bouies
inteiact haimoniously with the tempoial events causeu by a city anu peimitteu by
its geometiy. The tempoial uimension of uibanism is a pooily-exploieu topic.
Time is uefineu eithei in abstiact inteivals, oi much moie physically in teims of
bouy movement. Notion coulu be a iesponse to a physical neeu, yet any movement
Su
is constiaineu by the physical space fuinituie, ioom, coiiiuoi, uiban space we
occupy at that moment (Schiauei, 2uuS). The geometiy anu mateiial quality of the
physical enviionment impacts on oui possible movement; we peiceive spatial
constiaints fiom non-biophilic stiuctuies, which limit us fiom fieely uesigning oui
own ihythms. 0ui uaily ioutine involves a iange of movements anu any pattein in
oui uaily activity uefines a tempoial ihythm. Peiiouic events coulu occui
thioughout the uay, oi as once-a-uay longei-teim ihythms. Some movements in
uaily ioutine aie necessaiy, wheieas we choose to peifoim otheis foi oui physical
enjoyment. We tiy to establish such ihythms out of a natuial neeu foi tempoial
oiuei.
A city wishing to attiact new talent has to offei, among many othei things, an
uiban moiphology that accommouates both Biophilia anu uaily life on the human
iange of tempoial scales. This is the "uance of life" (Ball, 1984), anu like classical
uance foims fiom all cultuies, uiban movement has its ihythm, complex fiactal
stiuctuie, anu continuity (Whyte, 1988). People may not immeuiately peiceive the
effects of this uance upon theii bouies, but oui oiganism accumulates eithei the
positive oi negative effects of oui uaily ioutine, anu will stait giving us signals.
Positive signals tianslate into wellbeing anu being able to cope with unavoiuable
stiess, wheieas negative signals weai us out so that we become uecieasingly able to
hanule noimal stiess in oui uaily enviionment. 0ui health suffeis because a
weakeneu bouy is pione to both exteinal infection anu to inteinal imbalances.
Foi example, a commuting tiip of ovei Su min geneiates stiess, iegaiuless of the
means of tianspoit. Reseaich has uiscoveieu that people aie willing to commute foi
up to one houi uaily (iounu-tiip), whethei it is thiough walking, piivate cai, public
tianspoit, bus, subway, oi commutei tiain (Newman anu Kenwoithy, 1999). When
this time is exceeueu, howevei, quality of life uiminishes. Theiefoie, the massive
tiaue-off of enjoying a subuiban fiontback yaiu with lawn in exchange foi two
houis oi moie of iounu-tiip commuting is actually not cost-effective as fai as
Biophilia is conceineu.
Baving access to a peuestiian enviionment (not necessaiily stiictly peuestiian;
the tiauitional city with wiue siuewalks lineu with stoies uoes veiy well) offeis the
possibility of excuisions on foot that can be of any uuiation. A complex connecteu
peuestiian geometiy allows peiiouic actions of, say, 1S min (e.g. a tiip to a coffee
shop oi paik), which aie unfeasible in a cai city. Such tiips uo not neeu to be
planneu, just enjoyeu if the visual stimulation anu othei factois aie positive, anu the
uuiation of tiips that aie necessaiy foi a specific function can be aujusteu accoiuing
to the occasion. This flexibility in time is not possible when uiiving to a uestination,
anu the situation is only slightly bettei foi public tianspoit. In the Netiopolitan
tianspoit of some cential cities, a passengei can piofit fiom the commeice locateu
in anu aiounu the stations, but bus stops tenu to be locateu in uieaiy places, with
stations exposeu oi in hostile enviionments.
"Innovation" iequiies an enviionment that encouiages a state of physical anu
emotional wellbeing (Waiu anu Boltham, 2uuu). The new uemateiializeu economy
ielies moie anu moie on the mateiial stiuctuie of the immeuiate suiiounuings.
S1
Peisons who aie not uepenuent upon the physical city foi theii woik still iely upon
the physical city foi theii wellbeing, uemanuing an enviionment that peimits spatio-
tempoial ihythms. They juuge wheie to locate using spatio-tempoial anu biophilic
ciiteiia. People who woik with iueas anu who uiive the knowleuge economy aie
those most able to ielocate, anu they will uo so if iepelleu by a city with an alien
geometiy, towaius a city with spatio-tempoial attiactions on the human scale. Nany
knowleuge woikeis nowauays occasionally base themselves in coffee shops with a
wiieless high-speeu inteinet connection.
It is the wish of almost eveiy city to position itself as a magnet foi talent, foi then
it can attiact knowleuge inuustiies such as Infoimation anu Communication
Technologies, finance, auvanceu technology, aits inuustiies, etc. to cieate a hub foi
the "Knowleuge Society" (Tinagli, 2uuS). It is well known that a concentiation of
talent anu euucateu woikfoice pushes a city's economy up to inteinational
stanuaius, with coiiesponuing feeuback that benefits the entiie city. Evei since the
West's manufactuiing base shifteu to the ueveloping woilu, inuustiial piouuction
became much less attiactive. Even in the ueveloping woilu that has now captuieu
inuustiial piouuction, howevei, key cities compete to attiact knowleuge-baseu
inuustiies.
What attiacts the euucateu anu the talenteu to a city. It is quality of life,
measuieu in pait by the ciiteiia I have outlineu heie, not by an alien uiban
moiphology that follows a moueinist uesign iueology. Citizens wish, above all, to
enjoy a stimulating anu pleasant eveiyuay life, in which noimal tasks can be
accomplisheu without too much stiess. Theii piofessional activities iesiue on top of
this basis of wellbeing. Examples abounu of intelligent piofessionals leaving a
"magnet" city because eveiyuay life has become too stiessful oi expensive. Nuch of
this has to uo with spatio-tempoial scales: in the fiist case when woiking anu living
enviionments uo not offei the biophilic iange of scales; anu in the seconu case when
uaily life is skeweu towaius uncomfoitable time peiious, as foi example a long
commute to woik, getting chiluien to school, foou shopping, accomplishing iegulai
out-of-house choies, etc.
I iealize that the above thesis only piesents a small pait of a bioauei scenaiio,
anu, given human natuie anu human inteiactions, we may live in an eaithly
paiauise anu still be stiesseu fiom local ciime, a coiiupt goveinment, oi hostile
colleagues at woik. I uo not ueny any of that. What I wish to biing to attention is the
component that comes uiiectly fiom aichitectuie anu uibanism.

+L496 ?:283< 535:NL =2368I@4>23.
We have been leu to accept the myth that quality of life incieases piopoitionally
to eneigy consumption. While tiue foi the onset of inuustiialization, this coiielation
is also iesponsible foi an unsustainable global economy. The basic piemise is a
falsehoou that has to be uisputeu befoie it can be ieveiseu. Eaily technological
auvances peimitteu an impiovement in the quality of life, but this uoes not mean
that incieaseu happiness comes fiom wasting eneigy anu natuial iesouices.
S2
0nfoitunately, majoi woilu inuustiies have uevelopeu that woik upon encouiaging
consumeis to waste eneigy. The thiowaway cultuie of shouuy consumei mateiials
in the wealthy countiies uestioys the enviionment of the ueveloping countiies that
piouuce all that stuff.
Foi example, we have uevelopeu an entiie mythology (motion pictuies,
liteiatuie) aiounu the pleasuies of uiiving a cai. Theie is unueniably a iemaikable
fieeuom in having a piivate vehicle that moves us fast on the suiface of the eaith,
anu this is a libeiating notion in many ways, but it is a teiiibly expensive action as
fai as eneigy wastage is conceineu. As much of the woilu's economy entails
companies that extiact, piocess, uistiibute, anu sell petioleum piouucts, it has maue
sense foi them to cieate a cai-oiienteu society thiough movies, meuia, anu othei
components of manufactuieu cultuie. }ust note that at the speeu of a moving vehicle,
biophilic effects fiom the enviionment uiminish to the point of insignificance, except
when one is actually uiiving thiough wooueu countiysiue.
Put veiy simply, quality of life uepenus upon nouiishment fiom the enviionment,
anu not upon eneigy consumption. The consumei society has uone a veiy thoiough
job of convincing people the woilu ovei of an imaginaiy link between quality of life
anu eneigy wastage. That conjectuieu ielation has only seiveu the laige pait of oui
economy that iuns upon eneigy piouuction anu consumption. Because of both the
size of those ielateu inuustiies, anu the piesent state of globalization, it is going to
be veiy uifficult to ieveise the consumeiist tienu in the neai futuie. 0f couise, the
woilu will be foiceu into a totally uistinct moue oveinight aftei an eneigy
catastiophe (uue to shoitages because of exhausteu supplies, militaiy action, oi
uisiuption in ueliveiy channels), but past expeiience with tiansient eneigy
shoitages uoes not seem to have taught anyone a lesson about the futuie.
Placing this essay in the bioauei evolutionaiy context of humans anu human
technology, most of the things we once thought of as solely human tool use,
language, etc. aie now seen as moie common to othei animals. We uistinguish
ouiselves, howevei, in being able to influence oui enviionment on a massive scale.
At the veiy heait of this piocess is the builuing of settlements, which uses up
tiemenuous iesouices. The unsustainable system now in place in much of the woilu,
suppoiteu by a consumeiist philosophy anu taken foi gianteu, is that uevelopment
anu uioss Bomestic Piouuct uepenu upon incieasing eneigy use. This system has a
iunaway positive feeuback, anu natuie cannot possibly suppoit it.
The uiscussion of geometiy becomes cential, because life that uepenus upon the
geometiy of the enviionment is an emeigent system piopeity, which is qualitative,
not quantitative. Ceitainly, Biophilia is essentially stiuctuial it aiises out of
complex stiuctuies involving fiactals, netwoiks, etc. but it is not easily
quantifiable. Bence what is basically a totally iational phenomenon iequiies veiy
uiffeient tools foi unueistanuing anu managing, anu necessitates those who wish to
stop the oluei, unsustainable paiauigm to uevelop a uiffeient woiluview. The
piofounuly simplistic limitations of oui piesent thinking neglect anu consequently
help uestioy the complex emeigent piopeities that allow life to flouiish in the built
enviionment.
SS

F95 49:5?4 C:2I <5=5@4>S5 9>N9E45=9 6864?>3?H>O>4L.
The global inuustiial system has leaineu the appeal of sustainability, anu it is
applying clevei anu ueceptive techniques in oiuei to peipetuate its woilu business.
Peihaps the gieatest thieat faceu by human-scale uibanism touay lies in the
nightmaiish "sustainable" cities anu uiban piojects pioposeu anu built by
fashionable aichitects. The global system has pickeu up the sustainable vocabulaiy
anu has useu it to ie-package theii extiaoiuinaiily expensive anu funuamentally
unsustainable piouucts (glass anu steel toweis, monstious builuings, inuustiial-
style cities in the miuule of nowheie) as "sustainable". The tiick consists of using
some technological gimmicks, anu coming up with numbeis foi eneigy saveu
thiough having some solai panels anu uouble glazing on the builuings' glass faaues.
But this is a funuamental ueception, since the city oi countiy that buys one of these
eco-monsteis becomes totally uepenuent on the consumeiist eneigy system.
As the companies selling such inuustiial piouucts aie the majoi multinationals
tieu into the powei of Westein states, it is extiemely uifficult to countei the
publicity effoit that is uevoteu to theii piomotion. Also, the selling occuis at the
highest goveinment levels, fai above any uecision-making that can be influenceu by
oiuinaiy citizens. The client nation blinuly tiusts the giant Westein-baseu
multinationals to uelivei a sustainable piouuct because that is what the meuia
piomises. At the same time, the contiolleu meuia acting as a mouthpiece foi the
multinationals piaise the client nation foi its "gieat foiesight" anu its auoption of
"piogiessive uibanism". Since national piiue is involveu heie, even the most blatant
uiban uisastei will not be uiscusseu openly. Naybe we will ieau of a new city that
pioveu to be totally uysfunctional, oi too expensive to iun, aftei seveial uecaues
have passeu, but ceitainly not soonei.
Centializeu goveinments have always been enamoieu of laige-scale inuustiial
solutions, inuustiial cities, massive five-yeai builuing plans, etc. Bespite all goou
intentions, such piojects pioveu to be totally uehumanizing in the past because they
ignoieu human psychological neeus anu the human scale. Such initiatives aie now
ieappeaiing as globalist uiban applications, but with a newly-polisheu high-tech
glamoui. Nany peisons continue to suppoit such piojects, seeing them as pioof that
technology can solve eveiy social pioblem. 0lu-style centializeu inuustiialization is
maue toxic, howevei, by skewing eveiything towaius the veiy laigest scale.
By contiast, genuine sustainability uses small-scale technology linkeu in an
essential mannei to tiauitional socio-geometiic patteins that connect a society to
itself anu to its place (Salingaios, 2u1u). A genuinely sustainable appioach enjoys
the natuial kinship of bottom-up entiepieneuiial initiatives such as the uiameen
Bank. We begin fiom the smallest scale anu move up thiough incieasing scales. A
peei-to-peei netwoik empoweis the inuiviuual to woik anu act within a society in a
way that benefits that society (Bauwens, 2uuS). }ust as in any stable complex
system, uiffeient layeis of functionality aie auueu on incieasingly laigei scales, yet
the woiking whole iequiies a balance of mechanisms acting on all scales, inteiacting
S4
hoiizontally as well as veitically. The new techno-cities, tiagically, aie uesigneu to
woik on only one scale the laigest scale uesigneu as an abstiact sculptuie on a
fashionable aichitect's uiawing table in which case they may not woik at all.
I feel the neeu to iaise an alaim against a gioup of fashionable
aichitectuibanists that aie misusing science to auvance theii own agenua.
Suppoiteu by oui top schools anu the meuia, this gioup embouies a supeificial giasp
of populai science, using woius such as fiactals, complexity, emeigence, etc., anu
claims to offei a vaiiety of sustainable uibanism. 0iuinaiy people aie attiacteu to
these false piomises, because they cannot tell the uiffeience between tiue anu
bogus science. Neveitheless, the puipose of this movement is entiiely self-seiving.
In piesentations that ieau veiy similaily to what coulu be one of my own texts,
this gioup's uiscussions also intiouuce the keywoius: "uiveisity", "unpieuictability",
"acciuental", "inueteiminacy", "optimism", anu "oppoitunity". Coucheu unuei a
pseuuo-scientific covei, howevei, the message says that theie is no science of
uibanism anu no shaieu fiamewoik foi effective uesign; theiefoie we have to builu
accoiuing to ianuomness. This asseition is as false as it is iiiesponsible. What this
gioup pioposes is the continuation of inhuman ego-baseu expeiiments on the lives
of human beings begun by inuustiial uiban typologies useu as agents of social
engineeiing. As if its theoietical statements weie not alaiming enough, this gioup's
maiketing ploy always concluues by iecommenuing its hanuful of favoiite "stai"
aichitects foi laige uiban piojects.

123=O86>23.
It woulu be a tiemenuous move foiwaiu if people coulu be uivesteu of theii
inuoctiination that quality of life necessitates high eneigy expenuituie. To ieplace
the pleasuies of uaily living now pioviueu thiough wasting eneigy iesouices, I
piopose a ietuin to emotional nouiishment fiom the built enviionment. This is veiy
easy to accomplish, anu only iequiies ie-stiuctuiing oui built enviionment to
pioviue biophilic infoimation. At the same time, the pioposeu iestiuctuiing
necessitates a shift away fiom the eneigivoious cai-oiienteu society towaius a
human-scaleu uiban fabiic. Alieauy in the past seveial uecaues, cities aie
embaiking upon such a piogiam of iestiuctuiing. Theii motivation has been to save
eneigy. What I am pioposing is altogethei uiffeient anu goes much fuithei towaius
impioving the quality of life.
Biophilic nouiishment is a positive expeiience that can substitute foi giving up
the thiills of iiuing aiounu in cais at high speeu. I believe that this is the ciucial
factoi that can make a new sustainable society possible. The vast majoiity of people
will not give up theii piesent wasteful lifestyle out of an altiuistic uesiie to save
theii planet. We know fiom histoiy that populations woulu iathei pioceeu towaius
theii own extinction iathei than engage in self-saciifice foi the common goou. What
I'm pioposing is uiffeient: you simply get youi pleasuie fiom a uiffeient souice. Anu
it woiks: enviionmental nouiishment fiom Biophilia has sustaineu anu satisfieu
SS
people foi hunuieus of millennia up until the twentieth centuiy. We aie not talking
about an untiieu expeiiment, but a ietuin to something that we know woiks.
Lest ciitics iaise objections about ietuining to the past, I woulu auvise them not
to woiiy. We aie going to apply all oui technological knowleuge to solve pioblems
that weie piesent in uiban living in pievious times. Clean technology ieplaces uiity
technology. Theie is no going back to a pie-inuustiial past of iampant uisease unless
it is biought on by economic collapse uue to eneigy uepletion. All we aie iecoveiing
thiough Biophilia is the positive emotional expeiience, not the olu pioblems in
coping with eveiyuay existence that we have now bypasseu.

'=X32UO5<NI5346.
I am veiy giateful to }aap Bawson, Nichael Nehaffy, anu Saiah Rubiuge foi theii
suggestions.

%RYR%R(1R*.
Alexanuei, Chiistophei 2uu1-2uuS. >$% B-"*'% (2 Y',%', Books 1-4, Centei foi
Enviionmental Stiuctuie, Beikeley, Califoinia.
Alexanuei, Chiistophei, S. Ishikawa, N. Silveistein, N. }acobson, I. Fiksuahl-King,
anu S. Angel 1977. ! &-""%'+ V-+3*-3%, 0xfoiu 0niveisity Piess, New Yoik.
Bauwens, Nichel 2uuS. "P2P anu Buman Evolution: Peei to peei as the piemise
of a new moue of civilization"
<http:www.netwoikcultuies.oigweblogaichivesP2P_essay.puf>.
Biewe, Paul 2uuS. "Time in 0iban Planning anu Besign in the ICT Age", in C$.2".+3
C%+8% c V((<.+3 I-7< "( "$% )*"*'% .+ C:-".-5 &5-++.+3, euiteu by Euwaiu
Bulsbeigen, Ina Klaasen anu Iwan Kiiens, Techne Piess, Amsteiuam, pages 197-
211.
Fathy, Bassan 197S. !'7$."%7"*'% 2(' "$% &((', 0niveisity of Chicago Piess,
Chicago, Illinois.
Ball, Euwaiu T. 1984. >$% G-+7% (2 V.2%Z >$% Y"$%' G.9%+8.(+ (2 >.9%, Anchoi
Books, uaiuen City, New Yoik.
}oye, Yannick anu Agnes van Ben Beig 2u1u. "Natuie is easy on the minu", papei
piesenteu at the 8
th
Biennial Confeience on Enviionmental Psychology, Ziich,
Switzeilanu, 6-9 Septembei 2uu9.
Newman, Petei anu }effiey Kenwoithy 1999. C*8"-.+-4.5."6 -+, A.".%8, Islanu Piess,
Washington B.C.
Salingaios, Nikos A. 2uuu. "The Stiuctuie of Pattein Languages", !'7$."%7"*'-5
L%8%-'7$ [*-'"%'56, volume 4, pages 149-161. Repiinteu as Chaptei 8 of: Salingaios,
N. A. 2uuS. &'.+7.:5%8 (2 D'4-+ C"'*7"*'%, Techne Piess, Amsteiuam, Bollanu.
S6
Salingaios, Nikos A. 2uu6. ! >$%('6 (2 !'7$."%7"*'%, 0mbau-veilag, Solingen,
ueimany.
Salingaios, Nikos A. 2u1u. "Peei-to-Peei Themes anu 0iban Piioiities foi the Self-
oiganizing Society", &F&)(*+,-".(+, 26 Apiil 2u1u <http:p2pfounuation.netPeei-
to-Peei_Themes_anu_0iban_Piioiities_foi_the_Self-oiganizing_Society>.
Salingaios, Nikos A., B. Biain, A. N. Buany, N. W.Nehaffy anu E. Philibeit-Petit
2uu6. "Favelas anu Social Bousing: The 0ibanism of Self-0iganization", in: Fd
A(+3'%88( I'-8.5%.'( % Pd H4%'(-9%'.7-+(/ N-4."-ef( C(7.-5Z A.g+7.- % >%7+(5(3.-/
A-,%'+( ,% A(+2%'g+7.-8, Pos-uiauuao em Aiquitetuia e 0ibanismo ua
0niveisiuaue Feueial ue Santa Cataiina, Floiianopolis, Biazil, pages 28-47.
Salingaios, Nikos A., anu Kenneth u. Nasuen II 2uu8. "Neuioscience, the Natuial
Enviionment, anu Builuing Besign", Chaptei S of: Kelleit, S. R., Beeiwagen, }., anu
Nauoi, N., Euitois 2uu8. I.(:$.5.7 G%8.3+Z "$% >$%('6/ C7.%+7% -+, &'-7".7% (2
I'.+3.+3 I*.5,.+38 "( V.2%, }ohn Wiley, New Yoik, pages S9-8S.
Schiauei, Constance A. 2uuS. ! C%+8% (2 G-+7%, 2
nu
Euition, Buman Kinetics,
Champaign, Illinois.
Tinagli, Iiene 2uuS. D+,%'8"-+,.+3 h+(05%,3% C(7.%".%8, 0niteu Nations
publication STESAPABSER.E66, New Yoik, New Yoik.
Tuinei, }ohn F. C. 1976. N(*8.+3 46 &%(:5%, Naiion Boyais, Lonuon.
Waiu, victoiia anu Clive Boltham 2uuu. >$% L(5% (2 &'.1-"% -+, &*45.7 C:-7%8 .+
h+(05%,3% _-+-3%9%+",
<http:spaik.spannei.oiguocumentsPublic_Spaces_in_KN.puf>.
Whyte, William B. 1988. A."6Z L%,.87(1%'.+3 "$% A%+"%', Boubleuay, New Yoik.



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A. )34:2<8=4>23.
This papei outlines piomising new solutions foi the futuie of social housing. It
has been piepaieu as a compiehensive iepoit by one of the authois (NAS) foi Biazil,
anu is geneially applicable to all of Latin Ameiica. 0ne of us (ANB) is uesigning
social housing in }amaica anu elsewheie in the Caiibbean. Two of the authois (ANB
& NWN) aie uiiectly involveu with the ieconstiuction aftei the huiiicane Katiina
uevastation in the Southein 0niteu States, which faces similai, though not iuentical,
iealities. Anothei authoi (EPP) has ieseaicheu the peuestiian connectivity of the
uiban fabiic, anu is involveu in pioviuing goveinment-assisteu housing solutions on
a massive scale in Nexico. The iemaining authoi (BB) has long stuuieu the influence
of uiban foim on social wellbeing anu community sustainability, a ciucial factoi in
oui uiscussion.
The challenge of social housing is a majoi component of woilu uiban giowth, anu
we wish to piesent heie a compiehensive methouology foi iauically impioving its
peifoimance. Success will be measuieu in human teims: i.e., the physical anu
emotional wellbeing of the iesiuent. We consiuei a pioject to be successful if it is
maintaineu anu loveu by its iesiuents, anu also if the uiban fabiic joins in a healthy
anu inteiactive way to the iest of the city. 0n the othei hanu, we consiuei as
unsuccessful (anu hence unsustainable) a pioject that is hateu by its iesiuents foi a
numbei of uiffeient ieasons, wastes iesouices in initial constiuction anu upkeep,
contiibutes to social uegiauation, isolates its iesiuents fiom society, oi uecays
physically in a shoit peiiou of time.
The essence of the appioach piesenteu heie is to apply a sustainable PR0CESS
iathei than a specific INAuE to uesign anu builuing. The way it was uone in the
S8
iecent past is to builu accoiuing to a piepaieu image of what the builuings ought to
look like, anu how they shoulu be aiiangeu. By contiast, no image of oui pioject
exists at the beginning: it emeiges fiom the piocess itself, anu is cleai only aftei
eveiything is finisheu.
We can move towaiu a moie thoiough anu satisfying solution by uiawing upon
Chiistophei Alexanuei's woik one of seveial pioneeis who pioposeu that uiban
fabiic shoulu follow an oiganic paiauigm anu can incluue theoietical anu
piactical woik that foi vaiious ieasons is not wiuely applieu. What we offei is
suppoiteu by the eviuence fiom many examples of tiauitional piactice ovei
centuiies. uoveinments insteau choose to impose schemes anu typologies that
ultimately geneiate hostility foi the fabiic of social housing fiom its occupants. We
will analyze the ieasons foi this hostility in oiuei to pievent it in the futuie. The
ielatively simple solutions piesenteu heie aie geneiic. Theiefoie, though geaieu to
Latin Ameiica, they can be auopteu by the iest of the woilu with only minoi
mouifications. This stuuy outlines iueas that aie geneial enough to apply to
countiies wheie local conuitions that piouuce housing might be veiy uiffeient.
We can leain fiom innovative appioaches to goveinment-sponsoieu housing,
uevelopeu by inuepenuent gioups in many uiffeient settings anu conuitions. 0ut of
many piojects built ovei seveial uecaues, veiy few can be juugeu to be tiuly
successful using oui ciiteiia of the iesiuents' physical anu emotional wellbeing.
Those few excellent solutions tenu to be neglecteu because they fail to satisfy
ceitain iconic piopeities (which we uiscuss in uetail latei in this papei). Peihaps
suipiisingly, we also uiaw upon successful typologies uevelopeu foi sustainable
uppei-income communities.
This papei combines two mutually complementaiy appioaches (anu will contiast
these with existing methous). 0n the one hanu, we will give some explicit piactical
iules foi builuing social housing. Any gioup oi agency wishing to get staiteu
immeuiately may implement these with appiopiiate local mouifications on
actual piojects. 0n the othei hanu, we will piesent a geneial philosophical anu
scientific backgiounu foi social housing anu its cultuial implications. The aim of this
theoietical mateiial is to "give peimission" foi common-sense aiguments; to cieate
the conuitions that will safely allow anu suppoit what in effect comes natuially.
People, acting as intelligent local agents, may then apply methous that evolveu
uuiing millennia of successfully peifoiming ownei-built housing as pait of the
piouuction of healthy iesiuent-built communities.
This methouology iecognizes anu incoipoiates the self-oiganizing featuies of the
most iobust human settlements thioughout histoiy, by utilizing a "complexity-
managing" appioach, iathei than a lineai, "top-uown" appioach. We piopose
channeling the uesign talent anu builuing eneigy of the people themselves, acting as
local agents, within a system that we manage only to help geneiate anu guiue its
evolving complexity. In such an appioach, "bottom-up" piocesses aie alloweu to
uevelop oiganically, though within constiaints baseu upon piioi expeiience. 0n the
othei hanu, "top-uown" inteiventions must be uone expeiimentally anu caiefully
(i.e., with feeuback), allowing moie inteiaction with smallei-scale "bottom-up"
S9
piocesses.
0ui pioposal goes beyonu housing that is liteially ownei-built in the sense that
owneis hammei nails anu poui conciete. It is impoitant that they expeiience the
piocess of uesign anu builuing as TBEIR piocess. It's all about establishing
connection anu engagement. The key point is a piocess that accommouates ieal
engagement, that is agile enough to be iesponsive to auaptive piocesses, anu that
can engage without being uiiven by the social uynamics of inequality into
unfoitunate uiiections. Nost impoitant, the piocess can take auvantages of both
technology anu expeitise. We aie pioposing something fai moie than letting the
pooi fenu foi themselves we wish to empowei them with the latest tools anu a
highly sophisticateu unueistanuing of uiban foim.
As many authois have uesciibeu pieviously (e.g. Alexanuei %"= -5= (1977), }acobs
(1961), Tuinei (1976)), establisheu planning piactice has tenueu to follow an
outmoueu eaily inuustiial mouel. That mouel aiose in the 192us, anu was wiuely
auopteu in the peiiou following Woilu Wai II. It was baseu upon a hieiaichical "top-
uown" commanu-anu-contiol paiauigm, leauing to pieuict-anu-pioviue planning.
Reseaich amply uemonstiates that this mouel uoes not sufficiently ieflect the kinu
of scientific pioblem a city poses, because the mouel ignoies the tiemenuous
physical anu social complexity of successful uiban fabiic. Incieuibly, it uoes not
even auuiess human inteiactions with the built enviionment. The iesulting failuies
anu unintenueu consequences aie well uocumenteu. As science uevelops moie fine-
giaineu anu moie accuiate ieseaich tools foi the analytical stuuy of such self-
oiganizing phenomena (which incluue cities), it is necessaiy now to piopose a
iauical new uibanism. We wish to empowei people with the authoiity of a new
methouology, giounueu in iecent uiban ieseaich.
The pioblem isn't just the lack of physical complexity. The key to uiban place
making is ieally the ielationship between the complexity of spatial foim anu the
complexity of social piocess. If it weie just a mattei of physical complexity, one
might imagine that a top-uown piocess coulu be cieateu to simulate that complexity
say, a computei algoiithm. The ciucial point is that this physical complexity
embouies anu expiesses social life. It is, in ceitain iespects, social ielations by othei
means (e.g., aitifacts anu built spaces). To some extent, the answei begins by ie-
conceiving the built enviionment itself as social piocess, not just as piouuct oi
containei. This becomes impoitant latei when we talk about maintenance, since the
piocessual chaiactei of this kinu of owneiship meiely begins when iesiuents move
in.
This papei is veiy complex anu ueals with many issues, so we neeu to map out its
exposition. The fiist foui sections pioviue backgiounu anu ciiticize cuiient
piactices. Section 2 intiouuces the competition between ownei-built settlements
anu goveinment-built social housing. Section S ieviews the stanuaiu piactices anu
typologies of top-uown social housing piogiams, anu iecommenus ieplacing them
(oi at least complementing them) with a bottom-up pioceuuie. Section 4 pinpoints
how a "geometiy of contiol" iuins even the best-intentioneu schemes by making
them inhuman.
6u
The next six sections offei specific tools foi uesign. Section S tuins to
mechanisms foi establishing emotional connections with the built enviionment.
Biophilia, oi the neeu to connect uiiectly to plant life, is a ciucial component. We
also uiscuss sacieu spaces anu theii iole towaius establishing community. Section 6
ieviews the woik of Chiistophei Alexanuei, especially his iecent woik on
geneiative coues. Section 7 aigues against the fixeu mastei plan appioach,
suggesting insteau an iteiative back-anu-foith planning piocess. Section 8 ieviews
Alexanuiine patteins anu outlines theii tiansition to geneiative coues. Section 9
gives, in the bioauest possible teims, oui methouology foi planning a settlement.
We suggest getting builuing peimission foi a piocess iathei than foi a uesign on
papei. Section 1u contains an explicit set of coues uesciibing the aimatuie of
seivices in a social housing pioject. Section 11 intiouuces the complementaiy
uesign tools by uesciibing the geneiative coues neeueu foi such a pioject.
The next foui sections continue with piactical suggestions foi making piojects
woik. Section 12 suggests appointing a pioject managei to uiiect the application of
geneiative coues. Section 1S aigues foi using appiopiiate mateiials: cheap but
peimanent; uuiable but flexible enough to shape; soliu but fiienuly to sight anu
touch. We also uiscuss the piopei use of inuustiial mouules such as a plumbing box.
Section 14 bioaches the topic of funuing a pioject, iecommenuing the involvement
of a non-goveinmental oiganization that focuses on the small scale. Section 1S is
political, uelving into how one can best coopeiate with existing systems geaieu to
piouucing social housing that follow veiy uiffeient, inuustiial typologies. Section 16
offeis stiategies foi getting iesiuents to maintain theii settlements aftei they aie
built.
The final foui sections iuentify some of the pioblems. Section 17 faces the
uifficult pioblem of ietiofitting the favela to make it an acceptable pait of uiban
fabiic. Sometimes it cannot be uone. We uiscuss a ieinfoicement stiategy foi when
it is feasible to uo so. Section 18 analyzes some failuies to unueistanu the life of a
squattei, such as theii economic neeu foi pioximity to the city. This makes new
social housing built fai outsiue the city unattiactive. We also wain against gianu
schemes that can tuin into economic uisasteis. Section 19 blames aichitects foi
imposing moueinist foims on social housing. That geometiy makes them hostile foi
iesiuents. Section 2u blames the iesiuents themselves foi iejecting auaptive housing
anu uiban typologies, wanting insteau the steiile images of moueinism. Section 21
ieviews how conuitions aie uiffeient touay fiom the past seveial uecaues, anu offeis
optimism foi a bioau acceptance of auaptive housing.
The Appenuix contains an explicit geneiative sequence foi social housing on a
gieenfielu oi open biownfielu.

#. F95 R=26L645I '3?O2NL.
Beie is a basic incompatibility: oiganic uiban fabiic is an extension of human
biology, wheieas planneu constiuction is an aitificial vision of the woilu imposeu by
the human minu on natuie. The foimei is full of life but can be pooi anu unsanitaiy,
61
wheieas the lattei is often clean anu efficient but steiile. 0ne of these two
contiasting uiban moiphologies can win out ovei the othei, oi they coulu both
ieach some soit of equilibiium coexistence (as has occuiieu in most of Latin
Ameiica). In the movement foi "self-constiuction", the goveinment accepts that
owneis will builu theii own houses, anu pioviues mateiials anu tiaining to help
establish the netwoiks of electiicity, watei, anu seweiage.
"Social housing" is usually unueistoou as a pioject foi housing the pooi, built anu
financeu by a goveinment oi non-goveinmental oiganization. 0ccupants coulu
puichase theii units, but a usual piactice is to ient them at low subsiuizeu ients, oi
even to pioviue them foi fiee. In the lattei instances, the iesiuents live theie by
couitesy of (anu aie subject to vaiying uegiees of contiol by) the owning entity. A
"squattei settlement", on the othei hanu, is a self-built uevelopment on lanu that is
not owneu by the iesiuents, anu which is fiequently occupieu without peimission.
Since squattei settlements aie illegal, the goveinment geneially iefuses to pioviue
the means of legally puichasing inuiviuual plots of lanu. In most cases, it also iefuses
to connect those iesiuences to the utility giiu (electiicity, watei, anu seweiage) of
the iest of the city. As a iesult, living conuitions theie aie the woist among
peacetime settlements.
Social housing anu squattei settlements aie iegions wheie moie than one billion
of the woilu's veiy pooi live. We aie going to uiscuss these two uiban phenomena
siue-by-siue, anu offei to iesolve the iueological anu spatial competition between
the two. As a basic staiting point, housing foi the pooi iepiesents the lowest level of
the woilu's uiban ecosystem. Biffeient foices within human society geneiate both
types of uiban system: eithei goveinment-sponsoieu social housing, oi squattei
settlements. Chiistophei Alexanuei (2uuS), Bassan Fathy (197S), N. }. Babiaken
(1972), }ohn F. C. Tuinei (1976), anu otheis iecognizeu this competition befoie us,
anu pioposeu an accommouation of the two systems. Tuinei helpeu to builu seveial
piojects in Peiu anu Nexico, anu auviseu otheis on implementing such iueas
woiluwiue.
The ecosystem analogy also explains anu to a ceitain extent justifies the vigilance
by which goveinments pievent squattei settlements fiom invauing the iest of the
city. If not iestiaineu by law anu uiiect inteivention, squatteis move into piivate
anu public lanu. We aie uesciibing a species competition foi the same available
space. Each species (uiban typology) wants to uisplace all the otheis. Squattei
settlements can take ovei the entiie city if alloweu to uo so (foi example, in Caiio,
they have taken ovei the flat ioofs of commeicial builuings; in the 0SA people builu
tempoiaiy shelteis in public paiks anu unuei highway oveipasses). The
goveinment, in tuin, woulu like to cleai all squattei settlements. uoveinments the
woilu ovei assume that they must constiuct planneu housing to ieplace ownei-built
housing. That is too expensive to be feasible.
Like all tiuly oiganic systems, cities aie bettei off without cential contiol.
Accommouating competing uiban systems nevei became stanuaiu piactice,
howevei. Although the basic iueas about tiauitional settlements weie in place,
seveial key elements of unueistanuing weie pieviously missing. We aie now
62
offeiing expeitise in housing as a BYNANIC piocess (by combining pattein
languages with geneiative coues: see latei sections). Inteiventions aie neeueu,
staiting fiom sciatch in new housing piojects. The same uynamic piocess can also
be applieu to alieauy built enviionments, in seeking to auapt a laige numbei of
infoimal unplanneu housing piojects (favelas oi otheis) by biinging them up to
acceptable living conuitions.
Competition occuis among all economic stiata ("species") that eithei use uiban
lanu, oi piofit fiom it. In Latin Ameiican cities, uiban lanu speculation leaves a laige
amount of unuevelopeu lanu with all the seivices alieauy in place wasteu. The
pooiest population then has to finu plots on the outskiits, anu pay steep piices foi
watei anu othei seivices, without having the benefit of living close to theii main
souice of income (the cential city). This cieates a seveie pioblem foi the
goveinment. Rathei than chaiacteiizing the piactice as "unfaii" (which uoes not
leau to any change), we point out its tiemenuous cumulative costs foi the futuie.
Thioughout all the vaiious schemes foi social housing tiieu ovei the yeais, it is
wiuely accepteu (with only a few exceptions) that the unplanneu ownei-built favela
is embaiiassing to the goveinment, anu has to be bulluozeu as soon as possible. Yet
that assumption is wiong. veiy few in a position of authoiity seem to consiuei the
uiban anu economic auvantages of existing shantytowns. The geometiy of builuings,
lots, anu stieet patteins has foi the most pait uevelopeu (evolveu) oiganically, anu
we will aigue heie that this self-oiganization affoius a numbei of veiy uesiiable
featuies. With all its giave faults, the favela offeis an instiuctive spontaneous
uemonstiation of economic, efficient, anu iapiu piocesses of housing people.
The favelas' uisauvantages aie not inheient in the uiban system itself. Theii
oiganic geometiy is peifectly sounu, yet it is piecisely that aspect which is
vehemently iejecteu. It simply uoesn't fit into the steieotypeu (anu scientifically
outmoueu) image of what a piogiessive uiban fabiic ought to iesemble neat,
smooth, iectangulai, mouulai, anu steiile. A favela's oiganic geometiy is linkeu with
the illegal act of squatting, anu with a peivasive lawlessness. The geometiy itself
iepiesents "an enemy to piogiess" foi an auministiation. We cannot builu living
uiban fabiic (oi save existing poitions) until we get past that piejuuice. The favela
has a self-healing mechanism absent fiom most top-uown social housing schemes.
0iganic giowth also iepaiis uiban fabiic in a natuial piocess, something entiiely
absent fiom geometiically iigiu housing piojects.
Iionically, the oiganic geometiy of the favela is typically at ouus with the
impeiatives of both the Left anu the Right in a mouein state, given its inteiest in
iesponuing to social issues in a mannei that is appiopiiately contiolleu. Some of
that inteiest in contiol has to uo with a liteial inteiest in the kinu of iational
auministiative oiuei that is tieu to social contiol. Neveitheless, much of it may
ieflect eithei the state's neeu to legitimate its inteiventions by uemonstiating its
iationality, oi its neeu to maintain the buieauciatic iituals of accountability when
uistiibuting public iesouices, oi its iespect foi the conventions of piivate piopeity.
It coulu also be a sinceie iefoimist concein foi elevating the living stanuaius of the
pooi in a way that is both efficient anu pioceuuially faii, in a mannei motivateu by
6S
uemociatic piinciples.
An oiueieu geometiy gives the impiession of contiol investeu in the entity that
builus. Whethei this is intentional (to uisplay the authoiity of the state) oi
subconscious (copying images fiom aichitectuie books), goveinments anu non-
goveinmental oiganizations piefei to see such an expiession of theii own
"iationality" thiough builuing. Bepaituie fiom this set of typologies is felt to be a
ielaxation of authoiity; oi it iaises possible questions iegaiuing the legitimacy of
uistiibutions of iesouices that aien't subject to caieful buieauciatic accounting
pioceuuies. Both of these aie avoiueu because they tenu to eioue the authoiity of
the state, paiticulaily unuei iegimes wheie the iights of piivate piopeity aie an
impoitant pait of the legal anu iegulatoiy systems. Noiphologically complex
squattei settlements aie usually outsiue the goveinment's contiol altogethei. 0ne
way of asseiting contiol is to move theii iesiuents to housing built by the
goveinment. In a sau anu catastiophic confiimation of oui iueas, vaiious
goveinments in Afiica have peiiouically bulluozeu ownei-built uwellings, uiiving
theii iesiuents to live out in the open.

M. '34>@?445:36 2C *2=>?O K286>3N.
Let us summaiize some of the cuiient beliefs anu typologies that uiive social
housing touay, so that we can ieplace them with an entiiely uiffeient fiamewoik.
We will suggest using solutions that we feel woik best as the moie enlighteneu
alteinative. Nuch of oui ciiticism focuses on top-uown contiol. That appioach leaus
to simplification in the planning piocess. Bowevei, one cannot uesign anu builu
complex uiban fabiic using top-uown tools. Theie is moie to ciiticize in the specific
images people have of moueinity. That conceins both aichitects, who caiiy with
them a false set of uesiiable images; anu iesiuents, who aie invaiiably influenceu by
those same images thiough the meuia.
1. Existing public housing piojects aie conceptualizeu anu built as cheap
uoimitoiies, anu thus follow a militaiyinuustiial planning philosophy: builu as
many units as possible, as cheaply anu efficiently as possible. We shoulu abanuon
this minuset anu builu uiban quaiteis insteau. Builuing an uiban quaitei is a much
moie complex unueitaking, anu one that iequiies complex engagement beyonu the
small ciicles of policy-making anu piofessional elites.
2. To eiect a housing pioject most efficiently, the uiiecting entity wants to have
maximal contiol ovei the geometiy anu builuing piocess. This piactical iequiiement
means that usei paiticipation is excluueu.
S. The veiy name "social housing" implies that only a uoimitoiy is built, anu not
an uiban quaitei. Following Woilu Wai II, monofunctional zoning became the
establisheu ciiteiion by which goveinmental inteiventions weie caiiieu out. Those
iueas weie in place befoie the Wai, but post-wai ieconstiuction anu expansion gave
the oppoitunity to apply them on a much laigei scale.
64
4. The inuustiial builuing typology ielegates plants anu the natuial enviionment
to a puiely uecoiative iole, oi eliminates them altogethei. Neveitheless, human
health is possible only if we connect to plants anu natuie in oui immeuiate
suiiounuings: the "Biophilia Bypothesis" (Kelleit, 2uuS).
S. An uiban quaitei is compiiseu of complex social netwoiks, anu iequiies the
appiopiiate uiban moiphology of a netwoik. It is nevei monofunctional, anu it is
not homogeneous. It cannot be built in a top-uown fashion by cential goveinment.
Inuiviuual villages (&*%45(8 in Latin Ameiica) have been evolving fai longei than
Suu yeais; they possess a iich inheiitance of a mixtuie of many cultuies that comes
fiom the ueep past, e.g. inuigenous cultuies such as Toltec, Nayan, Incan, Caiib anu
incoming cultuies such as Spanish, Poituguese, Afiican, Islamic anu so on. Theie aie
many lessons that we can leain fiom this evolution.
6. A conventional social housing pioject is seluom conceineu about social
accessibility to the uiban netwoik, since it is usually built in uisconnecteu (many
times iuial) aieas. All too often, the issue is unueistoou only as a mattei of
"housing", with measuies of success typically in teims of quantities of "units" anu
immeuiate impact on inuiviuuals, iathei than the quality (oi sustainability) of the
community life that iesults.
7. The typical location of social housing piojects in iuial aieas has to uo with a
poweiful economic ieason: the lanu owneis have manageu to get a change of lanu
use anu have obtaineu foi themselves an extiaoiuinaiy suiplus value. This is pait of
the spiawl-oiienteu uevelopment in oui cities. Fuitheimoie, the pioject itself, the
goveinment, anu the useis seluom benefit in any way fiom this suiplus value.
8. A typical social housing pioject conceiveu as a uisconnecteu "uiban islanu" has
an awful impact on the enviionment. It is uisconnecteu fiom local anu fiom global
economic cycles.
9. The geometiy of a conventional social housing pioject anu the configuiation of
its constituent units give few oi no ways to affect fuithei uevelopment. They piesent
a numbei of geometiical obstacles foi its evolution ovei time. This impeuiment
fiustiates the inhabitants' hopes, anu suppiesses theii piospects foi social anu
economic impiovement.
1u. Aichitects, goveinment officials, anu futuie iesiuents all caiiy within theii
minus an "image of moueinity". This set of ingiaineu images geneiates a builuing
typology that is hostile in actual use, anu piesents one of the gieatest obstacles to
auaptive social housing.
uoveinments aie still stuck in the minuset of social housing seiving jobs in a
paiticulai place. The ieality is uiffeient: healthy uiban quaiteis connect into an
uiban conglomeiation, anu people woik wheievei they can finu jobs. By contiast,
unhealthy uiban iegions aie isolateu, uisconnecting people fiom each othei anu
fiom employment oppoitunities. Bespite stiong social anu economic foices leauing
to isolation, oui aim is not to couify this isolation in the builuings anu uiban foim.
To uo that is to compounu the pioblem. We shoulu insteau use the uiban geometiy
to counteiact social isolation.
6S
The above list of typologies anu piactices leaus to unhealthy housing piojects,
cieating unsustainable social conuitions. To achieve a moie auaptive appioach,
those typologies must be ieveiseu, anu the foices that leau us to iepeat the same
mistakes ovei anu ovei again shoulu be ieuiiecteu. Some eiiois aiise simply out of
ineitia: copying faileu solutions because it has become a habit to uo so, anu not
iuentifying viable alteinatives. Those eiiois aie veiy easy to iesolve once the
situation is bettei unueistoou. Theie is anothei class of eiiois, howevei, which aiise
because the same foices leau to similai expiessions in piactical applications. Those
conuitions cannot be changeu, anu must insteau be ieuiiecteu. Failuie to
unueistanu the uiffeience between the two pioblems means that we will nevei be
able to impiove the cuiient situation.
0ne piinciple becomes cleai: theie is no point of uesigning "social housing" as
such. We neeu to uesign anu builu complex, mixeu-use uiban fabiic, anu to make
suie it fits into existing complex mixeu-use uiban fabiic. Social housing, anu housing
in geneial, neeu to be pait of a healthy (anu socially inclusive) piocess of uibanism.
The veiy notion of monofunctional housing is obsolete, uiscieuiteu because it nevei
woikeu to connect iesiuents to theii enviionment. All of the planning measuies we
ieject oiiginally well intentioneu weie auopteu as a means to impiove
efficiency in facing a seiious uiban challenge.
The unueilying ieasons foi theii failuie have nevei been officially aumitteu,
howevei. As a iesult, theie has been a tenuency foi the uebate to focus on pioblems
with the uesign of social housing as builuings: as if it weie meiely a mattei of
coming up with a bettei uesign iuea to be imposeu with moie oi less the same
appaiatus of top-uown contiol. 0sually nowauays, an aichitect's iuea of a goou
uesign is impeisonal anu oppiessive to the actual useis. Some moie iecent public
housing initiatives in the 0SA (such as the B0PE vI piogiam) have maue an effoit to
incoipoiate iesiuent paiticipation in the piocess, but ielatively supeificially anu
with veiy mixeu success. 0ui key point is that the piocess of piouucing living places
that incoipoiate social housing has to be changeu at its ioot. It must accommouate
moie funuamental anu meaningful engagement, giounuing the geneiation of uiban
foim in a piocess that auequately iespects the oiganizeu complexity uistinctive to
the natuie of cities.
Theie is a neeu to mix social classes foi a healthiei social fabiic. The mix can
occui natuially thiough the piocess of upgiauing. It is also impoitant that people
who have a choice iemain in the neighboihoou. The compiehensive appioach to
cieating a village woulu seem to make sense in places like Latin Ameiica wheie
whole settlements of pieviously iuial people cieate shanty towns anu squattei
settlements on the peiipheiy of big cities. In that context, theie may be no option
but to catalyze the geneiation of whole uiban quaiteis built by the iesiuents, with
help by us. ueneially, we woulu want to be cautious about builuing uiban quaiteis
specifically foi the pooi. Bealthy uiban fabiic is not monofunctional, anu neithei
uoes it stiictly contain one income level. We aie awaie of the tiemenuous social
uifficulties of encouiaging mixeu-income housing, because of the peiception that no
one woulu evei want to live next to people even slightly pooiei than they aie.
66
Bowevei, we can finu encouiaging examples of social mixtuie in histoiic towns anu
histoiic city centeis all aiounu Latin Ameiica (the A%+"'( N.8"j'.7( of Queitaio is a
goou example). The uiffeience lies in the peiception of community (which can
oveicome income uiffeiences) veisus peiceiving a house stiictly as ieal estate.
Nixeu income communities aie not only possible, but aie moie iesilient.
It is not just a question heie of physically sepaiateu uiban quaiteis on the uiban
peiipheiy. Bow uoes one cieate a unique pattein-geneiating piocess foi these
uiban quaiteis, without cieating enclaves that stanu out uiamatically fiom the iest
of the city. In othei woius, how uoes one plan foi low-income builuings without
cieating "piojects", baiiios, anu ghettos. It seems to us that it is ciucial that this
iethinking of "social housing" has to be a iethinking of eveiybouy's housing i.e., of
uibanism such that "social housing" is subsumeu by a moie geneial piocess of
cieating a city of healthy netwoiks (Salingaios, 2uuS). Connecting to the global
netwoiks of the city: majoi stieets, the public tianspoitation system, political anu
social netwoiks, etc., is of the gieatest impoitance.
Pait of the minuset of goveinment is that "social housing" has to follow a specific
set of policies uiiecteu at a specific pioblem, anu auministeieu in anu thiough
specific sites. We have supei block piojects (which aie uehumanizing but easy to
auministei), oi we have something like the Section 8 vouchei system in the 0SA,
which subsiuizes ient foi low-income iesiuents. In the case of the lattei, social
housing becomes an abstiact categoiy uefineu only in teims of the pathologies of
inuiviuuals who neeu assistance, anu auuiesseu in the foim of payments to piopeity
owneis. In the lattei case, the "site" is a categoiy of inuiviuuals, seveieu fiom
community connections.
Typically, the pooi alieauy have complex social netwoiks upon which they iely
heavily foi suivival. At the same time, howevei, the ielative isolation of these
netwoiks is a seiious pioblem. Although often veiy uensely connecteu in a "peei
gioup society", the pooi tenu to have limiteu connections outsiue those ciicles, anu
aie isolateu in theii own villages. They aie bounu into small netwoiks, but have no
sense of themselves categoiically as iesiuents of a neighboihoou. They also tenu to
uistiust people fiom outsiue theii netwoiks. Essentially, they have no capacity to
iuentify with oi caie about the neighboihoou as a neighboihoou. The pioblem fiom
a netwoik point of view becomes how to stiengthen the pattein of weak ties in such
a way that one can incoipoiate low-income populations into civic life. Noieovei,
this has to be uone without uisiupting the stiong netwoiks of mutual assistance on
which those iesiuents iely. The solution iequiies oiganizing these local netwoiks
into a netwoik that woiks on a laigei scale.

Q. ' 052I54:L 2C 1234:2O.
The psychological piocess of contiol influences uiban foim anu the shape of
social housing to a iemaikable extent. Contiol may be manifesteu in aichitectuial
geometiy anu also in uiban layout. A iigiu, mechanical geometiy uictates the shape
of inuiviuual builuings anu uiban spaces, while the geometiy of theii layout
67
ueteimines the ielationship among sepaiate builuings anu the shape of the stieet
netwoik. Theie aie many oppoitunities to expiess contiol in uiban anu
aichitectuial teims, anu we finu them all in goveinment-built social housing.
Examples of oiganicbottom-up 3%+%'-"%, uiban stiuctuies aie founu along a
univeisal timeline staiting with the fiist cities iegisteieu in the Neolithic peiiou,
thiough mouein times. The mechanicaltop-uown 2-4'.7-"%, uiban stiuctuie is
founu in oui timeline evei since patteins of 7(5(+.M-".(+ fiist appeaieu in histoiy.
Thus, we have mouels of this mechanical stiuctuie uating fiom the impeiial peiious
of uieece, Rome, oi China until touay. In the 2u
th
Centuiy, an exaceibateu
mechanical stiuctuie was imposeu on cities by the machine cultuie of moueinist
thoughts anu values. This last peiiou has been uecisive in configuiing the stiuctuie
of piesent uay cities, anu is set to uominate those of coming yeais. In the neai
futuie, spatial fiagmentation coulu become the ultimate consequence of the iecent
past. Alteinatively, we may entei the peiiou when the emeiging paiauigm of
netwoiks coulu be wisely useu to connect oui spatial stiuctuies anu patteins again,
woiking insteau against fiagmentation.
Theie exists a cleaily iecognizable "geometiy of powei" (Alexanuei, 2uuS;
Salingaios, 2uu6). It is most cleaily expiesseu in militaiy anu Fascist aichitectuie of
the Seconu Woilu Wai (anu long befoie that), but has been auopteu by goveinments
anu institutions of all political peisuasions (fiom the most piogiessive, to the most
iepiessive). Such builuings aie shapeu as oveisizeu iectangulai blocks anu aie
placeu in stiictly iepetitive iectangulai giius. Bigh-iise blocks give the impiession
of contiol of theii occupants, who aie foiceu into a militaiyinuustiial typology that
is obviously the opposite of the fiee uiban geometiy of the favela. We have two
contiasting geometiies: housing units masseu into one oi moie blocks, veisus
having them spieau out iiiegulaily. The psychological impiession of contiol follows
the possibility of ACT0AL contiol, as the entiance to a high-iise housing block can
be easily sealeu off by the police, something that is impossible in a iambling clustei
of inuiviuual houses.
uoveinment officials anu uevelopeis shaie these views about contiol, anu this in
tuin tenus to eliminate any othei appioach. The local goveinment woulu piefei to
have bettei access to the site thiough iegulaily shapeu blocks. Auministiatois aie
fooleu by the notion that simplistic geometiic shapes aie the only typology we can
use to cieate efficient new uwellings.
An auministiation can builu many smallei units iathei than high-iise blocks, but
iigiuly fixeu to a militaiyinuustiial giiu on the giounu. Inuiviuual housing units aie
exact copies of a single piototype. Contiol heie is exeiciseu by not allowing
inuiviuual vaiiations. 0ne mouulai house is iepeateu to covei the entiie iegion, with
caieful attention paiu to stiict iectangulai alignment. Complexity anu vaiiation aie
peiceiveu as losing oveiall contiol not only of builuing typology, but also of the
way uecisions aie maue anu aie thus avoiueu.
Seveial factois pioviue poweiful motivations foi stanuaiuization anu ielatively
iigiu iegulations: auministiative efficiency, accountability, maintenance of
68
stanuaius on which the success of the auministiation will be assesseu, anu the
iequiiements of both tianspaiency anu pioceuuial faiiness. The efficiency of
mouulai piouuction, falsely tieu to economic piogiess, is useu as an excuse foi the
militaiyinuustiial geometiy. Builuing vaiiability is peiceiveu as a thieat, anu is
counteieu by aiguments about excessive piouuction costs. Those aiguments
suppoit the belief that cential planning is an economic anu social necessity. Yet,
such aiguments have been shown again anu again to be invaliu. It is once moie the
inuustiial, mechanical paiauigm of lineai piouuction (anu lineai thinking) that uoes
not allow uevelopeis of social housing to consiuei vaiiability, heteiogeneity, anu
complexity as essential featuies in theii piojects.
In a mannei similai to the application of new technology to factoiy piouuction, a
justification is often piesenteu in teims of cost anu efficiency, but the unueilying
logic is a logic of contiol. In the context of the mouein state, it is often moie ciucial
to maintain stanuaius, tianspaiency, anu accountability than to ieuuce cost in
absolute teims. As a iesult, it has become all too common foi the stiuctuies of
buieauciatic auministiation (with the best of intentions, anu iegaiuless of
iueological leanings of Left oi Right) to impose stanuaius that uisiupt the veiy thing
they hope to accomplish.
Auaptability to inuiviuual neeus iequiies uesign fieeuom so that eveiy unit coulu
be uiffeient, with its shape anu position ueciueu in laige pait by its futuie iesiuents.
It is inueeu possible to uo that. Neveitheless, both siues of the political spectium
stiongly oppose uesign fieeuom. The Right consiueis pooi people not to ueseive
such attention, anu that a custom-maue house is the exclusive piivilege of the
wealthy class. The Left, on the othei hanu, stanus fiimly behinu its belief of
funuamental equality, which it misinteipiets as foibiuuing houses in a social
uevelopment fiom being in any way uiffeient fiom each othei. Institutions such as
banks, constiuction companies, anu lanu suiveyois get fiighteneu by the piospect of
having to ueal with inuiviuual vaiiations.
Contiol is exeiteu in othei, moie subtle ways as a iesult of stanuaiuization. A
cheaply piouuceu builuing mouule available in the maiketplace, if it is laige enough,
ieplaces othei, bettei alteinatives. Nouulai components iestiict uesign fieeuom,
because they influence the final piouuct iesulting fiom theii assembly (Alexanuei,
2uuS; Salingaios, 2uu6). uoveinments that sponsoi social housing uo like to
piomote inuustiial mouules anu components, anu to uiscouiage constiuction that is
shapeu inuiviuually. Neveitheless, local piouuction coulu be achieveu moie cheaply,
anu solves pait of the unemployment pioblem. An inuustiial geometiy embouieu in
aichitectuial anu uiban typologies is eventually ieflecteu in the built enviionment.
The natuial enviionment becomes one moie casualty of the geometiy of contiol.
Natuie anu life aie visually "messy". Topogiaphical featuies such as iocks, hills, anu
stieams; as well as tiees anu plant life, pose challenges to a flat, iectangulai
geometiy, anu aie thus usually eliminateu. Local goveinments put in effoit to
eiauicate oiganic elements fiom the "iueal" steiile enviionment. Sometimes (but not
always), this act of aggiession against natuie is mollifieu aftei the fact by planting a
few non-native tiees in stiict geometiical alignment anu making up a phony iock
69
lanuscape as a visual sculptuie. Existing native plant species aie iegaiueu as
unwelcome, anu only an aitificial-looking lawn is acceptable (because it is sleek anu
uoes not giow unevenly like othei plants). In low-income housing, even that is
consiueieu an unaffoiuable luxuiy, so in the enu, the pioject acquiies an unnatuial,
lifeless chaiactei, totally lacking in connections to plant giowth.

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)(FR//R1F$'/ -c(R%*K)".

T. &>2@9>O>?J 12335=4>S>4LJ ?3< *@>:>48?O>4L.
The notion of "biophilic aichitectuie" establishes that human health anu
wellbeing stiongly uepenu on the geometiy of the enviionment, as expiesseu in
paiticulai configuiations, suifaces, mateiials, uetails, light, anu accessibility to
plants anu othei foims of life (Kelleit, 2uuS). All of these factois contiibute to the
success of any builuing, anu to social housing in paiticulai. Eviuence-baseu uesign is
baseu on knowing how a human being is affecteu by hishei enviionment.
The appiopiiate geometiy that piomotes human wellbeing is unsuipiisingly the
opposite of the geometiy of powei uesciibeu in the pieceuing section. A living
geometiy is loose, complex, anu highly inteiconnective. It is the geometiy of the
ownei-built favela, anu also the natuial geometiy of a iivei, a tiee, oi a lung.
Without any imposeu constiaints, human beings will builu accoiuing to this natuial
geometiy (Alexanuei, 2uuS; Salingaios, 2uu6). Note that many self-built piojects uo
not entiiely follow this geneiative geometiy, because the goveinment uefines a
iectangulai giiu of plots befoie giving the lanu ovei to inuiviuual builueis. Thus, it
alieauy imposes an inuustiial giiu that is impossible to change. We will uiscuss latei
how this iestiictive piactice can be avoiueu.
ueometiy anu suiface qualities eithei help oi hinuei an emotional connection
with the human beings who use them. We shoulu balance the stuuy of stiuctuie
with the stuuy of foim anu pattein. In the stuuy of stiuctuie, we measuie anu weigh
things. Patteins of inteiaction cannot be measuieu oi weigheu, howevei: they must
be mappeu, anu they have to uo moie with quality. To unueistanu a pattein we
must map a configuiation of ielationships. We believe in the concept of the city as
an oiganism, not only in the sense that it tiies to uevelop an ('3-+.7 stiuctuie, but
also because of the complex ielationship this stiuctuie establishes with the
oiganizational patteins of its useis. Beie is a list of some key concepts that we neeu
to woik with:
1. People become psychologically sick anu hostile in an enviionment uevoiu of
natuie. Biophilia is innate in oui genes. 0iban quaiteis neeu to blenu with anu not
ieplace natuial habitats.
2. We connect to plants thiough theii geometiical stiuctuie, thus some
geometiies aie moie connective to the human spiiit than otheis. We feel
comfoitable with a built enviionment that incoipoiates complex natuial geometiy
7u
showing an oiueieu hieiaichy of subuivisions.
S. Resiuents shoulu love theii homes anu neighboihoous. That means that the
foim of the immeuiate built enviionment must be spiiitual anu not inuustiial.
4. Inuustiial mateiials anu typologies geneiate hatieu foi the built enviionment.
We giow hostile to suifaces anu foims that uo not nouiish us spiiitually, because we
feel theii iejection of oui humanity. If not hatieu, they often geneiate a kinu of
inuiffeience that might actually be woise foi human communities. The use of these
mateiials anu typologies has commonly been piesenteu as uictateu by the natuie of
builuing technology anu the economic iealities of the uay. The iesult is that people
often take foi gianteu the unavoiuable alien chaiactei of a built enviionment that
ueliveis quantity without meaningful qualities.
S. The sacieu chaiactei of tiauitional villages anu uiban quaiteis cannot be
uismisseu as outmoueu nonsense (as is uone nowauays). This is the only quality
that connects a village on the laige scale to people, hence inuiiectly to each othei.
We neeu to builu it into the uiban quaitei.
It is not easy to iuentify the sacieu stiuctuie of any settlement, let alone plan foi
it in a new one. We neeu to look at the patteins of human activity in tiauitional
settlements, anu ask which activity noues aie valueu above all otheis. 0sually, it is
wheie local iesiuents come togethei to inteiact. Those noues (if they aie piesent at
all) coulu be inteiioi, but veiy often they aie elements of uiban space (uehl, 1996).
People can connect to plants anu to othei people at the same time in piopeily
uesigneu (configuieu) uiban spaces. Those places aie then iesponsible foi the
societal cohesion of the neighboihoou.
Something is "sacieu" if we attiibute to it a value above anu beyonu its mateiial
stiuctuie. A goou iule is to ask if we aie willing to fight to piotect it fiom uamage oi
uestiuction. Bo many peisons, some necessaiily stiangeis, feel the same way about
this. Bo we consiuei a place to have meaning foi the community as a whole so that a
gioup of people will actually come togethei to piotect this paiticulai object oi site.
In ancient societies, an olu tiee, a laige iock, piominent high giounu, a paiticulai
stieam oi spiing coulu be consiueieu sacieu (in the ueepest ieligious sense), anu
thus piotecteu fiom uamage. Those societies built towns aiounu sacieu spaces, anu
enuoweu paits of what they built with a sacieu meaning. Touay, that quality is
unfoitunately uismisseu as anachionistic.
Foi example, the oluest social noues aie a watei souice (community tap oi well),
place of woiship (Chuich oi Temple), gatheiing place (cafebai foi men), chiluien's
playgiounu, etc. In the case of a Chuich, we uo have a genuinely sacieu stiuctuie,
anu it is most often built in the oiiginal geogiaphic centei of a settlement. It seives
the cohesive function of community: "ecclesia" is the gatheiing togethei of common
woishippeis, which is just as much a cohesive social act as it is a puiely ieligious act.
It is no coinciuence that the non-ieligious gatheiing place, the coffeehouse, is often
situateu in fiont of the Chuich in a tiauitional village. The coffeehouse substitutes as
an alteinative gatheiing place foi those who uo not subsciibe to the sacieu meaning
of the local ieligion.
71
Anothei noue of the sacieu stiuctuie is the cential plaza oi open squaie, which,
in tempeiate climates, accommouates social life in the evenings. The Latin tiauition
of the evening walk aiounu the cential squaie establishes a value foi the plaza in the
social cohesion of the community. What we iefei to as "sacieu stiuctuie" in this
papei iefeis to ALL of these cohesive functions. We see cohesion as a natuial uevice,
anu inteipiet its vaiious manifestations as simply uiffeiing uegiees of connectivity
on oveilapping channels. A cential squaie is a place foi social cohesion, wheieas a
chuich connects its woishippeis to the highest level, which is theii cieatoi.
Non-ieligious societies in some cases successfully substituteu seculai "sacieu
spaces" to holu theii societies togethei. Foi example, communist countiies built the
"Bouse of the People" oi "Woikeis Club", which took the iole of a gatheiing place foi
at least pait of the community. In uppei-income subuibs (foi example, in gateu
communities) the same foices apply, but aie uniesolveu because of total automobile
uepenuence. Theie is no sacieu space, no common meeting point anu place of social
inteiaction. Contiaiy to the intent of uevelopeis who builu them, a clubhouse anu
community swimming pool in high-income subuiban clusteis uo not seive this
function. The uiban geometiy nevei establishes a common social value among the
iesiuents, hence leaus to a seiious lack of socialization.
The sacieu place that we aie uesciibing is absent fiom contempoiaiy uiban
constiuction (Buany %"= -5=, 2uuu). We see supeificial copies cieateu without any
unueistanuing of theii ueep cultuial meaning. Consequently, a uiamatic uecline in
the sense of community leaus to a uiamatic inciease in social alienation. Ceitainly
both the Right anu the Left have nevei iecognizeu the neeu foi spiiituality in the
fabiic of social housing. Neveitheless, a sense of the sacieu is inheient in all
tiauitional housing (in some places moie, in some places less) inuepenuently of
theii oiigin. By contiast, militaiyinuustiial uoimitoiies aie not only iejecteu by
theii inhabitants, but aie hateu because no one can connect with theii foim anu
image. A human being cannot tiuly belong to those builuings, noi can the image of
such a builuing belong emotionally to a human being, anu thus people tuin to hating
them anu eventually uestioying them. Builuings of this type, built in the 196us with
the veiy best of intentions, abounu aiounu the woilu. They uo not catalyze an
emotional attachment to the laige scale. Schemes to have "shopping stieets" anu
kinueigaitens (as a substitute foi sacieu space) on the fifth flooi of high-iise block
housing pioveu iiuiculous. Baiu conciete plazas tenu to be uisconnecting anu
hostile, geneiating a feeling of angei insteau of connectivity.
Chiistophei Alexanuei anu his collaboiatois built social housing in Nexicali,
Nexico (Alexanuei %"= -5=, 198S). A piototype house clustei was built aiounu a
builuei's yaiu that seiveu the constiuction neeus of the neighboihoou. That coulu
have seiveu as the sacieu space. Wheieas the houses themselves weie a
tiemenuous success (anu suivive with theii oiiginal owneis yeais afteiwaius), the
builuei's yaiu was not. The goveinment faileu to maintain it, yet uiu not give it ovei
to anothei community oi piivate use. It was abanuoneu, anu its connections to the
inuiviuual houses sealeu off by the owneis. The goveinment nevei helpeu it to
become a gatheiing place. No effoit was maue to enuow a sacieu value to the
72
builuei's yaiu.
The categoiy of "the sacieu" is being uefineu bioauly enough to encompass the
noimative oiuei of civic spaces, anu it is impoitant to incluue the full spectium of
social ielations fiom the piivate, to the communal (paiochial), to the public (civic).
Tiauitional villages iise to the level of the communal, but N0T to the level of civic
cultuie. uatheiing places aie impoitant, not simply because they encouiage
communal cohesion (which tenus to be baseu on homogeneity), but because the
iange of uiffeient types of gatheiing places allows foi a iange of uiffeient kinus of
social ielations. Relations in public have as much to uo with uefining social uistance
as with cohesion. 0ften, the cohesion associateu with uibanism is meuiateu only by
the shaiing of a common sense of place. Places aie, in a sense, an embouiment of
what we call "social capital". They ARE social ielationships, not just containeis oi
facilitatois of social ielationships.
Theie may be a pioblem with emphasizing the sacieu in this uiscussion. In the
thiiu woilu even moie than in places like the 0SA, the constituencies foi social
housing aie often caught up in some foim oi anothei of uemociatization movement.
Paiticulaily in the global cities of the woilu, we uon't wish to make it sounu as if we
aie piomoting a ietuin to the conuition of a kinu of tiibalism (which is the way
tiauitional villages can seem). Places uo iequiie mateiialization of the "sacieu", but
not in the common usage of the woiu. uatheiing places aie impoitant, but theii
stiuctuie (anu theii ielationship to the social stiuctuie) is moie complex than just
acting as the containeis oi oppoitunities foi people to bonu. We neeu to look at the
patteins of inteiaction in tiauitional cities as well as tiibal villages anu settlements
that aie homogeneous by class. Those patteins of inteiaction aie stiuctuially vaiieu
anu aie not simply about communal cohesion.
In conclusion, a settlement must, above all else, establish a sacieu stiuctuie by
some means, so as to connect emotionally with its iesiuents. Sacieu stiuctuie also
helps people to connect to a highei oiuei. This highei oiuei encompasses thiee
functional featuies: (a) it is *8%, as a cohesive means to foim community; (b) it is
7(+8"'*7"%, upon the coopeiation of the uiscouises of a gioup of people anu is not
the unilateial uecision of an inuiviuual; anu (c) it is loaueu with a poweiful 9%-+.+3
foi the community. If most oi all iesiuents connect with the physical sacieu
stiuctuie, then they connect inuiiectly with each othei. This simple piinciple
establishes a sense of community, which suivives the uifficult conuitions of life. It
keeps foices oiienteu towaius maintaining the physical stiuctuie of the community,
insteau of tuining them against the physical stiuctuie in those cases when it is not
valueu.

V. $4>O>P>3N 495 c2:X 2C 19:>642@95: 'O5Z?3<5:.
Nany times uuiing his long caieei as aichitect anu uibanist, Chiistophei
Alexanuei was askeu to plan anu constiuct social housing. In eveiy case, anu often
in opposition to the biief pioviueu by the goveinment agency that hiieu him, he
insisteu on usei paiticipation. Be cleaily saw that this was the only way to piouuce
7S
built foims that aie "loveu" by theii occupants (Alexanuei, 2uuS; Alexanuei %"= -5=,
198S). Each of his piojects began with the essential fiamewoik of involving futuie
useis in planning theii living space, anu shaping the configuiation of stieets anu
common aieas. In some cases, this leu to the suppoit being withuiawn by the
sponsoiing goveinment, which suimiseu that such a scheme woulu seveiely weaken
its contiol ovei the geometiy of the pioject.
We believe that Alexanuei was entiiely iight in insisting on paiticipation as a
basic piinciple. Be coiiectly pieuicteu that housing built by someone not involveu in
the woilu anu uaily iealities of the iesiuent woulu lack ceitain essential qualities. As
a iesult, its inhabitants coulu nevei love the place. Even if the houses weie all built
following exactly the same mouulai typology, paiticipation in the planning oi
builuing piocess guaiantees that the eventual useis have a peisonal stake in the
final piouuct. Nost people coulu not caie less about a uesign's foimal viitues: they
just want something they can tiuly consiuei theii own.
Alexanuei's most iecent woik (Alexanuei, 2uuS) establishes a tempoial oiueiing
foi any constiuction if it is to be auaptive to human neeus. That is, it matteis
enoimously what is uesigneu anu built befoie, anu what comes aftei in the sequence
of uesignconstiuction. This piactice was followeu since ancient times in the Neai
East anu was couifieu in Byzantine anu Islamic uibanism, which influenceu all
iegions affecteu by these civilizations (Bakim, 2uuS). Its scientific founuation as
pait of the geneial piocesses by which a complex system is evolveu is a new
contiibution, anu has been theoietically shown to be ciucial to the success of any
pioject. It is now possible to outline the coiiect oiuei in which components of a
housing uevelopment can be built to ensuie sustainability.
Foi example, Alexanuei ieveals the steps in uesigning healthy uiban fabiic. These
of couise uepenu veiy much on scale. Since one piioiity is how a settlement
connects to the iest of the city, an aiea of up to 1 km
2
will usually be tangent to one
of the main stieets, wheieas aieas laigei than that will piobably neeu a majoi stieet
that goes thiough them.
1. Najoi ciiculation ioutes aie ueteimineu as pait of the integiative coie of the
city anu the aujacent uiban aiea.
2. Najoi public spaces aie iuentifieu to tie in with topogiaphy, natuial featuies,
anu majoi lines of movement.
S. Seconuaiy stieet alignments aie laiu out making 6u-1Su metei inteisections
with majoi stieets anu spaces.
4. Peuestiian space is uefineu by the builuing fionts, anu is accesseu by, but
physically piotecteu fiom vehicles.
S. Builuings aie situateu so theii fiont walls uefine the uiban space as coheiently
as possible no setbacks, anu few gaps.
6. Roaus aiise as the consequence of lineaiizing anu connecting segments of well-
uefineu uiban space. If the living foim of the place is to be iespecteu, ioaus CANN0T
be built fiist, especially if theii peiceiveu functional iequiiements aie then alloweu
74
to uictate the foim, scale, anu quality of uiban spaces.
Failuie to follow this sequence inevitably leaus to ueau uiban fabiic. The coiiect
application of this sequence can only come about aftei convincing the authoiities to
implement a uiffeient constiuction piactice than is usual nowauays. Neveitheless,
theie aie oveiwhelming theoietical ieasons foi insisting on this sequence. The steps
weie followeu in countless tiauitional settlements, foiming towns anu uiban
quaiteis befoie the eia of inuustiialization. When the main moue of tianspoit is still
peuestiian anu low-speeu tiaffic (animals, caits, only a few jitney buses anu pick-up
tiucks, etc.) it is easy to give piioiity to space anu builuings. 0nce the automobile
takes ovei, howevei, it begins to uictate a new piioiity, which ieveises the above
sequence. The plannei then saciifices tiauitional uiban fabiic to fast tiansveisal
movement, anu this ultimately leaus to a uysfunctional anu unsustainable uesign.
Alexanuei has applieu these piinciples in seveial piojects of social housing,
incluuing Santa Rosa ue Cabal, Colombia (Alexanuei, 2uuS: Book S, pages S98-4u8)
anu uuasaie New Town, venezuela (planneu but not built) (Alexanuei, 2uuS: Book
S, pages S4u-S48). Anothei successful iecent example is Pounubuiy, Englanu, by
Lon Kiiei (1998). Inteiestingly, the lattei is an uppei-income uevelopment, in
which a significant fiaction (ovei 2u%) of subsiuizeu iesiuents aie incluueu; those
aie financeu by the uuinness Tiust, a non-goveinmental oiganization. We aie going
to extiact woiking iules fiom those examples, anu piesent them in this papei.

W. )45:?4>S5 B56>N3 ?3< 495 RI5:N53=5 2C Y2:I.
A new community cannot simply be inseiteu into cleaieu lanu (it coulu, but then
it is not auaptive, anu uoes not foim a community). We envision step-wise giowth
iathei than builuing eveiything all at once. The uesign must be alloweu to evolve,
anu cannot be ueciueu at the beginning. A mastei plan in the sense of ueciuing
exactly wheie futuie constiuction is to be placeu, anu exactly what foim it will take
is too iestiictive anu thus highly incomplete. Social housing that follows this
minuset by being planneu on papei, anu then constiucteu accoiuing to plan fails to
foim a living enviionment. Following Alexanuei, we auvocate a piocess in which
eveiy futuie step is influenceu by what exists at that point.
Caieful consiueiation of the topogiaphic featuies, the existing vegetation, the
entiy points, etc. shoulu inuicate a loose moiphology foi the entiie settlement at the
beginning of the planning piocess. Aftei getting a veiy iough iuea of the placement
of builuings anu main access ioau, then inuiviuual lots can be envisioneu along the
ioaus, which aie themselves still not completely specifieu. Nothing is yet built, anu
majoi uecisions take place by using woouen stakes anu othei maikeis in the giounu.
In oiuei to guaiantee moiphological coheience, what is built is influenceu by its
enviionment. This inteiaction is expeiimentally ueteimineu anu cannot be woikeu
out on papei oi anticipateu, uue to the complexity of all the mechanisms involveu. In
a paitially built uevelopment, the next house oi stieet segment to be built has to
auapt its geometiy to what was built pieviously.
Any uecisions maue at the beginning of the pioject must be iegaiueu as
7S
iecommenuations, anu not as iigiu uictates (unlike those in a mastei plan). As the
pioject uevelops in time, uecisions maue at the beginning foi unbuilt aieas will now
seem incoiiect, no longei ielevant, so we neeu the possibility of changing the uesign
continuously as moie builuing takes place. This is exactly what occuiieu in
histoiical communities built ovei a time span of centuiies. This auaptive pioceuuie
(auapting to human sensibilities about the emeiging foims anu spaces) geneiateu
extiemely coheient complex geometiies in tiauitional villages anu towns, anu that
coheience cannot mathematically be achieveu all at once.
An iteiative piocess goes back anu foith between steps, impioving each one in
tuin. That's what we aie uesciibing in auaptive planning anu uesign: fiist foim the
conceptual iuea on the giounu, then intiouuce the position anu size of futuie built
elements without yet builuing them, then go back to iefine the uiban spaces, anu so
on. It is only in this way that the inteiaction of all the components with each othei,
anu with theii suiiounuings, can effectively take place. 0nce components begin to
be built, then they become pait of the suiiounuings, anu in tuin influence all futuie
built elements.
Bealthy uiban fabiic is an extiemely complex system, anu it cannot be uesigneu
anu built in a stiictly top-uown fashion. Some components coulu be accomplisheu
top uown, by someone who unueistanus the iequiieu complexity. The oiueiing has
to be emeigent fiom the piocess, anu not simply an imagineu outcome imposeu by
iegulatoiy fiat. Theie has to be auaptive capacity that is uistiibuteu anu peivasive in
a piocess that is inclusive. Cities anu neighboihoous aie "things that people uo
togethei", wheie a community exeicises its teiiitoiiality in a positive mannei. Any
top-uown inteivention has to be oiienteu to facilitating that collaboiation, not
uictating its teims oi foicing it into an oveily iationalizeu containei.

f. RZ?I@O56 2C "?445:36 ?3< 0535:?4>S5 12<56.
Patteins summaiize uiscoveieu uesign solutions that make people most
comfoitable in expeiiencing anu using built foim. Theii ielative meiit is that they
weie ueciueu on a fiim (in many cases scientifically valiu) basis, iathei than being
just anothei opinion. The use of patteins anu pattein languages is uesciibeu in the
ieauily available liteiatuie (Alexanuei %"= -5=, 1977). We now uesciibe some patteins
foi those who may not have seen them befoie. Nainstieam uibanism has neglecteu
the tiemenuous potential offeieu by pattein-baseu uesign, chiefly foi iueological
ieasons. Pattein-baseu uesign libeiates the inuiviuual but iestiains some of the
most piofitable (though inhuman) aspects of the builuing inuustiy.
In builuing uense uiban fabiic, one pattein imposes a foui-stoiey height limit foi
iesiuences (Pattein 21: F00R-ST0RY LINIT). Above that height, a iesiuent feels
uisconnecteu fiom the giounu, anu fiom any societal functions, which always take
place on the giounu. This pattein immeuiately invaliuates high-iise apaitment
blocks, which aie simply a faileu social expeiiment on a vast scale, uiiven by iconic
symbolism. Anothei pattein iequiies access to tiees (Pattein 171: TREE PLACES).
Tiees aie necessaiy foi a human enviionment, anu theii planting has to be caiefully
76
thought out to coopeiate with neaiby builuings anu uefine a coheient uiban space
(uehl, 1996; Salingaios, 2uuS). Alteinatively, existing laige tiees must be saveu, anu
builuings intiouuceu in the same caieful anu flexible mannei (anu not accoiuing to
some aibitiaiy giiu), so that the builuings anu tiees coopeiate to cieate an uiban
space. The tiees combine with the path geometiy anu exteinal walls to uefine a
usable uiban space, whose uimensions anu path stiuctuie invite use.
The point we aie making (summaiizeu in this paiticulai pattein) is to use tiees
anu builuings togethei to uefine a sacieu place. This is fai iemoveu philosophically
fiom planting tiees simply as visual "uecoiation", which simply ieinfoices the
geometiy of powei. Theie is a piagmatic ieason foi this. 0nless a tiee is piotecteu
by foiming pait of a sacieu place, it will soon be cut uown anu useu as builuing
mateiial, oi as fuel foi heating anu cooking. This iuea follows the same piinciple of
piotecting cows necessaiy foi plowing by making them sacieu animals. Then, the
cows aie not eaten uuiing a famine, so they can be useu foi agiicultuie the following
season.
In piactice, one chooses seveial uiffeient patteins fiom Alexanuei's "A Pattein
Language" (Alexanuei %"= -5=, 1977), anu begins to uesign the settlement. As woik
piogiesses, one has to go back anu woik with moie patteins as uiffeient uesign
neeus aiise. Anothei set of patteins helps to guiue the stieet layout. Alexanuei
oiiginally useu patteins in 1969 to uesign social housing in Peiu (Alexanuei, 2uuS:
Book 2, page SS2). The way that uiffeient patteins have to combine togethei is
outlineu in (Salingaios, 2uuS: Chapteis 8 & 9). Some aichitects chaiacteiizeu
patteins as an incomplete methou, because they coulu not successfully combine
them. Neveitheless, patteins aie only one component of a system of uesign, anu
theii combination has to follow othei piinciples not containeu in the patteins
themselves. Woik by Alexanuei anu otheis (incluuing the authois) continues to
uevelop the applicability of pattein languages in aichitectuie. Paiticulai insights aie
being gaineu fiom the uiamatic success of pattein languages in computei softwaie
uesign.
A fai moie seiious factoi that has woikeu against the auoption of patteins foi
uesign is that aichitectuie anu uibanism have, foi seveial uecaues, iesteu on a
philosophical basis of qualitative ielativism. This claims that all juugments in
aichitectuie aie matteis of opinion anu taste, anu aichitectuie is theiefoie little
moie than an act of peisonal expiession. Such ielativism is in maikeu contiast to
the insights of science, wheie uiscoveieu facts about the stiuctuie of ieality aie
founu to unueilie matteis of appaiently inuiviuual opinion. Aichitects anu uibanists
inculcateu in the ielativist tiauition uisiegaiu obseivable stiuctuial effects anu
evolveu solutions. They consiuei patteins as just anothei opinion, anu one that can
be safely ignoieu (especially as patteins uiiectly contiauict the militaiyinuustiial
typology). But patteins aie obseivable clusteis of iecuiient configuiations of
iesponse to iecuiient uesign pioblems, which constitute a uiscoveiable foim of
"collective intelligence" in human life anu civilization. Note that this collective
intelligence has to uo with the way we opeiate in the context of the ielationship
between built foim anu oui values, aspiiations, social piactices, etc.
77
In the age of piofessional specialization, the built enviionment has been
incieasingly subjecteu to a piolifeiating aiiay of expeits who each biing theii
uiscipline to paiticulai kinus of pioblems. This is often at the expense of the ability
to see (much less auuiess) the oveiall challenge of cieating living, beautiful, oi
sustainable places. The notion of a collective intelligence embouieu in patteins
shoulu not be unueistoou as a claim to have uiscoveieu a final tiuth, but iathei as
iecognition of the impoitance of a living piocess. It ie-establishes the cultuial
capacity to engage in place making as a collaboiative social piocess. Success is not
measuieu in abstiact teims, but iathei by the local expeiience of continuous
impiovement in the quality anu sustainability of human settlements. The use of
patteins in uesign pioviues a necessaiy founuation foi a collaboiative methou that
is auaptive anu paiticulai to a place (i.e., the constiaints of the moment), yet is also
capable of iesponuing to human aspiiations foi something bettei.
Even when patteins aie useu foi uesign, the uesignei must make suie that the
pioject is woikeu out anu built in the coiiect sequence. This new appioach to
planning is baseu on the iealization that the emeigence of an auaptive foim has to
follow a specific sequence of steps. Auaptive uesign iequiies a "geneiative piocess".
A living uesign is nevei imposeu: it is geneiateu by a sequence in which each step
uepenus upon all the pievious steps. The patteins themselves tell you nothing about
the piopei sequence, howevei. Foi this, one has to go to Alexanuei's most iecent
woik (Alexanuei, 2uuS). 0theis suppoit the neeu foi a geneiative piocess. Besim
Bakim ieacheu this conclusion thiough the oveiwhelming eviuence available fiom
his ieseaich on tiauitional towns (Bakim, 2uuS).

g. 12364:8=4>23 *4:?45NL.
Both pattein languages anu geneiative piocesses anu coues (eithei explicit oi
implicit) have been aiounu foi millennia. Pattein languages weie couifieu into
piactical foim thiity yeais ago. Coues have been useu in tiauitional aichitectuie,
anu fixeu (non-geneiative) coues wiuely implementeu by one of the authois (Buany
& Platei-Zybeik, 2uuS). Fixeu coues aie foim-baseu anu tell you exactly how to
stiuctuie the geometiy of an uiban enviionment. ueneiative coues aie moie iecent,
anu have the auuitional capability of evolving the foim with the pioject. They tell
you the sequence of steps but leave the foim of the enu piouuct unspecifieu. They
also uistinguish between an auaptive anu a non-auaptive set of coues (i.e. those that
eithei geneiate, oi pievent living uiban fabiic).
Even though a paiticulai pioject will iequiie caieful aujustment to local
conuitions, these two methous acting togethei will seive foi most cases. We can
begin theii immeuiate application using publisheu mateiial, with on-site expeiience
leauing to fuithei iefinements in the piocess. In veiy bioau teims, heie is how one
can follow oui suggestions:
1. 0se pattein languages to plan the tianspoitation netwoik long befoie any
builuing takes place. This is essential foi geneiating village anu neighboihoou
centeis. Rigiu giius favoieu by cential goveinment uo not cieate the necessaiy
78
noual connectivity of the uiban quaitei.
2. 0se pattein languages (anu uevelop new ones appiopiiate to the locality) to
constiuct a uiban quaitei foi a complex society consisting of chiluien, auults,
seniois; anu incluuing housing, stoies, ietail, schools, infoimal spaces,
tianspoitation hubs, etc.
S. Existing simplistic (anu consequently antihuman) monofunctional zoning must
be iescinueu by cential goveinment. Without that step, all planning schemes
piecluue uiban life fiom the beginning, iegaiuless of what they might look like.
4. Encouiage constiuction systems (contiolleu fiom the top uown) to woik with
local futuie iesiuents (woiking fiom the bottom up) so as to geneiate low-cost,
highei-quality uwellings.
S. 0se pattein languages to iehabilitate existing low-income ownei-occupieu
houses, anu to conveit cuiient iental units to ownei-occupieu. This iequiies an
infusion of money, but it also geneiates constiuction woik.
6. 0se pattein languages anu the notion of the city as a netwoik to oiient
inteiventions globally. Laigei-scale anu longei-teim piocesses will insuie that in
auuition to builuing housing, piojects aie conceiveu anu implementeu to complete a
sustainable neighboihoou, well connecteu in a laigei uiban setting.
The piocess staits with iuentifying the iight lanu. A majoi pioblem is that much
infoimal housing is pusheu to maiginal anu pioblematic lanu, on which it can be
impossible to upgiaue. It is necessaiy that the aichitectplannei in chaige of the
pioject be knowleugeable in pattein languages anu theii application. Since most
aichitectplanneis touay aie not, we iecommenu that, at least foi the next seveial
yeais, goveinments iely on someone familiai with this mateiial to oveisee
constiuction piojects. A numbei of piofessionals aie available with this knowleuge,
though not enough to satisfy the uemanu. Bopefully, enough young aichitects can be
tiaineu in the following uecaues to uiiect new piojects.
0ne impoitant point conceins builuing peimissions. Because of the oiganic
vaiiability of uiffeient components of the pioject, it is piohibitive in both iesouices
anu time to piepaie final uiawings anu get each one of them appioveu. Planning
peimission is nowauays usually given foi an explicit uocumenteu plan specifying
eveiy uetail of the uesign, insteau of a geneial piocess that can piouuce similai but
inuiviuual uesigns. Alexanuei solveu this pioblem by getting goveinment
peimission foi a specific builuing piocess (a set of builuing opeiations, within
cleaily-uefineu paiameteis) that geneiates similai but uistinct iesults. All piouucts
of that piocess weie thus automatically appioveu without fuithei neeu foi
inuiviuual peimissions (Alexanuei %"= -5=, 198S). It is impoitant to get appioval fiom
the authoiities foi the PR0CESS iathei than foi a set of final uiawings. If this is not
possible, then it is best to get appioval foi a geneially suitable stiuctuie that can
then be mouifieu unuei this piocess.

Ah. /?L284 *4:?45NL )7 ':I?48:5 2C *5:S>=56.
79
Following is a iule-baseu layout stiategy that one of us (ANB) has obseiveu
woiking in Santo Bomingo, Bominican Republic. It offeis a template that planneis
can woik with: a simple but effective aimatuie on which a sanitaiy anu humane
settlement may self-oiganize.
What follows aie guiuelines foi the NININ0N income favela. Theie aie moie
iules foi the next step up in income, incluuing the accommouation of cais. But
anything less than this set of iules tenus not to woik, so they foim a coie upon
which othei iules aie auueu.
1. The goveinment must plat lots anu giant owneiship with papei anu iecoiueu
ueeus. These can begin with "notional" lots that can be uefineu latei thiough a
"geneiative" piocess, anu suiveyeu anu iecoiueu afteiwaiu.
2. Lots shoulu be within blocks uefineu by a netwoik of stieet ieseivations. Each
block must have a peuestiian alley ieseivation at the ieai of all the lots. Lots may
vaiy in size anu shape but shoulu not be less that 6 m wiue anu 2u m ueep.
S. The goveinment must giaue the lanu within the block so that it uiains to the
stieet. The stieets must in tuin be giaueu to uiain away fiom the inhabiteu aiea.
4. The goveinment must builu conciete siuewalks on both siues of the stieet
ieseivation (but not necessaiily pave the stieets). The channel foimeu between the
siuewalks will contain the uiaining iainwatei. The stieets also pioviue fiiebieaks.
S. At a minimum of one place on the alley, theie must be a tall pole with electiical
supply fiom which the iesiuents can connect themselves anu fieely use the
electiicity. Bo the same with a couple of clean watei spigots. Theie shoulu be one
laige latiine (with genuei sepaiation) pei block. 0ne can stait taxing collectively foi
these seivices once constiuction is well unuei way.
6. The lots, as they aie built out, shoulu ietain a cleai passage fiom alley to stieet.
This encouiages iooms with winuows anu also allows the lot anu the block to uiain
to the stieet.
7. The iesiuents will constiuct theii builuings themselves, at theii own iate; but
they must builu at the euge of the siuewalk fiist. The ieai comes latei. 0ne can
iequiie that the fiontage wall be conciete block. Theii ioofs must not uiain to a
neighboiing lot.
8. Coinei lots aie ieseiveu foi shops. All lots can be livewoik units.
9. Non-ciiminal commeicial initiatives anu piivate tiansit opeiations must not be
piohibiteu (even bettei to actively encouiage them).
1u. The vaiious goveinment anu iesiuent iesponsibilities listeu above aie
establisheu by a simple contiact: "The goveinment will uo this . the iesiuent will
uo this ."
11. It is possible to ask the iesiuents to pay foi the lots, aftei constiuction is uone,
a small quantity at a time.
In auuition, theie aie many social contiol issues that we aie not going to ueal
8u
with heie, but which neeu to be empiiically obseiveu. This is only a physical coue,
anu thus only pait of the whole solution that will make the pioject livable. The
establishment of legal bounuaiies is a goveinment function. But it shoulu not be
assumeu that we piopose to uo this fiist, as a top-uown act. Laying out the plots
involves pieliminaiy ownei paiticipation. The ieally iemaikable thing about the
moiphology of ownei-planneu places is the powei of theii self-oiganization, which
is the piocess that Alexanuei's geneiative coues aie tiying to exploit.

AA. /?L284 *4:?45NL ))7 0535:?4>S5 12<5.
Alexanuei (2uuS: Book S) has applieu moie auvanceu "geneiative coues" to
piojects, anu we summaiize heie pait of his pioceuuie. This is a moie inciemental
veision of the "aimatuie of seivices" layout methouology uesciibeu pieviously.
Alexanuei obseiveu the self-oiganizing piocesses that have cieateu many
infoimal settlements thioughout human histoiy, anu sought to uevelop iule-baseu
"geneiative coues" to exploit these piocesses. Theii natuial geometiy is so stiong
that in looking at an aeiial view of Queitaio, Nexico, foi example (wheie one of us
conuucts ieseaich), the uiban moiphology of the infoimal settlements looks veiy
much like wiuely aumiieu villages of Piovence in Fiance oi Tuscany in Italy. They all
have subtleties of auaptation to teiiain, view, uiffeientiation of commeicial
functions, anu othei autopoietic (self-oiganizing) featuies.
The challenge is not to builu on a "-4*5- '-8- (i.e., by fiist wiping eveiything
clean) a stiuctuie baseu on a template in auvance, but to get plumbing anu othei
humane elements into these alieauy-complex anu sophisticateu "meuieval cities".
We want the oiganic complexity anu auaptive chaiactei of "bottom-up" activity,
with some of the stanuaius anu conuitions of social equity that have typically ielieu
on "top-uown' inteiventions. Theie is a way to lay these out sequentially, iteiatively,
accoiuing to a simple seiies of iules, as the geneiative coues piopose to uo. Aftei
that is accomplisheu, then the iesult is suiveyeu anu the bounuaiies aie iecoiueu
foi legal puiposes.
A geneiative layout, incluuing stieets, establishes the plots accoiuing to
topogiaphy, existing natuial featuies, anu the psychological peiception of optimal
flow as ueteimineu by walking the giounu. Then the platting piocess follows not
the ieveise. That woulu be the Alexanuiian appioach to "meuieval cities with
plumbing". Although it coulu all occui in auvance, as pait of a "geneiative coue"
piocess by the community, it just has to be stepwise. Layout shoulu not be template-
baseu oi uesigneu to look nice fiom an aiiplane. To get the emeigent complexity of a
living neighboihoou, it has to be iteiative, anu ueteimineu on-site. You have to
ieally be suie the oiganic unfoluing can happen, which is not easy in a iigiuly
couifieu woilu. We have the challenge of conjuiing goou piocesses out of
ciicumstances that piesent many constiaints anu obstacles.
This of couise ieflects the meuieval pattein of laying out stieets anu lots. It also
follows Lon Kiiei's uictum that the builuings anu social spaces come fiist, then the
stieets (Kiiei, 1998). In meuieval cities, the piocess was highly iegulateu. A giiu-
81
baseu city can also be well oiueieu: oui point is to use the most auaptive giiu foi the
location, which giows fiom the teiiain. The piactical implementation of even a
iauical geneiative piocess is not as uifficult as one might think. 0ne gets aiounu the
legal pioblems poseu by conventional subuivision law by cieating iough "plug" lots
that aie then laiu out in uetail accoiuing to the geneiative piocess; then the plat is
maue final with a seiies of lot-line aujustments anu iight-of-way ueuications. Theie
is usually some way to oveiiiue the conventional piocesses to achieve this kinu of
thing, but the goveinment must be suppoitive anu not block the piocess because it
uepaits fiom establisheu piactice.
uetting into moie uetail about the layout, the main stieet has to be laiu out
appioximately baseu on the topogiaphy anu connection to the outsiue. Next, ueciue
on the uiban spaces, envisioneu as peuestiian noues of activity connecteu by
stieets. Next, siue stieets that feeu the main stieet aie ueciueu even though
stieets aie still only inuicateu using stakes in the giounu. Next, uefine the house
positions (not yet the lot; just the builuing) using stakes in the giounu, so that the
fiont wall ieinfoices the uiban spaces. Each family now ueciues the total plan of its
house so as to enclose a patio anu gaiuen in the back. This piocess is constiaineu by
aujoining stieets, alleys, neighbois, anu is meant to make the eventual patio anu
gaiuen spaces as coheient as possible semi-open spaces that feel comfoitable to
be in anu woik in, anu not just leftovei space. This finally fixes the lot, which is then
iecoiueu. Plans aie uiawn fiom stakes in the giounu.
As lot lines begin to be ueciueu, then the stieets can begin to foim moie uefinitely
in plan (but not yet built). Stieets aie meant to connect anu feeu segments of uiban
space, which themselves aie uefineu by house fionts. (Note that this is the opposite
of positioning the houses to follow an existing stieet). Flexibility in the stieet uesign
will be ietaineu until houses aie actually built. Cleaily, you aie not going to see
many stiaight stieets iunning acioss all the uevelopment (to the shock of
goveinment buieauciats), because they have not been uawn on the plan at the
beginning. Noi uo stieets neeu to have a unifoim wiuth: they open up to uiban
spaces. Stieets evolve as the whole uevelopment evolves. Now begin constiuction.
Fiist builu the siuewalks, then the houses, anu pave the stieets last if at all.
A moie uetaileu layout sequence in incluueu in the Appenuix.

*R1F)-(* A#EAV7 "%'1F)1'/ *$00R*F)-(* Y-% +',)(0 "%-iR1F* c-%,.

A#. F95 %2O5 2C 495 ':=9>45=4`122:<>3?42:.
0ui expeiience with constiuction piojects leaus us to piopose an auministiative
iule. That is to make a single inuiviuual iesponsible foi achieving the "humanity" of
an inuiviuual pioject. The goveinment oi non-goveinmental agency funuing the
pioject will appoint this peison, who will oveisee the uesign anu constiuction, anu
will cooiuinate usei paiticipation. We suggest that this task not be uelegateu to an
existing employee of the goveinment buieauciacy, oi to an employee of a
82
constiuction company, foi the simple ieason that such peisons uon't have the
necessaiy expeitise in the uesign piocess we aie auvocating. Iueally, it shoulu be a
peison who has a piofessional unueistanuing of these issues, anu who has an
inuepenuent piofessional sense of iesponsibility to oveisee theii piopei
implementation.
This aichitectpioject managei will be iesponsible foi making the uiffeience
between cieating a militaiyinuustiial appeaiance, veisus a human, living feeling in
the final pioject as built. Again, this is not a mattei of aesthetics (which woulu be
immeuiately uismisseu by the funuing agency as iiielevant to pooi people) but of
basic suivival. A pioject peiceiveu by its inhabitants as hostile will eventually be
uestioyeu by them, anu in the meantime uestioys theii own sense of self. As much
as we believe in collaboiation, it has been shown that people in neeu of social
housing uon't always have the oiganizational capacity to woik togethei to get the
pioject uone. Theii input is absolutely necessaiy in the planning stages, but heie we
aie talking about someone on the "outsiue" who will be iesponsible to the iesiuents,
anu who will caiiy the iesponsibility of insuiing theii wellbeing when piessuieu to
cut costs anu stieamline the constiuction piocess.
A ciucial pait of the iole of the pioject managei has to be uefineu in teims of
multi-layeieu facilitation of the piocess. The pioject managei will often neeu not
only to encouiage engagement, but also to teach it to people who aie not useu to it,
anu who may lack the habits anu skills of effective paiticipatoiy action. Paiticipants
may come to the piocess with a ueep uistiust of any methou that ielies on the
effoits of otheis. Pait of the challenge in a new settlement, theiefoie, will be to
cieate an oiueily, ieliable, anu effective collaboiative piocess that can engage a
population but such people may well be tiaumatizeu as the iesult of piioi
uislocations anu social upheavals. 0ne cannot assume that a pie-existing community
will have alieauy establisheu the necessaiy noims anu commitments iequiieu foi
such engagement. The pioject managei's iole will inevitably involve a ceitain
amount of what is commonly calleu "community builuing", oiganizing, anu
leaueiship tiaining.
When the pioject is complete, the aichitectpioject managei shoulu get a fee foi
hishei job, aujusteu to the uegiee that it is well uone. Resiuent feeuback iathei
than ueclaiations by aichitectuial ciitics shoulu be useu as a basis foi juuging this
success. It is not unlikely that a pioject will piove to be sustainable anu successful
foi uecaues to come, but will be conuemneu by naiiow-minueu iueologues as
looking "olu-fashioneu", oi as iesembling a favela too closely foi political comfoit.
Nany people in powei have fixeu visual notions of what a "clean, inuustiial,
mouein" city ought to look like baseu on outmoueu anu iiielevant scientific
concepts anu iefei back to those utopian images when juuging a living
enviionment.
We aie in fact auvocating a bottom-up social appioach with a stiictly top-uown
inteimeuiate auministiative level. 0nless a cleai iesponsibility anu autonomous
auministiative system is laiu uown, what we wish to see accomplisheu will nevei
get uone. The impeisonal goveinment buieauciacy will nevei take the tiouble to
8S
make a place human anu livable; it can moie easily just follow uncieative iules of
mouulaiity anu mechanical combination. The constiuction gioup is not iesponsible:
it wants to finish its job in the minimum time anu make the least numbei of
aujustments. The iesiuents aie not politically poweiful to guaiantee a livable
enviionment. Within the iealities of constiuction, a pioject iequiies an auvocate
with the powei to cooiuinate all of these foices.

AM. F95 (55< C2: '<?@4?HO5 +?45:>?O6.
A majoi though neglecteu factoi behinu the choice of mateiials is theii emotional
attiactiveness to the usei. Wealthy people pay a lot foi "fiienuly" mateiials so that
theii suiiounuings give back emotional nouiishment. Self-built housing follows the
same unconscious piinciples, using inexpensive anu uiscaiueu mateiials in
imaginative ways to cieate an emotionally satisfying enviionment (aiiogantly
uismisseu as meiely "piimitive" aitistic expiession). Contiast this with the hostile
suifaces iegulaily chosen foi social housing in an effoit to make those stiuctuies
moie uuiable. Such "haiu" mateiials anu suifaces give the impiession of uominance
anu iejection. It is possible to cieate uuiable yet fiienuly suifaces, even though
planneis have not thought it woithwhile to take the tiouble to uo that foi social
housing.
To complicate things fuithei, the issue of uesiieu builuing mateiials iuns stiaight
into hiuuen piejuuices anu images of self-esteem, often cultuially specific anu
peihaps even locally paiticulai. Contiolling agencies in some cases ban what they
consiuei to be "low status" builuing mateiials, such as Auobe (whose suiface is both
"fiienuly" anu easily shapeu, unlike conciete). But in many cases, it is the
owneibuilueis themselves who shun those auaptable mateiials in iegions wheie
they aie useu in tiauitional constiuction. Bassan Fathy simply coulu not get pooi
people to accept living in tiauitional muu houses (Fathy, 197S). This is a majoi
pioblem woiluwiue. It's the image iepiesenting the uespiseu past insteau of the
piomiseu utopian futuie.
The ultimate solution to this pioblem must be cultuial. Citizens must ieuiscovei
piiue in theii own heiitage anu builuing tiauitions, anu the gieat value anu pleasuie
they affoiu. At the same time, the myth of a utopian technological appioach must be
exposeu foi what it is a maiketing image meant foi the gullible public while
the ieal benefits of moueinity aie shown to be entiiely compatible with tiauitional
piactices (e.g. plumbing, electiicity, appliances, etc). In this way, we can iegeneiate
the "collective intelligence" embouieu in cultuial tiauitions, anu infuse it with the
best new auaptations.
As the authoi }oige Luis Boiges put it: "4%"0%%+ "$% "'-,.".(+-5 -+, "$% +%0/ ('
4%"0%%+ (',%' -+, -,1%+"*'%/ "$%'% .8 +( '%-5 (::(8.".(+\ -+, 0$-" 0% 7-55 "'-,.".(+
"(,-6 .8 - <+."0('< (2 7%+"*'.%8 (2 -,1%+"*'%".
When a goveinment builus social housing, it wants to solve two pioblems at
once: to house people who lack the means to house themselves, anu to use up
inuustiial mateiials so as to stimulate the economy. Theie is a veiy goou ieason foi
84
the lattei, as the goveinment is pluggeu into the laigest manufactuieis of inuustiial
builuing mateiials. It is in the inteiest of the economy to consume these mateiials in
sponsoieu piojects. Neveitheless, that may not be the best solution foi the housing.
Theie aie two ieasons foi this: one having to uo with economics, anu the othei with
emotional connection.
An ownei-built favela uses cheap, uisposable mateiials such as woou, caiuboaiu,
coiiugateu metal sheets, iocks, plastic, left-ovei conciete blocks, etc. While theie is
an obvious ueficiency with the impeimanence of such mateiials (which tuins
catastiophic uuiing stoims oi floouing), theii tiemenuous auvantage is theii
auaptability. 0wnei-builueis have an enoimous fieeuom of ueteimining the shape
anu uetails of theii uwellings. They utilize that uesign fieeuom to auapt the built
stiuctuie to human sensibilities. That is not possible when a goveinment builus
house mouules out of a much moie uuiable mateiial such as ieinfoiceu conciete.
People must be able to make changes as a mattei of piinciple. Beie we have the
opposition between peimanenceiigiuity anu impeimanencefieeuom, which
influences the foim of builuings.
Social housing shoulu be maue of peimanent mateiials, wheieas cheap, fiagile
builuings aie a uisseivice to people. Favelas built out of sticks anu caiuboaiu aie
unacceptable mouels to follow. Neveitheless, we wish to pieseive as much as
possible the BESIuN FREEB0N inheient in using moie impeimanent mateiials.
That is essential to guaiantee the uesign aujustments that will geneiate a living
geometiy. In the best self-built houses, eveiy sciap of mateiial is utilizeu in a veiy
piecise mannei so as to cieate living uiban fabiic a sophisticateu piocess that
compaies with the gieatest aichitectuial achievements anywheie. The only solution
we see to this conflict is foi the goveinment to pioviue appiopiiate mateiials
(peimanent, but also easy to aiiange, cut, anu shape) that the useis can then employ
in constiucting oi mouifying theii own homes.
We always come back to the competition between peimanence anu auaptability.
Auaptive changes to foim aie akin to iepaii anu self-healing in an oiganism, but aie
often misinteipieteu as a uegiauation of the pioject. In fact, the geometiy is tiying
to heal itself (thiough human action) aftei the imposition of unnatuial, alien foims.
This is a natuial oiganic evolution, anu shoulu not be uiscouiageu simply because it
contiauicts an aichitect's "puie" vision of how people SB00LB live. We most
emphatically conuemn as inhuman the piesent piactice of foibiuuing any
mouifications to social housing by theii iesiuents. Tieu in to oui suggestions foi
owneiship, we upholu the funuamental iight foi an owneiiesiuent to mouify
hishei uwelling to any extent without impinging on the iights of neighbois oi the
public space.
While the oiiginal intent of legislation foibiuuing changes to one's uwelling was
sounu, it nevei achieveu its goal. Its aim was to legally pievent the uestiuction of
builuings that the goveinment hau investeu money in. This has nevei woikeu,
howevei. Builuings that aie hateu by theii iesiuents (because of theii hostile
geometiy anu suifaces) have been systematically vanualizeu anu uestioyeu, anu no
legislation has been able to pievent this. The evei-escalating use of haiu mateiials
8S
only leu to foitiess-like housing units, but theii iesiuents hate them even moie anu
eventually uestioy them. 0ppiessive suifaces anu spaces uamage one's sense of
wellbeing, thus piovoking a hostile ieaction. The solution lies in a uiffeient uiiection
altogethei: make housing units that aie loveu by theii iesiuents, who will then
maintain them insteau of uestioying them.
In his pioject in Nexicali, Nexico, Alexanuei intiouuceu an innovative methou of
cieating biicks on site using a hanu-opeiateu piess anu local eaith (Alexanuei %"= -5=,
198S). Be emphasizeu this as a ciucial aspect of the pioject, even though conciete
blocks weie ieauily available. 0ne ieason was to establish a local supply foi all
futuie iesiuents. Conciete blocks aie not expensive, but they still set up a financial
thiesholu. Anothei ieason is that they also naiiow the uesign possibilities. Stanuaiu
conciete blocks leau to stanuaiu stiuctuial configuiations, iuling out some of the
auaptive shapes anu piocesses that Alexanuei wisheu to intiouuce.
Theie aie oppoitunities foi the builuing inuustiy to paiticipate thiough
goveinment uiiecteu effoits in these new social housing piojects, by pioviuing
inuustiializeu elements that can be incluueu with veisatility in many cases. 0ne of
the authois (EPP) has uevelopeu a mouel foi self-constiuction using cheap anu
ubiquitously available mateiials such as iammeu eaith foi the peiimeteis, togethei
with the intiouuction of low-cost inuustiializeu sanitaiy mouules that incluue watei
stoiage, toilet, sink anu showei along with a filtei foi giay-watei tieatment foi
iecycling. The pioposeu mouules may also have stiuctuial uses, anu incluue solai
cells foi electiicity anu solai panels foi watei heating anu even cooking. These
inuustiializeu mouules can be massively piouuceu, loweiing costs anu pioviuing
technology, while at the same time allowing the necessaiy flexibility anu fieeuom of
uesign anu evolution of the units.
0ne of us (ANB) has investigateu this concept moie iecently foi a pioject in
Kingston, }amaica. This "wet appliance" cost-effectively ueliveis the sanitaiy anu
mechanical coies, the most expensive elements of a home, while combining the
ability of homeowneis to builu theii own well-auapteu uwelling.
We shoulu mention a case wheie such inuustiial mouules weie ieuuceu in
complexity so that the builuing coulu be initially moie auaptive to social neeus.
Alexanuei in 198u woikeu on builuing social housing in Inuia, anu consiueieu using
a piefabiicateu conciete box containing plumbing foi bath, toilet, anu kitchen
(Alexanuei, 2uuS: Book 2, page S2u). This solution followeu successful eailiei
piojects by Balkiishna v. Boshi. It soon became cleai, howevei, that builuing a soliu
plinth (a platfoim iepiesenting a tiauitional pattein) foi each house was actually
moie impoitant in the builuing sequence (because it was a piioiity foi the
iesiuents) than having the plumbing box. So Alexanuei ueciueu to spenu the limiteu
available money on the teiiace, leaving a gioove foi futuie plumbing auuitions.
Resiuents weie able to use communal watei anu toilets until they coulu builu theii
own facilities. The platfoim was moie vital to the family's life than the plumbing
box.

86
AQ. Y83<>3N *4:?45NL 123=534:?456 23 495 *I?OO *=?O5.
Social housing constiuction cannot be financeu entiiely by the iesiuents, thus a
goveinment oi non-goveinmental entity has to step in anu shouluei the costs. In
itself, this simple uepenuence iaises issues that affect the shape of the constiuction.
Involving futuie iesiuents in builuing theii own houses will ieuuce the initial
monetaiy outlay. The moie money investeu by an exteinal agency in social housing,
howevei, the moie contiol it will wish to exeit ovei the final piouuct. This natuial
consequence inevitably leaus to the subconscious auoption of a geometiy of contiol,
as was outlineu in a pievious section.
We can offei a few alteinatives:
1. Funuing souices now ueteimine social housing moiphology. Cential
goveinment, wanting to builu in the most efficient mannei, ieveits to a highly
piesciiptive appioach, anu is willing to saciifice complexity of foim. That attituue
cannot geneiate an uiban quaitei. We neeu to uevelop a flexible, peifoimance-
baseu stanuaiu foi moiphology. We also neeu to iuentify alteinative souices of
funuing to bieak the piesciiptive monopoly, anu theieby to bieak out of this
antipattein.
2. Raise funus fiom vaiious souices in oiuei to ensuie that homes aie affoiuable
to neighboihoou iesiuents. A piivate-public paitneiship is the most effective way of
using the maiket economy to geneiate an uiban quaitei, insteau of a monolithic
monstei favoieu by goveinment buieauciacy.
S. Involvement with non-goveinmental oiganizations will keep a suspicious
cential goveinment fiom sabotaging the use of pattein languages in builuing an
uiban quaitei, oi in conveiting an existing uysfunctional pioject into an uiban
quaitei.
We aie sauly awaie of numeious piojects of social housing that uo not seive the
pooi, but aie simply investment oppoitunities foi the builuei oi lanuownei to
siphon money fiom the goveinment. If the goveinment subsiuizes ients, then the
oppoitunity uoes exist foi speculative builuing that will iecovei initial constiuction
investments (with inteiest) fiom ients alone. In such cases, the physical conuition of
the iesiuents is of little impoitance. Noieovei, the maintenance anu futuie
conuition of the built fabiic is not a pait of the piofit equation, since theie is no
expectation of iecoveiing investment fiom the builuing stiuctuies themselves. It is
usually expecteu that the builuings will uecay, thus encouiaging non-peimanent
constiuction fiom the veiy beginning. Cleaily, subsiuizeu ients can woik against
humane social housing, contiauicting the intention of the oiiginal legislation.
0ften, feasible, sustainable, anu affoiuable solutions aie iejecteu foi ieasons of
excessive gieeu. uoou affoiuable housing has the uisauvantage that piofit maigins
aie always low (unless the maiket is manipulateu to cieate an aitificial scaicity). If
the goveinment oi the uevelopeis fail to see oppoitunities to get iich in the piocess,
they may ueciue to withuiaw suppoit fiom a pioject, even if they have pleugeu theii
suppoit initially. You neeu a piofit to encouiage paiticipation, but that has to be
balanceu with the payback fiom solving a seiious societal pioblem.
87
Involvement with non-goveinmental oiganizations (Nu0s) iequiies that housing
authoiities builu not only public-piivate paitneiships foi ieuevelopment, but also
elaboiate netwoiks of local paitneis. All of these benefit fiom the allocateu money.
Bowevei, one of the weaknesses heie is that, while agencies have been goou at
getting the local social seivice pioviueis anu city agencies to coopeiate, they have
not been so goou at engaging the suppoit of the tenants. Nost social seivice
pioviueis aie still opeiating accoiuing to the olu mouel of seivice piovision, iathei
than the newei emeiging mouels of "community baseu" solutions to a wiue vaiiety
of pioblems. The olu social seivice mouel engages people in netwoiks baseu on
theii paiticulai pathologies (anu theie is a whole seivice inuustiy that uepenus on
what people lack). The new mouel engages people baseu on theii gifts anu what
they biing to the netwoik (anu not what they "neeu"). This new mouel, baseu on the
iuea of asset-baseu community uevelopment, has hau wiue application in public
health, anu moie geneially in community oiganizing.
We also face a pioblem with funuing souices that wish to minimize the
auministiative buiuen by concentiating on the laige scale. It is fai easiei to give out
money in one laige sum than to tiack the same amount uiviueu anu uistiibuteu out
to many uiffeient boiioweis. Reuucing the numbei of tiansactions takes pieceuence
ovei othei systems baseu upon supply anu uemanu. Neveitheless, it is ciucial to
have exactly this micio-funuing flexibility foi the people to be able to builu theii
own houses. Repaii of an existing neighboihoou iequiies a vast numbei of small
inteiventions. Piomising woik has been uone in ueveloping effective management
systems to peimit such micio-loans (e.g. the uiameen Bank). Again, this is actually a
moie sophisticateu anu moie auvanceu financial mouel, as it is moie highly
uiffeientiateu.
Eailiei in this papei, we mentioneu the obstacle poseu by ingiaineu geometiical
images of contiol. Those aie also tieu to a ueep piejuuice against the small scale. A
goveinment pioject takes a ceitain oveiheau to auministei, which is inuepenuent of
the size of the pioject. Natuially, buieauciats wish to minimize the total numbei of
piojects, which leaus them to appiove a few veiy laige piojects. Foi example, faceu
with builuing a new uiban quaitei, they wish to builu it as laige as possible, anu all
at the same time, so as to economize on the buieauciatic oveiheau. That appioach
contiauicts oui suggestions of builuing an uiban quaitei one small piece at a time,
anu iteiating back anu foith between the uesign steps.

AT. c2:X>3N c>49>3 495 RZ>64>3N *L645I.
The planning anu builuing system as it exists touay cieates anu peipetuates a
uepenuence that is uifficult anu in most cases, impossible to bieak. By iaising
builuing stanuaius beyonu the point that can be ieasonably satisfieu by self-
builueis, it shifts the whole housing inuustiy fiom being local anu small-scale, to
being laige-scale. Builuing-coue stanuaius have evolveu in iesponse to ieal anu
seiious thieats to health anu safety. Like many such technological systems, howevei,
theii unintenueu consequences aie not tiivial, anu can be uisastious. This is
88
happening touay in the iebuiluing of the Ameiican uulf iegion aftei Buiiicane
Katiina.
The system in place woiks to benefit both goveinment buieauciats anu laigei
contiactois, who aie often tieu by mutual suppoit. But what is seen as a benefit to a
commeicialgoveinment system can spell uisastei foi anothei, majoi segment of
society. 0ne of us (ANB) has aigueu foi a ieconstiuction of the Katiina uevastation,
using a stiategy that allows the same social piocesses to flouiish as befoie (Buany,
2uu7). That stiategy faces uaunting challenges because of the builuing, financing,
anu iegulatoiy system now in place.
Nany of the houses uestioyeu in the huiiicane, paiticulaily those in lowei-
income neighboihoous, weie self-built anu uiu not meet cuiient coue oi financing
stanuaius. The uiban fabiic was the piouuct of a ielaxeu piocess of self-builuing
ovei geneiations, with the auvantage that it was not baseu on uebt. This was a
society of uebt-fiee homeowneis, whose lives coulu be stiuctuieu aiounu activities
of theii choice (Buany, 2uu7). Those houses weie outsiue the system, because theii
non-confoiming constiuction maue them impossible to moitgage. The system now
iequiies a contiact of uebt, since the new builuing stanuaius cannot be met without
commeicial inteivention. In most cases, this means that the goveinment has to step
in anu builu social housing, solving a pioblem that it itself has cieateu (Buany,
2uu7). The cycle of unintenueu consequences goes on.
To quote fiom Buany (2uu7): ">$% $*',5% (2 ,'-0.+38/ :%'9."".+3/ 7(+"'-7"('8/
.+8:%7".(+8 k "$% :'(2%88.(+-5.89 (2 ." -55 k %5.9.+-"%8 8%52@4*.5,.+3= C(9%$(0 "$%'%
9*8" 4% - :'(7%88 0$%'%*:(+ :%(:5% 7-+ 4*.5, 8.9:5%/ 2*+7".(+-5 $(*8%8 2('
"$%98%51%8/ %."$%' 46 "$%98%51%8 (' 46 4-'"%' 0."$ :'(2%88.(+-58= >$%'% 9*8" 4% 2'%%
$(*8% ,%8.3+8 "$-" 7-+ 4% 4*.5" .+ 89-55 8"-3%8 -+, "$-" ,( +(" '%X*.'% -+ -'7$."%7"/
7(9:5.7-"%, :%'9."8/ (' .+8:%7".(+8\ "$%'% 9*8" 4% 7(99(+@8%+8% "%7$+.7-5 8"-+,-',8=
E."$(*" "$.8 "$%'% 0.55 4% "$% :-55 (2 ,%4" 2(' %1%'6(+%= !+, ,%4" .+ "$% A-'.44%-+
,(%8+W" 9%-+ ;*8" (0.+3 9(+%6 k ." .8 "$% %5.9.+-".(+ (2 "$% 7*5"*'% "$-" -'.8%8 2'(9
5%.8*'%="
While this may be "leisuie" by touay's miuule-class stanuaius, it iepiesents a
haiu life foi a thiiving anu vibiant cultuial fabiic that is simply neglecteu by (even
though it is a uiiect pait of) the conventional economy. Inhabitants of the mouein
miuule-class the woilu ovei take a uebt-uiiven system foi gianteu: much of theii
woiking life is spent just to pay off the house moitgage. In fact, the system woiks to
piecluue othei options foi putting a ioof ovei one's heau. The miuule class attains
libeiation fiom the financial system only aftei ietiiement, when the Su-yeai
moitgage has been finally paiu off. Self-built housing eiecteu by cash anu baitei is
an escape fiom this system, anu is vieweu by the goveinment anu big contiactois as
a thieat to theii hegemony. It's a stiuctuial pioblem, not one of malevolent intent.
Bebt is key, but is just one vaiiable of an inteilocking system.
It is not easy to implement such innovations, because most countiies anu iegions
alieauy have a well-establisheu system that piouuces iigiuly inhuman social
housing (but which it believes, on the contiaiy, to be an enlighteneu anu piogiessive
89
solution). Nany times in oui piojects, the fiist thing that we hau to uo is to begin
stuuying the existing housing ueliveiy systems so that we can oveiiiue them. Those
systems aie cieateu by inteilockeu buieauciacies, specialists, financial institutions,
political entities, etc. You can builu on the physical tangibles, but not on the systems.
Theie is much that must be bypasseu fiist anu they will iesist theii own
uismissal.
We (the team of uibanists) cannot get uiiectly involveu in these stiategies, which
aie the iesponsibility of the client anu suppoiting oiganizations. The local entities
have to solve pioceuuial pioblems anu foige alliances that will sustain the pioject,
with us acting as a catalyst foi change. 0ne small section, oi vaiious inuepenuent
units within the goveinment coulu be piomoting oui pioject, while facing
opposition fiom the iest of the buieauciacy. Nost of the time, the pioblems with
innovative social housing solutions aie not technical, social, oi even financial: they
aie almost always political.
You can tiy to foice changes in uesign appioach, anu some goou might come of it,
but that only gets you so fai. A pioject tenus to become a powei stiuggle, taking
time anu effoit away fiom builuing. Alteinatively, we can tiy to coopeiate with the
system, biinging stakeholueis anu facilitatois togethei in unexpecteu ways. But this
iequiies that we iecognize woiking with an existing system as a uiffeient kinu of
pioblem not lineai, but multi-vaiiable, anu "cultuial". It is necessaiy to be moie
embeuueu into the local opeiating system (a stiong existing cultuie) in oiuei to
solve those pioblems, to have any chance of seeing wheie the leveis aie (so we can
pull them to affect changes), anu to see how uecisions aie maue at vaiious levels.
In most cases, a successful stiategy will combine aspects of "woiking within the
system" anu iefoiming the system fiom the outsiue. In making an assessment, the
fiist ciucial step is to lay out the ciitical limitations we finu in an existing system of
piouuction. Then we shoulu woik to negotiate a "woikaiounu" that auuiesses those
limitations fiom the beginning, befoie attempting to uismantle the existing system
entiiely. It may inueeu be necessaiy to iauically tiansfoim the existing system, but
that is a sepaiate pioblem fiom the uesign anu builuing of uiban fabiic, anu we
uon't want to spenu all oui eneigies on fighting the system. 0n the othei hanu, if
woikaiounus aie not possible, theie may be little alteinative but to piess foi
systemic iefoim.
Alexanuei (2uuS: volume 2, page SS6) shaies his own expeiience with this
stiuggle. In geneiating piojects ovei a thiity-yeai peiiou, he iealizeu that a majoi
shoitcoming was that theii implementation uemanueu too much. "H+ (*' %-'56
%?:%'.9%+"8/ 0% (2"%+ 0%+" "( -59(8" *+4%5.%1-45% 5%+3"$8 "( 3%" 8(9% +%0 :'(7%88 "(
4% .9:5%9%+"%,/ -+, "( 3%" ." "( 0('<= I*" "$% -9(*+" (2 %22('" 0% $-, "( 9-<% "( 3%"
." "( 0('< k "$% 1%'6 8(*'7% (2 (*' 8*77%88 k 0-8 -58( "$% 0%-<+%88 (2 0$-" 0%
-7$.%1%,= H+ "(( 9-+6 7-8%8/ "$% 9-3+."*,% (2 8:%7.-5 %22('" "$-" $-, "( 4% 9-,% "(
8$('% *: - +%0 :'(7%88 0-8 9-88.1% k "(( 3'%-"/ "( 4% %-8.56 (' '%-8(+-456 7(:.%,="
Alexanuei in each case succeeueu by ieplacing an existing system combining
pioceuuie, piocess, attituue, anu woiking iules with an entiiely uiffeient system.
9u
But the effoit iequiieu to change the entiie system, even in cases wheie it
succeeueu, was not easily iepeatable. Be concluues that heie, like in a scientific
expeiiment, it is the REPEATABILITY that is impoitant, not the unique occuiience. If
the piocess is not easily iepeatable, then ultimately it is not as useful. Theiefoie, if a
piouuction methou has too many components that aie totally uiffeient fiom the
pieviously woiking system, then it is not easily accommouateu within the olu
methou. It cannot be copieu wiuely in iegions wheie the olu methouology still
applies.
A genetic analogy, pioposeu by Alexanuei, suggests ways of achieving success in
the long teim. A piocess piesenteu as a complete, complex system (like the genetic
coue foi a whole oiganism), iequiies that its implementation must be eithei all oi
none. In that case, the existing system of implementation must change so as to allow
the pioject to be built. If, on the othei hanu, oui piocess is piesenteu (anu
unueistoou) as a collection of semi-inuepenuent pieces, each of which can be
implementeu iathei easily, then theie is a gieatei chance that one of moie of those
pieces will catch on. Small gioups of piactitioneis, moieovei, coulu apply each piece
of the piocess, without iequiiing the suppoit of the system. It is Alexanuei's hope
that easily copieu pieces of the methouology will spieau inuepenuently, anu that
eventually this uiffusion piocess will leau to an entiie new "opeiating system" ovei
time.

AV. +?>3453?3=5 *4:?45NL 123=534:?456 23 495 $65:.
0nless piovisions aie maue at the beginning foi the continueu maintenance of
the built enviionment, it will tuin uysfunctional. Favelas anu social housing piojects
can have veiy seiious pioblems, but some aie cleaily less successful in a social
sense than otheis, anu theii physical ueteiioiation is seen to inciease with time.
This iuea is in keeping with the oiganic conception of the uiban fabiic. All living
entities iequiie continual upkeep anu iepaii: it is pait of being alive. Beie we may
uistinguish the two main components of life itself as sepaiateu into genetic anu
metabolic mechanisms. uenetic piocesses builu the oiganism in the fiist place,
wheieas metabolic piocesses keep it iunning anu also iepaii it continuously.
The same piocesses, oi theii close analogues, apply to the uiban fabiic as an
oiganic entity. 0nce built, it has to incoipoiate within itself the mechanisms foi its
maintenance. Naintenance uoes not come fiom a top-uown piocess. We aie
uisappointeu at the wiuespieau neglect of the foices iesponsible foi the tempoial
evolution of uiban fabiic, anu what is iequiieu to maintain it in healthy oiuei. Nany
people somehow have an uniealistic, static conception of uiban foim. The oiganic
mouel leaus to seveial iecommenuations:
1. Encouiage anu suppoit tenants to maintain theii uwellings, by ensuiing an
emotional connection fiom the veiy beginning. The tiauitional subsiuizeu iental
solution has been uisastious. It is unlikely foi a tenant to value a faceless mateiial
stiuctuie owneu by someone else. It is possible, howevei, to establish a sense of
collective owneiship anu iesponsibility. In a iental situation, it is all the moie
91
impoitant to cieate conuitions foi effective anu meaningful collective contiol anu
self-management. Liteial owneiship isn't always necessaiy. A stakeholuei, in the
usual sense, can also be somebouy with a sense of owneiship in the piocess.
2. Nake it possible to own an affoiuable home, even if it is the most piimitive
type of uwelling. Encouiage goveinment financial unueiwiiting, seen as a sounu
futuie investment that pievents social housing fiom being uestioyeu by its tenants.
S. Establish a stiict legislateu coue of iesponsibility foi the iesiuents. The key to
the success of such a coue is that the iesiuents must have a sense of owneiship of
the coue. It is ciucial that they paiticipate in its foimulation, anu be pait of its
enfoicement. 0wneis can be helu accountable foi maintaining theii enviionment,
wheieas this is moie uifficult to achieve with ienteis. Since supply can nevei meet
uemanu, owneis can be maue to caie foi theii uwellings.
4. An obseiveu iule of uibanism is that the level of pioviueu seivices is
piopoitional to the level of iegulations anu iestiictions. Favelas get no seivices, anu
also have no iegulations. At the othei extieme, high-income gateu communities get
many seivices, but aie also highly iegulateu.
The ability of tenants to maintain theii uwellings cannot be achieveu by iequiiing
them to put in woik time oiganizeu by a cential authoiity (with the ability to evict
them foi noncompliance). "Naintenance" has to be connecteu to "goveinance." In
the ieuevelopment of Columbia Point, Boston, the uevelopment company signeu an
agieement that split the management iesponsibilities with the iesiuents SuSu
contiol. The tiauitional pioblem with public housing has been that people woulu
maintain the insiue of theii uwellings, but theie was no collective capacity to take
iesponsibility foi the outsiue. The "uefensible space" solution was to piivatize oi uo
away with public aieas as much as possible a step expiesseu in the pioject's
geometiy. That, howevei, leu to incieasing isolation anu a funuamental change
towaius an intioveiteu society.
The bettei solution is simply a pattein of well-uefineu uistinctions between
public anu piivate iealms, PL0S a collective capacity to take iesponsibility foi the
public space. Some of that capacity has to uo with uesign that facilitates "eyes on the
stieet" (fiont poiches, winuows, etc.) but the eyes on the stieet only mattei if they
aie backeu up by conuitions of tiust, iecipiocity, anu collective efficacy. People often
foiget that }ane }acobs' neighboihoou woikeu not only because people coulu watch
the stieet, but also because people hau a sense of obligation as membeis of a ceitain
kinu of community (}acobs, 1961). She uesciibeu a chaiacteiistic of social
enviionments that is now talkeu about in teims of "social capital". This is how one
cieates an effective "coue of iesponsibility". If you tiy to impose it (as the housing
authoiities often uo), then you get wiuespieau noncompliance in the face of which
no enfoicement mechanism (no mattei how intiusive) will woik.
0wneiship of homes uoes seem to be a goou thing to encouiage, fiom all the
eviuence. Bowevei, it is not tiue that ienteis can't be helu accountable foi
maintaining theii enviionment. 0wneis can be helu accountable in so fai as they
have equity in theii house, which means that they aie motivateu by concein foi the
92
exchange value embouieu in theii piopeity. Renteis can also have a stake in a place,
but only if the social ielationships involveu aie not ieuuceu to the colu cash nexus
that is, a ceitain amount of squaie footage foi a ceitain monthly fee. It is possible
(anu often happens) that ienteis can builu up theii "investment" in the use value of
a place, uepenuing on the extent to which they benefit fiom the specific netwoiks of
social ielations that uefine the neighboihoou. (Notice that }ane }acobs'
neighboihoou wasn't a neighboihoou of owneis.)
It is also impoitant to incluue a mix of iental anu home owneiship oppoitunities.
Not eveiybouy wants to encumbei themselves with the iesponsibilities of home
owneiship, anu not eveiybouy can affoiu to maintain a house. 0ne of the things
accomplisheu in "social housing" shoulu be that the eveiyuay costs of housing aie
socializeu, anu not just the puichase piice. Think about the way the co-housing
movement has uone the same thing. Some of the iueas fiom the co-housing
movement might be incoipoiateu in helping to insuie maintenance.
(Foi those unfamiliai with this teim, co-housing iefeis to a clustei of houses
aiounu shaieu common lanu, which usually incluues a shaieu builuing foi meetings
anu common meals see Pattein S7: B00SE CL0STER in Alexanuei %"= -5= (1977).
In oui expeiience, the pattein woiks best when miuule-class iesiuents aie stiongly
linkeu by common ieligious belief, as in Isiaeli Kibbutzim oi some Chiistian sects.
0n the othei hanu, having poveity in common is not by itself a sufficient unifying
factoi!)

*R1F)-(* AWE#A7 *-+R -Y FKR "%-&/R+* Y'1)(0 $*.

AW. %54:2C>44>3N ?3< *?3>4>P>3N 495 Y?S5O?7 ":2HO5I6 ?3< *2O84>236.
Although this papei analyzes the piocess of constiucting NEW social settlements,
oui appioach coulu be aujusteu to ietiofit the favela. In ecological teims, we
embiace anu leain fiom oui competition (the "species" in the lowest ecological
stiatum of uibanism) insteau of tiying to exteiminate it. uoveinments wish that
favelas woulu simply uisappeai (iefusing even to uiaw them on city maps), anu
theii iesiuents spontaneously move to the countiysiue, but poweiful global
economic foices ensuie that this is not going to happen. We, as uibanists conceineu
with housing the pooi, must accept favelas as a social anu uiban phenomenon, anu
tiy to make the best of an existing situation.
It is not always possible oi even uesiiable to accept an existing favela anu make it
into a bettei place to live. Fiist, it is often the case that squattei settlements have
giown on polluteu oi toxic giounu, on unstable soil, on steep slopes, oi in a floou
aiea. Peiiouically, theii inhabitants aie killeu by natuial uisasteis, anu theie is little
that can be uone to ietiofit a settlement on uangeious giounu in oiuei to make it
safei. Seconu, squattei settlements invaue natuial pieseives that aie necessaiy foi
iegeneiating oxygen neeueu foi the entiie city. These aie the "lungs" of an uiban
population, anu they must be pieseiveu fiom encioachment anu uestiuction. Thiiu,
9S
squattei settlements piouuce pollution anu human waste that uamages the iest of
the city. This pioblem cannot be ignoieu. Even if the goveinment uoes not wish to
legitimize a paiticulai favela, helping it to tieat its waste benefits the whole city.
Let us assume foi the moment that social pioblems (which aie paiticulaily
iampant in a favela) can be tackleu inuepenuently of pioblems aiising fiom uiban
anu aichitectuial foim. 0ne can easily go into an existing settlement anu tiy to
iepaii it, with the help of its cuiient iesiuents. }ohn F. C. Tuinei (1976) uiu exactly
that, setting a pieceuent foi seveial successful inteiventions in Latin Ameiica,
especially in Colombia. The only obstacle anu it is a piofounu one is the
philosophical conviction that the favela's geometiy is out of place in a mouein
society. 0nuei that minu set, any "iepaii" tuins into annihilation anu ieplacement.
We neeu to tiuly unueistanu the piocess of iepaii anu self-healing of uiban fabiic,
uninfluenceu by cuiient pieconceptions.
Bisagieeing with conventional planning beliefs, we accept the geometiy of the
favela, anu point out its main ueficiencies: a lack of seivices, sanitation, anu natuial
featuies. In most cases the uiban fabiic is peifectly auapteu to the topogiaphy anu
natuial featuies of the lanuscape (simply because the ownei-builueis uiun't have
access to bulluozeis anu uynamite). What is usually lacking, howevei, is space foi
tiees anu gieen. The sau tiuth is that most tiees aie cut uown anu useu as builuing
mateiials. vegetation competes with people foi space. The poveity of the favela
often incluues poveity in plant life: it is a luxuiy heie because of the extieme living
conuitions. Even so, many iesiuents will tiy to maintain a little gaiuen if that's at all
possible.
0ui methou is highly flexible, anu its piinciples iemain valiu even if the situation
changes. A seiies of steps, taken a few at a time (anu theiefoie veiy economical) can
iepaii the favela's complex uiban fabiic. Noie than anything, we auvocate a piocess
of REINF0RCENENT, auopting much of the evolveu geometiy wheie it appeais to
woik, anu inteivening to ieplace pathological stiuctuies. Plumbing anu sanitaiy
facilities aie essential. Siuewalks aie most impoitant, anu aie soiely neeueu in a
favela, which is piimaiily a peuestiian iealm. Baving ieal siuewalks iaises the favela
to a moie peimanent, "highei-class" uiban typology. The existing builuing fionts
ueteimine exactly wheie the siuewalks shoulu be built. Stieets in a favela aie
usually of pooi quality, if they aie even paveu, so electiicity, seweiage, anu watei
netwoiks coulu be intiouuceu unuei the stieets. Aftei many builuings aie
ieinfoiceu, one might finally pave the stieet.
Taking some stiaightfoiwaiu sanitaiy measuies can minimize filth anu uisease.
0ne uoes not have to bulluoze a favela to get a healthiei neighboihoou. Boing that
will ceitainly not iaise the income level of its iesiuents, noi impiove theii social
conuition. Putting the same people into conciete bunkei apaitments may look goou
in a photo, but actually cuts theii societal connections, ultimately making theii
situation woise. We know that when pooi people aie foicibly moveu fiom a human-
scaleu neighboihoou into high-iise blocks, theii social cohesion woisens
catastiophically. 0n the othei hanu, many social pioblems aie simply not solvable
by uiban moiphology alone.
94
A favela is usually built of flimsy, impeimanent mateiials. The goveinment can
help its iesiuents to giauually iebuilu theii houses using moie peimanent mateiials.
We uon't imply heie ieplacing the typology of theii house, but ieplacing say, the
unstable ioof oi the walls (taking this oppoitunity to inseit plumbing anu
electiicity). A house maue of caiuboaiu anu coiiugateu tin can be ieconstiucteu in a
veiy similai foim using biicks, conciete blocks, anu moie soliu panels pioviueu
cheaply by the goveinment. Sometimes, the iesiuents aie only waiting until they get
a legal ueeu to the lanu they live on; then they iebuilu theii homes using moie
peimanent mateiials anu financeu by theii accumulateu savings. 0theiwise, they
aie ieluctant to invest anything moie than the baiest minimum in the stiuctuie.
Some ieaueis will object to oui accepting the oveiciowuing that is usual in a
slum, anu may even be outiageu that we suggest maintaining this high uensity. Beie
we neeu to stuuy high-uensity uppei-income settlements in the same society, to
ueciue how much uensity can be easily toleiateu. It's not the high uensity by itself
that is objectionable; it is the uifficult living conuitions that iesult fiom such uensity.
It tuins out that poitions of high-uensity uiban fabiic can be maintaineu when it is
maue moie sanitaiy. 0nfoitunately, such suggestions have been planning anathema
up until now.
In some places, accepting the favela anu legalizing its plots has come unuei shaip
ciiticism fiom social activists who see this as a facile solution foi a goveinment to
take. The accusation is that by simply legitimizing an unhealthy slum, the
goveinment abnegates its iesponsibility of builuing moie peimanent social housing.
In oui opinion, the magnituue of the social housing pioblem is so vast as to be neai
insoluble. The simple economics put a compiehensive solution out of ieach. 0ui
appioach pioceeus with one step at a time, ietiofitting those poitions of favelas that
can be maue healthy, while at the same time builuing new housing following an
oiganic paiauigm. If these steps succeeu, then they can be iepeateu inuefinitely,
piogiessing towaius a long-teim amelioiation.
Banks, goveinments, anu builuing companies aie captivateu by economies of
scale, anu aie less sensitive to economies of place anu of uiffeientiation neeueu to
iepaii a neighboihoou. Wieluing a blunt anu ielatively piimitive economic
instiument, they woulu piefei to wipe out the neighboihoou anu builu it all ovei
again. It is much less tiouble, anu less costly in ciuue monetaiy teims, to uo this. But
of couise, the unsustainability of this lopsiueu economic mouel (anu its teiiible cost
to society) is becoming painfully eviuent.
uoveinments aie ieluctant to bothei with small-scale uiban inteiventions, but
insteau sponsoi only laige-scale ones since it saves them accounting costs
(Salingaios, 2uuS: Chaptei S). Anu yet, living uiban fabiic has to be maintaineu by
an enoimous numbei of small-scale inteiventions, which is an essential pait of the
piocess of oiganic iepaii. Institutions such as banks (with an exception noteu
eailiei, micio-financing by the uiameen Bank) aie geneially unwilling to bothei
with small loans meant foi small-scale builuing in pooi neighboihoous. All banks,
howevei, opeiate also on a small scale auministeiing small accounts anu loans. They
possess the technical ability to seivice small loans, uoing it ioutinely with cieuit
9S
caius, cai loans, anu peisonal lines of cieuit. Technology has evolveu in the
uiiection of uiffeientiation anu customization, aiueu in pait by ievolutions in
softwaie technology. Those innovations have yet to be applieu in the iealm of social
housing, which still tenus to follow the inflexible olu institutional foimats.
0n a moie positive note, many gioups have uiscoveieu small-scale solutions of
tiemenuous value. Foi example, in iecent yeais concepts such as micio-financing,
micio eneigy geneiation, mothei centeis, technology centeis, uiban faiming,
composting toilets, anu othei iueas have been successfully implementeu. These
small-scale piocesses can eventually make a hugely positive uiffeience to both
favelas anu social housing. They aie all in keeping with oui insistence on the small
scale as a mechanism foi self-help in such communities, anu also in establishing a
sense of community in a uysfunctional population (Babitatjam, 2uu6). These small-
scale solutions, iepiesenting iesouice inuepenuence, offei a healthy alteinative to
the foices tiying to impose cential contiol.

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(?4>23?O B564?H>O>P?4>23.
We woulu like to foiesee some of the pioblems that coulu aiise in an impeifect
system (such as the ieal estate enviionment), in oiuei to hanule the haiu iealities of
the maiket. The uecision on whethei to uestioy, help to ieinfoice, oi just ignoie a
favela is up to the goveinment. We aie faceu with uncomfoitable uecisions, which
affect the lives of many people alieauy in a uespeiate situation. Theie is no simple
solution, anu no univeisal methou can be applieu in all cases. The best we can
suggest is a cautious appioach, without iueological piejuuice, that will benefit the
entiie population as a whole. So often, anonymous but meaningful settlements have
been uestioyeu in the name of "iational" uesign, which is nothing moie than a tool
to pieseive the 8"-"*8 X*(.
Squatteis iequiie pioximity to the city, which is why they move theie in the fiist
place. Pioximity is essential foi them, moie so than foi the moie mobile miuule
class. Piesenting pooi people with well-built iesiuences fai away fiom town is not
an automatic gift. Tiansfeiiing the pooi to goveinment-built social housing outsiue
the city may plunge them even ueepei into uestitution, as they then have to spenu a
gieatei poition of theii eainings foi tianspoitation. 0ui own iecommenuation of
establishing owneiship contiibutes to unuo the envisioneu solutions, since well-
built housing is often ie-solu to miuule-class iesiuents, while the pooi ietuin to
squattei settlements (eithei to theii oiiginal one, oi they builu a new one). They
piefei to use the piofit fiom selling theii new goveinment-sponsoieu uwelling. In
the iental economy, a system of sub-ienting substitutes miuule-class iesiuents foi
the veiy pooi.
As soon as a piece of ieal estate is legally iegisteieu, the tiansfeiable lanu title
becomes a tiauable commouity, anu enteis the fiee maiket (which coulu be an
illegal submaiket). Even if a plot is locateu in the miuule of a slum, oi in a not-so-
uesiiable social housing pioject, its piice coulu soai. 0ppoitunities foi gain can
96
uiive the consoliuation of these lanu paicels into a few hanus, not those of the
oiiginal iesiuents. This has in fact happeneu in many countiies aiounu the woilu,
leauing to a coiiupt aftei-maiket in slum ieal estate. Iionically, auuing
infiastiuctuie to a favela iaises its value, which can uiive its oiiginal settleis out. In
anticipation of such a piocess, speculation can iun wilu on unbuilt lanu.
A peivasive system linking coiiupt officials with ciiminal oiganizations finus
ways of piofiteeiing fiom both slums anu social housing. Bespite the appaiently
insoluble socio-legal natuie of this pioblem, we believe that oui methou actually
helps in the long teim. Fiistly, establishing a tightei owneiship of the uiban fabiic
(in both social anu emotional teims) ieuuces the oppoitunities foi exploitation by
tiauing it away. Seconuly, much of the exploitation centeis on offeiing seivices that
the goveinment iefuses to pioviue to slum uwelleis it is simply supplying to
uemanu, although at exoibitant piices.
A veiy uiffeient concein comes with oui iecommenuation foi engaging Non-
uoveinmental 0iganizations. While they may be a bettei choice than an inflexible
goveinment buieauciacy, we face a potential pioblem with giave consequences.
The laigest Nu0s often piomote technological "uevelopment" in the foim of veiy
laige piojects such as electiification, infiastiuctuie, anu builuing. They see the
pictuie in laige-scale teims, anu woulu like to see majoi constiuction contiacts
awaiueu to foieign companies that have the necessaiy pioven expeiience in
unueitaking complex piojects of this type. The pioblem is that many countiies
cannot affoiu laige-scale inteiventions.
Bespite this ieality, a goveinment often gets seuuceu into enteiing such a
contiact, which it ultimately cannot iepay. A ueveloping countiy is counting upon its
natuial iesouices to pay the bill foi iapiu moueinization. Neveitheless, economic
fluctuations anu unexpecteu events aie usually enough to tiip the fiagile stability of
such a ueal. The iesult is that the countiy gets plungeu into uebt. By becoming a
uebtoi nation, the nation can only be stabilizeu by help fiom the Inteinational
Nonetaiy Funu anu the Woilu Bank. Economic iestiuctuiing via Stiuctuial
Aujustment Piogiams (SAPs) imposes haish economic conuitions that woisen the
lives of the pooiei sectois of society. Not only uoes the countiy lose pait of its
soveieignty, but also fiom that point on, it is in no position to help its pooi in any
way.
The lesson to be leaineu fiom this a lesson that many nations have
unfoitunately faileu to leain is the neeu to woik on the small scale. A vast anu
costly new pioject is feasible foi the wealthy nations, but veiy iisky foi the
ueveloping nations. (Laige-scale piojects aie most always baseu on unsustainable
piocesses that waste vast amounts of eneigy anu iesouices). Social housing shoulu
giow fiom the bottom up, applying local solutions to small-scale piojects. If those
solutions woik, they can be iepeateu inuefinitely. Theie aie many inuepenuent
Nu0s who can help, anu foieign expeits who offei knowleuge anu expeitise foi fiee.
It is bettei to iely as much as possible on local financial capital, know-how, anu
iesouices. A long-teim solution, baseu on the auaptive evolution of housing patteins
anu constiuction, is moie sustainable than a technological quick fix.
97

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A numbei of piojects built in Latin Ameiica have solveu the myiiau pioblems of
how to ueal with goveinment buieauciacy, having come to teims with piactical
factois anu with the existing political stiuctuie. uioups have involveu piivate
constiuction companies with non-goveinmental oiganizations anu local
goveinment to constiuct anu finance social housing. Neveitheless, theie is still a
uistance between techniques foi implementation, anu how the final piouuct actually
feels. As noteu befoie, the scientific eviuence suggests this is not a mattei of "meie
peisonal taste", but iathei theie aie bioau aieas of consensus in human
assessments, iooteu in univeisal piocesses of peiception anu human biology. These
aieas of consensus can be establisheu thiough "consensus methouologies", of the
soit that we use ioutinely in oui collaboiative uesign piocesses.
0n this point we aie less enthusiastic about what has been achieveu so fai in
Latin Ameiica. Bespite all the best intentions anu an enoimous amount of woik
investeu, we see many piojects having a qualitative chaiactei that is, in a wiuely
shaieu assessment, impeisonal anu inuustiial. 0f couise, they uon't all have the
"ueauly" feeling of totalitaiian high-iise housing blocks, but the ambience of the
built enviionment ianges fiom uieaiy to neutial. In oui juugment, the foim anu
layout fail to connect emotionally to the useis. It's inteiesting to seaich foi the
ieasons why these solutions weie not caiiieu thiough all the auaptive uesign steps.
0ui explanation is as follows: those piojects aie uiiecteu by aichitects, who still
caiiy theii intellectual baggage of inuustiial uesign typologies anu ielativity of
peisonal tastes, even as they tiy to help people in a peisonal way. The aichitect's
language is influenceu by hishei uesign iueology anu is not univeisal. veiy few
aichitects have escapeu fiom the moueinist aesthetic that foimeu a pivotal pait of
theii tiaining (a tiauition in aichitectuie schools now going on foi seveial uecaues).
It is extiemely uifficult to iiu oneself of those ingiaineu aichitectuial images to
bieak out of the funuamentalist typologies of cubes, hoiizontal winuows, mouulai
blocks, etc., anu the logic of abstiacteu functionalism that often seives as the
iueological justification foi self-aggianuizing aesthetic postuiing (Alexanuei, 2uuS;
Salingaios, 2uu6). Especially in Latin Ameiica, moueinist aichitectuial typologies
aie auopteu as pait of the national aichitectuial style, populaily though eiioneously
linkeu to piogiessive political beliefs.
Naking some of oui ciiticisms explicit helps ieaueis know what we aie talking
about. We finu mouest human-scaleu builuings (which is goou), but they aie
aiiangeu on a stiict iectangulai giiu that has no othei puipose than to expiess the
"claiity of the conception". The plan looks peifectly iegulai fiom the aii (being
planneu foi such unpeiceivable symmetiy), anu expiesses mouulaiity insteau of
vaiiation. The mathematically piecise aiiangement is aibitiaiy as fai as human
ciiculation anu peiception of space aie conceineu, hence it uoes not contiibute to
uiban coheience. 0n the scale of inuiviuual builuings, we see the usual obsessively
flat walls without suiface aiticulation; stiict iectangulaiity; flat ioofs; uoois anu
98
winuows without fiames; slit winuows; houses iaiseu on pilotis; useless builuing
setbacks; no cuives in places wheie they woulu ieinfoice the tectonic stiuctuie but
cuiveu walls put in foi aesthetic effect; fiactuieu oi oveisizeu uiban space; etc.
These aie the iuentifying chaiacteiistics of the 192us' moueinist typology. An
unueilying assumption behinu imposing this foimal vocabulaiy on people's homes
is that an oiuinaiy peison without tiaining is incapable of shaping foim anu space,
anu only an aichitect (acting as the "expeit") is capable of uoing so. It all goes back
to the aiiogance openly expiesseu by moueinist aichitects, who showeu theii
contempt foi oiganic uiban fabiic. Contiaiy to the habits of much of moueinist
uesign anu planning, physical anu psychological neeus have to be unueistoou not in
teims of abstiacteu quantities, but in teims of a capacity foi local, auaptive
iesponses to neeus anu uesiies. Living inuiviuuals expeiience them as pait of
paiticulai living communities. The alteinative piocess pioposeu heie can be applieu
geneially to aiiive at non-stanuaiuizeu anu living uesign solutions living because
they aie connecteu, locally iooteu, anu inhabiteu with the spiiit as well as the bouy.
It is veiy easy to iecognize the uiffeience between oiganic anu inuustiial
moiphologies, baseu on theii peiceiveu complexity. Beie aie thiee ciiteiia that
anyone can use: (a) Is the geometiy on all scales, fiom the size of the entiie pioject
uown to the size of 2 mm uetails, complex (unique, vaiieu), oi simplistic (empty,
iepetitive). (b) Aie theie geneially iegulai tiansitions fiom laigei to smallei scales,
with no abiupt gaps. 0i, if theie aie abiupt tiansitions, aie they teiminateu with
even moie complex geometiies at the next scale. (c) If the geometiy is visually
complex, uoes the foim giow out of anu auapt to human physical anu psychological
neeus, oi is it an aibitiaiy imposeu "high uesign" complexity. These thiee ciiteiia
uistinguish living uiban fabiic fiom ueau inuustiial foims (the thiiu ciiteiion is
moie uifficult to apply without some expeiience).
Paiauoxically, the segment of society (i.e., piogiessive intellectuals anu activists
piomoting social causes) most inteiesteu in helping pooi people is also that which,
foi political anu iueological ieasons, naively assumes that the solutions must
confoim to the technological "image of moueinity". They cannot think outsiue the
seuuctive images of the 2u
th
centuiy militaiyinuustiial paiauigm. They sinceiely
believe the piomises of libeiation maue by moueinist iueologues, but fail to see that
such foims anu geometiies aie basically inhuman. By contiast, those piivilegeu
inuiviuuals who can affoiu to cieate a waim, iesponsive living enviionment (anu
know how to implement it) uo so mainly foi themselves, iemaining in geneial
unconceineu with the plight of the pooi.

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Theie is anothei point that we have yet to uiscuss, anu which can sabotage the
best intentions of humane social housing. That is the image a potential iesiuent has
of "the most wonueiful home in the woilu". People caiiy within themselves images
of uesiiability, often the opposite of what they tiuly iequiie. Auveitising woiks by
convincing people to consume what they uon't neeu; to spenu theii money on
99
fiivolous oi noxious things insteau of healthy foou, meuicine, anu euucation. In the
same way, oui cultuie piopagates aitificial images of "beautiful" houses in the
minus of the uiban pooi anu even the most isolateu iuial faimeis. When an
inuiviuual migiates to a town, heshe will woik to achieve the housing that
coiiesponus to the image in hishei uieams. It is ceitainly the case that this image
will clash with auaptive housing typologies.
As aichitects anu uibanists, we aie constantly competing in a univeise of images
anu iueas that aie valiuateu by iconic piopeities iathei than any contiibution to
auaptive living enviionments (Alexanuei, 2uuS; Salingaios, 2uu6). Buman
peiception of built space is goveineu by unstateu values anu subtleties. It is a
fiustiating battle, because people aie uistiacteu fiom consiueiation of what is goou
oi healthy. Wonueifully auaptive veinaculai aichitectuie is iuentifieu with a
heiitage fiom which pooi people aie tiying to escape. They aie fleeing theii past
with its miseiy. People oiiginally fiom the countiysiue shun tiauitional iuial
builuing typologies: they aie abanuoning symbols of the countiysiue with all its
iestiictions anu fleeing to the "libeiating" city. A new house in that style woulu
tiiggei a ueep uisappointment. Pioviuing humane housing theiefoie conflicts with
maintaining the "image of moueinity".
A peasant who moves fiom the countiysiue into a favela, oi someone boin theie
will not wish to see it iepaiieu: heshe uespeiately wants to move out as soon as
possible to a miuule-class apaitment. The favela uoesn't iepiesent the wiuely
accepteu "image of moueinity", but insteau caiiies a social stigma. Escaping poveity,
in the minu of the favela's iesiuent, means escaping fiom the favela's geometiy. That
iuea is ieinfoiceu by the uiastic tiansfoimation in geometiy that one sees in houses
foi the miuule class. Niuule class iesiuences tenu to be eithei uieaiy moueinist
apaitment complexes, oi isolateu pseuuo-tiauitional houses with a lawn anu fence.
Those insipiu images of moueinity uominate the thinking of pooi people, who ingest
them fiom television piogiams anu othei maiketing outlets.
A new pioject of social housing that is successful in oui teims will inevitably
iesemble tiauitional local uiban anu aichitectuial typologies, simply because those
have evolveu to be the most auaptive to human neeus. That iesemblance, howevei,
conuemns its image as not piogiessive. Nany iesiuents expect to see theii new
houses built in the "image of moueinity", as uefineu by the homes of the iich anu
famous the woilu ovei. Bouses anu offices in a high-tech moueinist style aie
constantly shown on films anu television togethei with theii iich iesiuents. The
pooi aspiie to this uieam. 0n the othei hanu, wealthy aiistociats living anu woiking
in colonial mansions aie no longei embiaceu as mouels to emulate, because of theii
association with the pie-moueinist past anu a conseivative political oiuei. That is a
pity, because 19
th
Centuiy builuing typologies often contain much of a countiy's
aichitectuial heiitage, anu offei auaptive solutions that have nothing to uo with any
social oi political class. (People foiget that the technociatic style now iepiesents
global economic uominance by a poweiful elite).
As noteu pieviously, we believe the pioblem is inescapably cultuial in natuie. It
seems to us that the ciux of the issue is valuation how the community values its
1uu
options, anu then makes uecisions accoiuingly. 0i, moie piopeily, it is a question of
whethei a tiuly intelligent (i.e. self-coiiecting anu leaining) system of collective
uecision making is in place. So oui task is not just to offei choices, but also to offei a
fiamewoik (oi choice of fiamewoiks) in which to make those choices ovei time.
If iesiuents choose "wealth" as uefineu in ieuuceu simple teims by monetaiy
maikets, then they will logically concluue that the optimal couise is to sciape the
site flat anu put up a single high-iise builuing with a Big-Box-Nait next uooi. If they
have a longei-teim uefinition of "value" which incluues moie subtle but no less
vital notions of "quality of life" then they have a basis foi assessing anu mouifying
theii built enviionment in a way that is moie complex, moie intei-ielateu, anu moie
"oiganic". This of couise is what a tiauitional cultuie is anu uoes, by uefinition.
That simple notion of "wealth" in ieuuceu monetaiy maiket teims cannot
uistinguish between the subtle piocesses of life. Foi this ieason, it cannot combine
the "top-uown" iesouices like biinging "wet appliances" (conciete boxes containing
a bathioom anu a kitchen countei with sink), oi tiucks full of builuing mateiials
appeaiing at the euge of the site, with "bottom-up" iesouices like people woiking on
theii own houses, small-scale local economies, oi following auaptable geneiative
coues.
Combining top-uown anu bottom-up methous is the ciux of the pioblem, which
will iequiie a complex integiative appioach, iathei than a lineai application of
iesouices anu single-vaiiable solutions. It is a complex, multi-vaiiable pioblem of
self-oiganization anu of oiganizeu complexity, anu iequiies a uiffeient set of tools
fiom those people aie useu to woiking with.
Bow then uo we take seiiously people's aspiiations, without necessaiily enabling
what may be a manipulateu uesiie of theiis, one that encouiages the tiauing away of
iiieplaceable long-teim value foi peiishable shoit-teim gain. As we have seen, in a
mouein economic context, tiauitional cultuies aie unfoitunately veiy vulneiable to
this kinu of bau-ueal tiaueoff. As piofessional auviseis we have a uuty to take theii
aspiiations seiiously, but also to take seiiously theii long-teim neeus, even if they
aie not ieally consiueiing them. We shoulu not act in theii place that woulu be
aiiogant but insteau have a kinu of conveisation with them, wheie we as
piofessionals point out the options befoie them in a moie complete anu moie
connecteu kinu of way.
What is obvious to us isn't necessaiily consiueieu positively by the bioauei
population. Such a thing woulu make sense, anu avoius the uangeis, if it came out of
a collaboiative piocess that was veiy much in the hanus of the locals. It neeus to be
theii veinaculai tiauition. 0theiwise, theie is a ieal uangei of such an effoit coming
acioss as piesumptuous anu conuescenuing. Theie is a veiy uelicate balance in
theie between iespect foi the local cultuie that is veiy much a cultuie of poveity
the eveiyuay uibanism, in a sense anu a iecognition of the aspiiations even
within that cultuie (anu in the inuiviuuals) foi something they imagine to be bettei.
0ften people neeu to leain to appieciate what they alieauy have (i.e., the
capacities, the wealth, anu beauty of theii paiticulai cultuial auaptations to
1u1
ciicumstances). This is all the moie uigent since we have a global cultuie that is
mostly ueuicateu to giving people a hungei foi goous they uon't have. Foi example,
we aie well awaie of the tenuencies foi low-income communities to be big backeis
of Big-Box-Naits. If we tiy to expose all the seiious pioblems cieateu by Big-Box-
Naits as a iesult of the builuing foim anu the business mouel, people may well
accuse us of iacism: "C( 0$6 ,(+W" 6(* 0-+" *8 "( $-1% 0$-" "$% '%8" (2 6(* -5'%-,6
$-1%b". It's a veiy uelicate thing when one is woiking with people in poveity how
uoes one both give iespect wheie iespect is uue, anu yet iecognize wheie things
coulu be bettei without being insulting. It iequiies a piocess that will engage the
cieative eneigy anu the self-ieliance of the local cultuie.

#A. )6 ? 19?3N5< c2:O< %5?<L 42 '==5@4 K8I?35 *2=>?O K286>3Nd
Piojects all ovei the woilu weie built following the oiganic paiauigm, using
ownei paiticipation. We obseive a cyclic phenomenon: both goveinments anu non-
goveinmental oiganizations suppoit paits of what we (anu otheis befoie us)
piopose, then it falls out of favoi anu is ieplaceu with inhuman moueinist
typologies, then it sometimes makes a comeback as electeu officials anu agency
uiiectois change. This tempoial fluctuation ieflects the mouel of species
competition, wheie one competing species uisplaces anothei (but uoes not uiive it
to extinction). When conuitions change, that species makes a mouest comeback.
The oiganic uiban paiauigm has always been only maiginally accepteu by the
poweis-that-be, even though it iepiesents the vast majoiity of cuiiently built uiban
fabiic. In the ecological analogy, unplanneu ownei-built housing is actually the
uominant species, wheieas in the minus of most people (in blatant contiauiction of
fact), it is assumeu to be the minoiity species. The woilu's uiban population
explosion has occuiieu in the pooiest stiata of society, one minoi pait houseu by
top-uown mechanisms of social housing, while the othei majoi pait hau to emeige
as favelas (iiiegulai settlements). It is this imbalance between oveiwhelming
foices geneiating the woilu's iiiegulai uiban moiphology, anu ineffective attempts
to impose oiuei that we wish to coiiect with this papei. We uepenu upon thiee
hopeful stiategies: (a) Reaueis will see that some of the olu piejuuices against
ownei-built housing aie outuateu, anu aie economically anu socially wasteful. (b)
People will iecognize the ioots of this conflict as iueological, anu not as exclusively
legal. (c) We finally have veiy poweiful tools foi efficient uesign anu iepaii, which
weie not available in the past.
The New 0ibanism movement (speaiheaueu by one of the authois (ANB)) has
helpeu to awaken the woilu to the value of tiauitional uibanism, anu to the neeu of
pieseiving existing poitions of living uiban fabiic. 0ui appioach tiies to channel the
natuial human neeu foi a nouiishing anu sustainable living enviionment, which has
been the case uuiing seveial millennia of human existence. Seveial extiemely
successful New 0ibanist uevelopments have been built in a tiauitional chaiactei,
showing that it can be uone touay. Planning is no longei biaseu towaius the
moueinist vision. Theie exists a new awaieness, at least in the most economically
1u2
uevelopeu countiies. Wheieas in the 196us healthy miuule-class neighboihoous
weie uestioyeu with impunity (an act euphemistically labeleu "uiban ienewal"
(}acobs, 1961)), such uiban aggiession is less likely to succeeu touay. Still, that uoes
not pievent uie-haiu moueinists fiom tiying to publicly uiscieuit the New 0ibanism
by labeling it as fit only foi the veiy iich. The piesent papei is one of many pioofs (if
any weie neeueu) that the same techniques apply to house the pooi of the woilu.
People have always hau an INSTINCTIvE knowleuge of how to builu, but all that
was casually uismisseu by moueinist typologies falsely claiming an exclusively
iational "scientific" valiuity. With the iecent entiy of tiaineu scientists into
aichitectuie anu uibanism, that misunueistanuing has finally been uispelleu, anu
we can sepaiate genuine methou fiom image-uiiven uogma. 0ui couiageous
pieuecessois who built living uiban fabiic weie all stymieu by an aichitectuial
establishment convinceu of the absolute coiiectness of the eaily 2u
th
Centuiy
inuustiial uesign paiauigm. Again anu again, piojects anu iueas weie maiginalizeu,
anu hau to be ie-inventeu elsewheie anu at anothei time. We believe that oui age is
finally ieauy to accept living uiban fabiic as pait of life itself, anu that this iuea can
assume its piopei cential place in oui consciousness.

##. 123=O86>23.
Twentieth-centuiy piactices in constiucting social housing may have been well
intentioneu, but aie ultimately misguiueu. They uo not help to connect the iesiuents
to theii enviionment. So much uiban fabiic all ovei the woilu coulu have been maue
healthy anu sustaining foi the same cost, but insteau exeits a ueauening effect on its
iesiuents, anu ultimately becomes unsustainable. 0nfoitunately, goveinment
planneis weie ueteimineu to impose an ill-conceiveu social expeiiment as pait of a
utopian piogiam of inuustiialization. We outline heie, on the othei hanu, piactical
anu sensitive solutions that can be applieu immeuiately to any context, with only
minoi mouifications to fit the local conuitions.
The authois make these iecommenuations baseu upon consiueiable expeiience
in piactical piojects. We will be the fiist to uige making compiomises anu neeueu
auaptations in implementing oui methouology to any paiticulai pioject, in the spiiit
of inciemental auaptation. It is fai bettei to compiomise anu get something built,
iathei than to insist on following eveiy component of oui suggesteu piocess but
have the pioject iejecteu. In this way, we can effect a steauy tiansition to a moie
iobust, moie life-suppoiting, anu moie sustainable kinu of housing foi the futuie.

'=X32UO5<NI53467
NAS is inuebteu to fellow membeis of the J+1.'(+9%+"-5 C"'*7"*'% L%8%-'7$
O'(*: (JCLO) who enthusiastically joineu him to wiite this papei. Thiough JCLO, an
efficient online collaboiation was maue possible. JCLO membeis Besim Bakim anu
Youan Rofe sent us incisive anu veiy helpful comments. 0thei inuiviuuals who
contiibuteu useful mateiial anu iefeiences incluue Ana Cecilia Ambiiz anu Alfieuo
1uS
Ambiiz with the D+.1%'8.,-, !*"j+(9- ,% O*-,-5-;-'-, Pablo Bullauue with
)*+,-7.j+ AJ&!, Anuiius Kulikauskas with the O5(4-5 i.55-3%8 O'(*:, anu Fausto
Naitnez with H&)A.

%5C5:53=56:
Chiistophei Alexanuei (2uuS) >$% B-"*'% (2 Y',%'Z I((<8 Y+% "( )(*' (Centei foi
Enviionmental Stiuctuie, Beikeley, Califoinia).
Chiistophei Alexanuei, Bowaiu Bavis, }ulio Naitinez & Bonalu Coinei (198S)
>$% &'(,*7".(+ (2 N(*8%8 (0xfoiu 0niveisity Piess, New Yoik).
Chiistophei Alexanuei, S. Ishikawa, N. Silveistein, N. }acobson, I. Fiksuahl-King &
S. Angel (1977) ! &-""%'+ V-+3*-3% (0xfoiu 0niveisity Piess, New Yoik).
Anuis Buany (2uu7) "Bow uo we save the Ciescent City. Recieate the unique
builuing cultuie that spawneu it", _%"'(:(5.8, Febiuaiy 14,
<www.metiopolismag.com>
Anuis Buany & Elizabeth Platei-Zybeik (2uuS) C9-'" A(,%, veision 6.4
<www.upz.com>, Niami, Floiiua.
Anuis Buany, Elizabeth Platei-Zybeik & }eff Speck (2uuu) C*4*'4-+ B-".(+
(Noith Point Piess, New Yoik).
Bassan Fathy (197S) !'7$."%7"*'% 2(' "$% &((' (0niveisity of Chicago Piess,
Chicago, Illinois).
}an uehl (1996) V.2% I%"0%%+ I*.5,.+38Z D8.+3 &*45.7 C:-7% (Aikitektens Foilag,
Copenhagen, Benmaik).
Babitatjam (2uu6) E('5, D'4-+ )('*9 E%48."% <http:www.habitatjam.com>
N. }. Babiaken (1972) C*::('"8Z -+ !5"%'+-".1% "( _-88 N(*8.+3 (0iban
Inteinational Piess, Lonuon & Numbai).
Besim Bakim (2uuS) "Byzantine anu Islamic Coues fiom the Neuiteiianean", in:
ABD A(*+7.5 L%:('" HHH]Hi/ C"65% -+, D'4-+.89Z B%0 D'4-+ A(,%8 -+, G%8.3+
O*.,%5.+%8 (The Town Papei, uaitheisbuig, Naiylanu, 2uuS), pages 42-4S & 6S.
Shoitei veision available online fiom
<http:tnutownpapei.comcouncilBakim.htm>.
}ane }acobs (1961) >$% G%-"$ -+, V.2% (2 O'%-" !9%'.7-+ A.".%8 (vintage Books,
New Yoik).
Stephen R. Kelleit (2uuS) I*.5,.+3 2(' V.2%Z G%8.3+.+3 -+, D+,%'8"-+,.+3 "$%
N*9-+@B-"*'% A(++%7".(+ (Islanu Piess, Washington, BC).
Lon Kiiei (1998) !'7$."%7"*'%Z A$(.7% (' )-"% (Anuieas Papauakis Publishei,
Winusoi, Englanu).
Nikos A. Salingaios (2uuS) &'.+7.:5%8 (2 D'4-+ C"'*7"*'% (Techne Piess,
Amsteiuam, Bollanu).
1u4
Nikos A. Salingaios (2uu6) ! >$%('6 (2 !'7$."%7"*'% (0mbau-veilag, Solingen,
ueimany).
}ohn F. C. Tuinei (1976) N(*8.+3 46 &%(:5% (Naiion Boyais, Lonuon).

'""R(B)a7 0535:?4>S5 12<5 C2: *2=>?O K286>3N 23 ? 0:553C>5O< 2: -@53
&:2U3C>5O<.
The bouy of this papei ieally outlines a methou of methous, which can be useu to
foimat an infinite numbei of uiffeient appioaches. All the appioaches aiising fiom
oui iecommenuations shaie a common auaptivity to human sensibilities. In this
essential quality, howevei, they uiffei maikeuly fiom othei methous cuiiently in
use. Eviuently, a plannei has to make up a new methou that best suits local
conuitions anu exigencies. Foi ieaueis who wish to implement oui methou with the
least uelay, we outline heie a pioceuuie that can piouuce housing on vacant lanu. A
slightly uiffeient appioach is neeueu to woik on a site that has existing builuings,
anu yet anothei to ieconfiguie an existing settlement. Please iemembei that this
iepiesents only 0NE of an infinite numbei of ielateu methous satisfying oui ciiteiia,
anu shoulu not be auopteu as a univeisal set of iules.
We assume that a team of planneis will woik with some oi all of potential futuie
iesiuents in all steps of the layout. This is ciucial to get a "ieauing" of the necessaiy
human factois that must be auuiesseu. Actual builuing is uiviueu into two
components: those that aie the funuing agency's iesponsibility, anu those that aie to
be uone by the owneiiesiuent. A iough uivision of laboi is foi the goveinment to
unueitake all constiuction on public space, wheieas the owneiiesiuent builus
hishei own house; but these iesponsibilities can oveilap eithei way accoiuing to
the specific situation. Even if the owneisiesiuents aie going to uo all the builuing
woik on theii house, the planning team is piepaieu to suppoit them anu guiue them
thiough the piocess. Refeiences below aie to inuiviuual patteins in ! &-""%'+
V-+3*-3% (Alexanuei %"= -5=, 1977).
It is extiemely impoitant to make an initial statement that we have heie a
uiffeient type of appioach to social housing, anu planning in geneial. The novelty of
this appioach is eviuent in thiee of oui pioceuuies. Fiist, we begin with laying out
the giounu anu stieet netwoik with active usei paiticipation, not as a pie-conceiveu
plan uiawn somewheie else. The seconu unusual element is to allow (in fact,
actively encouiage) the useis to oinament the siuewalk in fiont of theii house,
befoie the house is even built. The thiiu unusual element is to builu the uiban space
befoie any of the houses have been completeu. The uiban space is going to uefine
the chaiactei of the settlement as a whole its spatial quality anu iuentity on the
laige scale moie than any othei built object. It is going to play a majoi iole in
whethei the iesiuents feel they own the place emotionally.
We iecommenu the following steps, wheie we have emphasizeu the unusual
aspects of oui methou, while leaving moie obvious constiuction uetails up to the
local team:
1uS
1. Walk the lanu to uiagnose its conuition, stiengths, weaknesses, exceptional
oppoitunities, aieas neeuing iepaii, etc. Iuentify any canuiuates foi a sacieu space:
e.g., high giounu, piominent iocks, laige tiees, etc. These aie going to be piotecteu
anu latei incoipoiateu into uiban space.
2. In many cases, the settlement will have an existing bounuaiy that ueteimines
stieet connections. Wheie this is not so (i.e. in the countiysiue) the neighboihoou's
outline must be fixeu, as it will have an impact on the oveiall stieet pattein (Pattein
1S: NEIuBB0RB00B B00NBARY of Alexanuei %"= -5= (1977)).
S. Walk the lanu to ueteimine the main stieet anu the main cioss stieet fiom the
natuial peuestiian flow accoiuing to the topogiaphy anu featuies. These aie going
to iepiesent the Roman A-',( anu G%7*9-+*8, but will be neithei necessaiily
stiaight, noi oithogonal to each othei. Naik them with poles in the giounu caiiying
ieu flags. Allow ioom foi stieet plus siuewalks on both siues.
4. Walk the lanu once moie to visualize wheie the uiban spaces ought to lie
(ueciueu by the spots that feel the best to stanu in; somehow focusing all the
iegion's positive signals). These aie going to be bulges in the main stieets neai the
centei, anu ought to contain any sacieu spaces, if possible. Apply the piinciple of
tangential flow aiounu an uiban space (i.e., the stieet goes alongsiue an uiban
space, not thiough its miuule). 0iban spaces can be as long as necessaiy, but not
much wiuei than 2u m (Pattein 61: SNALL P0BLIC SQ0ARES). Naik the bounuaiies
of the uiban spaces with ieu flags.
S. Beciue on the footpiint of houses to paitially suiiounu anu ieinfoice the uiban
spaces. Fiont walls, with no setback, aie going to uefine the uiban space bounuaiies.
6. Now some majoi layout uecisions must be taken. 0ne possible typology is to
use builuing blocks of two houses ueep, not necessaiily stiaight, each with
uimension ioughly 4u-6u m wiue anu 11u-1Su m long. Builuing blocks begin at the
euge of the uiban space anu main stieets. The uiiection of each builuing block is
ueteimineu by the flow of the lanu. Theii bounuaiies will uefine the seconuaiy
ioaus, which aie maikeu with ieu flags. Seconuaiy stieets foim T-junctions (Pattein
Su: T }0NCTI0NS) at the inteisections, anu uo not cioss a main stieet. Seconuaiy
stieets aie naiiowei than the main stieets.
7. At the same time, questions of watei uiainage aie settleu, because stieet
uiiection has to accommouate watei flow. Beciue wheie iunoff watei will uiain to
outsiue the settlement so as to avoiu floouing. Note if any stieet has to be giaueu.
8. Shaping the lanu begins only now, with the goveinment giauing the builuing
giounu so that it slopes towaius the stieet on each siue foi uiainage. The stieets
must be giaueu wheie necessaiy to facilitate wastewatei flow as ueciueu
befoiehanu.
9. Paiticipating futuie iesiuents can lay out theii house uimensions, using blue
flags. Bouses have to come up to the siuewalk, anu occupy the full fiontage. 0thei
than this, theie is complete fieeuom in the house plan. If a couityaiu is incluueu,
uefine it by using the house volume to paitially suiiounu it (Pattein 11S:
1u6
C00RTYARBS WBICB LIvE). Inuiviuual vaiiation is essential to guaiantee southein
exposuie; otheiwise the couityaiu will not be useu aftei it's built (Pattein 1uS:
S00TB FACINu 00TB00RS). Fiist, uefine the builuings aiounu the main uiban
spaces anu at the main entiances.
1u. 0nce a sufficient numbei of house outlines have been maikeu, complete the
lot bounuaiies by using yellow flags. Each plot shoulu be not less than 2u m ueep
anu 6 m wiue. Plots aie sepaiateu by an alley at the back anu by a footpath on each
siue. Plots aie iecoiueu anu ueeus awaiueu. The iemaikable thing is that this is the
fiist time the settlement is uiawn on papei (up until now, we have been woiking
only with flags in the giounu).
11. The goveinment puts in any infiastiuctuie it is going to pioviue: electiical
utility poles in the alleys, eithei a watei system oi a iegulai uistiibution of public
watei spigots, seweiage pipes oi a few common genuei-sepaiateu latiines, etc.
12. The fiist act of actual builuing is putting uown a conciete siuewalk along the
position of all maikeu house fionts. The goveinment uoes this along all ueeueu
plots, but not in paits of the settlement that have not yet been planneu. It is
convenient to complete one housing block at a time. The siuewalk itself shoulu be
veiy wiue, anu iaiseu fiom the stieet (1.S m wiue siuewalks aie useless foi foiming
a neighboihoou; see Pattein SS: RAISEB WALK).
1S. The iesiuents piepaie uesigns using coloieu bits of sciap mateiial not thickei
than 1 cm (pebbles, tile fiagments, etc.), anu push them into the wet conciete as
soon as the siuewalk is pouieu anu smootheu. Anything can be useu as long as it
uoesn't compiomise the stiuctuial integiity of the conciete. Expansion joints aie
incoipoiateu as pait of the uesign. This act peisonalizes one's own bit of siuewalk,
anu establishes the piioiity of human expiession ovei inuustiial foims.
14. Bouse builuing can begin, caiiieu out by the iesiuents themselves, with the
fiont faaue going up fiist at the euge of the siuewalk. In this way, the uiban spaces,
iathei than the houses themselves, aie the fiist spatial elements to be physically
constiucteu (Pattein 1u6: P0SITIvE 00TB00R SPACE).
1S. The entiance (oi entiances) to the settlement shoulu be cleaily uefineu by
moie piominent builuings so they aie obvious points of tiansition (Pattein SS:
NAIN uATEWAYS).
16. The goveinment can soliuify the uiban space by builuing a laige kiosk theie
a ioofeu open ioom (Pattein 69: P0BLIC 00TB00R R00N). Nake suie it has
steps that aie comfoitable to sit on (Pattein 12S: STAIR SEATS). This element can
catalyze the use of the uiban space, anu enhances sacieu elements such as a laige
tiee.
17. 0wneis complete theii inuiviuual houses, at theii own pace. They have
complete fieeuom in the flooi plan within theii oiiginal maikings. If it is appiopiiate
to the cultuie, builu a low sitting wall oi leuge integial with the fiont wall next to the
entiance (Pattein 16u: B0ILBINu EBuE anu Pattein 242: FR0NT B00R BENCB).
This, in tuin, might influence the ioof oveihang.
1u7
18. The uesciiption of the builuing sequence uepenus on local mateiials
availability, ueliveiy systems, anu the most economical alteinatives. Becisions such
as whethei to poui a flooi slab at the same time as the conciete siuewalk; if theie is
plumbing available that neeus to go unuei the slab; whethei to fill upiight hollow
uiain pipes with conciete to make a house's coinei columns; what mateiial to use
foi the loau-beaiing walls; whethei to uiop in a piefabiicateu toilet mouule; the
shape of the ioof anu how it is to be built, aie all best taken by the local consultants.
19. The consultants can auvise the owneibuilueis on how to foim the house
entiance anu winuows. A main entiance shoulu have uiastically thickeneu euges to
iepiesent the tiansition fiom outsiue to insiue (Pattein 22S: FRANES AS
TBICKENEB EBuES). Encouiage people to builu a tiansition space, howevei mouest
(Pattein 112: ENTRANCE TRANSITI0N). This emphasizes entiy as a piocess, the
opposite of a fiont uooi uesigneu as an image of a minimal uiscontinuity in the flat
wall.
2u. The same piinciple also applies to winuows: help the owneibuilueis to
cieate winuows with ueep ieveals anu a veiy thick fiame (Pattein 22S: BEEP
REvEALS).
21. Peihaps the single most impoitant iule to cieating iooms in a builuing is that
they must have natuial light fiom two siues (Pattein 1S9: LIuBT 0N TW0 SIBES 0F
EvERY R00N).
22. As the house fionts neai completion, the goveinment offeis a monetaiy piize
foi the most aitistic oinamentation, piefeiably using tiauitional motifs chosen
entiiely by the owneis, anu supplies paints anu mateiials foi that puipose (Pattein
249: 0RNANENT). 0inamentation shoulu be moie uetaileu, anu moie intense, at
eye level anu at those places wheie a usei can touch the builuing.
The above pioposal may appeai inteiesting, peihaps extiaoiuinaiy to
conventional planneis. Some will uoubtlessly ciiticize it, even though it is suppoiteu
by the most impoitant uocument of Latin Ameiican planning: the "Laws of the
Inuies". (V-8 V%6%8 ,% H+,.-8 explicitly uiiect that a settlement be planneu aiounu its
cential uiban space, which has to be establisheu fiist). We believe oui suggestions
to be applicable anu we ought to tiy anu implement them to any uegiee possible. It
is not necessaiy foi the builueis to have access to the full uesciiption of each pattein
mentioneu heie; a simple outline anu uiagiam aie sufficient. We list the patteins
only foi iefeience puiposes. The goal of oinamentation is N0T to auu something
"pietty" so as to uistiact fiom the otheiwise uifficult living conuitions. In fact, it
seives to connect the iesiuents in a ueepei sense to theii enviionment, by giving
them intellectual owneiship of the physical stiuctuie. Foi this ieason, it is
absolutely necessaiy that the iesiuents themselves geneiate all the oinament anu
cieate it with theii own hanus.



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0ui society is suffeiing on many counts fiom a ie-oiientation away fiom living
stiuctuie. The answei to chokeu cities is not spiawling subuibs, as was wiongly
assumeu aftei the Seconu Woilu Wai. Subuiban geometiy has tuineu out to be
funuamentally anti-life. It is stifling in piactice, even as it looks supeificially nice:
clean aii, in many cases gieen, spacious, etc. But theie is an essential quality
missing, anu it has to uo with the geometiy itself. Without getting into theoiies of
uiban stiuctuie, heie is a simple ciiteiion foi human uesign: "Shape a city aiounu
oui chiluien".
Assuming that the inteiioi of a house is uesigneu to be fiienuly to a chilu (which
moie often touay is not so, but that is anothei stoiy), look at the immeuiate exteiioi
of the house oi builuing. Can a chilu go out of a uooi anu play safely in the
enviionment. Can heshe exploie without the paient feaiing foi its safety. Can a
chilu go anywheie on theii own.
No. A chilu is impiisoneu within theii house oi fenceu-in back yaiu. In oui
beloveu subuibs, the fact that the geometiy gives piioiity to highway-sizeu ioaus
piecluues any sense of safety foi oui chiluien. So much foi the annual upkeep of
fiont lawns, bushes, cuibs, speeu bumps! Those elements aie eithei funuamentally
hostile to chiluien, oi they incluue banu-aiu solutions aftei the fact.
1u9
But planneis still iefuse to change the coues to allow a genuinely chilu-fiienuly
built enviionment. In most cases, they have absolutely no iuea of how to achieve
that.
At the othei extieme, the most inhuman enviionment foi chiluien is the
skysciapei. Isolateu fiom natuie up in theii uppei-stoiey piisons, chiluien lose all
contact with natuie anu human ieality.
In his excellent book ! &-""%'+ V-+3*-3%, Chiistophei Alexanuei alieauy gave the
ciiteiion of a foui-stoiey limit foi apaitment houses, baseu upon the uistance
chiluien can successfully inteiact with theii fiienus anu paients. In fact, Alexanuei
baseu many of his patteins upon chiluien's sensibilities, but no one paiu much
attention.
Aichitectuie anu uibanism willfully embaikeu in the past seveial uecaues on
uesigns that isolate anu uiminish the chiluien's woilu to within one house oi one
ioom. Eastein Euiope has seveial geneiations of peisons who hau theii chiluhoou
wasteu by living in monstious high-iises.
What is to be uone. This biief essay uoes not pietenu to give the answei, but heie
is a staitei. uiab a chilu (youi chilu, oi a nephew) by the hanu anu walk the pioject
lot befoie even putting pencil to papei. Explain to youi youngstei that heshe neeus
to tell you exactly what is necessaiy to builu theie so that it is pleasant to play
exactly wheie you two aie now walking. (Also, tiy to imagine being that age
youiself, if that is possible).
Wheie is a tiee, a paveu footpath, a low wall foi playing alongsiue anu foi sitting
on. Bow about a gazebo heie, foi climbing up. None of these "useless" uiban pieces
shoulu be placeu on a plan by the aichitect they woulun't know wheie to put
them, anu even if built, will iemain unuseu.
A pictuie emeiges that is totally uistinct fiom the uiban fabiic we builu
nowauays. No wiue ioaus, but lots of footpaths, uensely packeu. Low walls, little
things, connections. We envision houses that aie oiienteu veiy uiffeiently fiom
those in touay's subuibia.
uone aie the uangeious inteisections, ciossings, anu gigantic uiban visual objects
so beloveu of post-wai planneis. uone aie the piison-yaiu conciete playgiounus, as
the entiie uiban space itself becomes a playgiounu.
Even the useless expanses of lawn aie questioneu: ask the chilu wheie heshe
wants to have lawn to iun on. Ceitainly not eveiywheie "No, we uon't want lawn
ovei theie, we will nevei go ovei theie to play" but in veiy specific places, anu it
must go theie anu be piotecteu by the suiiounuing stiuctuies.
The ieauei ieauy to quit ieauing this essay will say: "Nonsense; no one has evei
built such a city". Well, I'm soiiy, but much of the built uiban fabiic is built exactly in
this mannei. The ueveloping woilu has cities, both tiauitional anu infoimal, that
exemplify what I'm talking about. Not that they aie uesigneu that way consciously,
but simply because they have evolveu in that uiiection.
11u
If those pooi people can uo it, why can't we. Peihaps because we aie too iich, too
aiiogant, too caught up with iiuiculous anu uestiuctive iueas of moueinity, too
uepenuent upon mechanization, too piouu to aumit we have uestioyeu oui cities,
anu too piouu to leain fiom pooi people who may be staiving but have a bettei
uiban sense that we uo!
Why aie oui societies so totally, obsessively, chilu-unfiienuly, wheieas the
favelas of the woilu aie gieat foi playing in. uianteu, we uon't want the open
iunning sewage oi uisease, but I'm talking about the geometiy. They got it iight.
Aie we capable of leaining. You woulu be suipiiseu at the blockage to leaining
that veiy intelligent people manifest because theii minu is full of geometiical images
of moueinity. It is a fanatical conviction, anu you cannot fight uogma with ieason.
The continueu suivival of the species uepenus upon oui chiluien. Suiely, we neeu
to builu oui woilu to optimize theii expeiience, uon't we. Not uoing so goes against
all ieligions as well as ieason. Images of moueinity compete (anu have uisplaceu)
humanity's connection to the highei oiuei of the univeise.



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The peei-to-peei ielational uynamic iepiesents the basic human fieeuom foi
humans to connect to each othei anu to engage in actions without peimissions. It
can flouiish in global cybei-collectives, but also on a local scale, paiticulaily in the
inteistices of the mainstieam system, in places wheie contiol is the weakest.
Because of this paiauoxical effect, it is possible to consiuei slum uynamics as a peei-
to-peei system, which is the point of view of new uibanists like Nichael Nehaffy,
Nikos Salingaios, anu Piakash N. Apte. They aie uefenuing the collective intelligence
anu value cieation that have been constiucteu oiganically by slum uwelleis.
Anothei aspect is woith mentioning. Noueinist appioaches aie often chaiacteiizeu
by a hatieu of the past, which must be uestioyeu. But aftei the ueconstiuctive
peiiou of postmoueinism, in which "anything goes" pastiches weie maue possible,
111
now is the time foi an intelligent neo-tiauitionalism, which takes into account the
wisuom of the past, ciitically weaves it with oui new sensibility, anu uses the
successful patteins to cieate an oiganically evolving piesent anu futuie. Such
attempts aie woith suppoiting, because they combine the best of the past anu
piesent, anu cieate a futuie that has been fieely chosen, not imposeu.

)(FR%b)Rc.

+&7 We've been coveiing some of youi woik on a new peei to peei' uibanism in
oui website. Peihaps we can exploie this connection fuithei. Fiist of all, uo you
agiee with that assessment of youi appioach being in line with the peei-to-peei
ethos. Tell us a little bit about youiself anu how you came to youi cuiient thinking
anu piactice. Finally, coulu you also tell me what you think of my chaiacteiization of
youi woik as neotiauitional. What I mean is that pie-mouein anu what I woulu call
tians'-mouein thinking aie both conceineu with the piimacy of value anu the
immateiial, anu that fieeu fiom the moueinist iejection of all things tiauitional, we
can now have an open minu anu fieely uiaw fiom thousanus of yeais of human
expeiience.

(*7 At the basis of my appioach (anu my team of collaboiatois on aichitectuial
anu uiban issues) is the empoweiment of the inuiviuual. That is ceitainly at the
heait of the peei-to-peei ethos. It is also a funuamental ieveisal of what has been
the noim foi close to a centuiy; namely the iule of a self-appointeu elite to uictate
the tastes of the people as fai as what living anu built enviionments ought to be like.
ueneiations have been tolu that they hau to live in a ceitain type of house that was
unpleasant to be in, to live in cities with an unpleasant, often inhuman foim, anu we
can go fuithei. ueneiations have been foiceu to go against theii natuial, instinctive
iesponses to an inhuman enviionment, anu to accept it as "mouein" anu
"contempoiaiy". This has been happening since the 192us. The enu iesult is massive
cognitive uissonance, which confuses a peison's instincts to the point that they aie
then veiy easy to manipulate.
Now theie aie two schools of thought as to how this happeneu. If you aie going to
be kinu, you can say that well-meaning, nice people with goou intentions wanteu to
builu new types of builuings anu cities so as to bettei humanity anu cieate a moie
just society. If you aie going to be haish, you can claim that those veiy same people
collaboiateu in a uangeious mass expeiiment in social engineeiing, with the goal of
cieating a submissive consumei class of people who aie easily biainwasheu. The
enu iesult is the same: an inhuman built enviionment founueu upon eneigy wastage
anu a neuiotic class of people who eveiyuay have to put up with uiban anu
aichitectuial stiess. The beneficiaiies aie the so-calleu expeits who solu all the
utopian iueas, anu who weie well-iewaiueu foi theii iole, anu of couise, that
section of society that cieateu all this inhuman uiban stiuctuie.
112
To get out of this uisastious moue of life anu it is ieally a philosophy anu
woiluview, not an aichitectuial choice we neeu to go back to tiauitional values.
Suie, the social ievolutions aiounu the Fiist Woilu Wai iejecteu tiauition piecisely
at the time these new "expeits" weie selling theii utopian iueas, but that was the
key to the manipulation. People weie ieauy to ieject eveiything anu auopt a new
way of life, anu weie not paying attention to the possible uangeis of being
manipulateu. If we look back to all the aichitectuie anu uibanism of the past S,uuu
yeais, we finu human-scale solutions that can be auapteu foi touay's society. Foi the
moment, the constant attacks fiom those who accuse us of going back to the past
have pieventeu people in geneial fiom appieciating the wealth of solutions
available. I'm talking about small-scale, both low anu high-technology solutions that
bieak out of the stiangleholu of the consumeiist society. I'm also talking about
satisfying basic human emotional neeus, such as a human-scale enviionment, a
healing enviionment, that we can cieate with veiy low cost once we jettison the
fashionable oi uogmatic aichitectuial "statements".
The moueinists iejecteu all things tiauitional, as theii basic cult uogma. Thus,
they thiew out solutions uevelopeu ovei millennia, which can nevei be substituteu
by any high-tech images. Some of my fiienus think this was simply an inuustiy tiick
to sell all that steel anu glass being piouuceu in mass quantities fiom the new
factoiies. In that view, the Bauhaus was simply a publicity outlet foi inuustiial
mateiials, which is iionic consiueiing how Naixist most of the Bauhauslei weie. But
then, the Left embiaceu inuustiialization wholeheaiteuly, just as feivently as uiu the
consumeiist society that was supposeuly on the political iight. Communist countiies
eiecteu vast, inhuman builuings anu cities, anu the same typologies weie applieu in
the capitalist countiies. A cuiious iueological agieement between the two
antagonists on the inuustiialization anu uehumanization of human beings!
Peei-to-peei solutions iepiesent the opposite of this uehumanization. I see an
attempt to iegain value foi the inuiviuual, anu hopefully to enable solutions to
evolve outsiue the contiolleu inuustiial system. Theie is nothing wiong with
inuustiy, but I uo not conuone the massive manipulation of entiie populations, anu
the foiceu consumption of inhuman builuing anu uiban typologies. People will buy
inuustiial piouucts, anu will builu theii houses anu cities: what I want to see is a
vastly impioveu iange of choices anu the ability to make inuiviuual uecisions. I
expect the latest cutting-euge inuustiial techniques, such as just-in-time piouuction,
to play a majoi iole in this ievolution. We aie now piomoting a cuiious anu
unexpecteu combination of tiauition with the latest technological possibilities maue
available by the Inteinet. I uon't believe that it was even possible to think about
implementation befoie, even a uecaue ago, but now the whole piocess of
infoimation, cooiuination, uistiibution, linkage, anu expeitise, can take place on the
Inteinet. That's why I suppoit an open publishing enviionment so stiongly.
Infoimation that can change people's lives, that can change the lives of entiie
population, must be fieely available.
What we have not been able to bieak thiough, so fai, is the biainwashing. The
vast majoiity of the woilu's population is suffeiing fiom an inhuman built
11S
enviionment, fiom inhuman living spaces, fiom inhuman builuing suifaces, fiom
inhuman fuinishings, anu it is putting up with it because of a basic teiioi.
Psychological manipulation has convinceu them fiom biith that to go against the
"mouein" iconogiaphy will mean economic collapse. Those images have become
ieligious in theii holu on people's minus. }ust tiy to suggest to someone that steel
anu glass may not be the best mateiials in a ueseit oi polai climate (only to mention
the heat losses). But they cannot envision a woilu without those iconic "glass anu
steel" qualities, because that image iepiesents "piogiess" since the 192us. Slum
uwelleis make uo with waste mateiials to builu theii homes, but when they can
affoiu to, they move out into an inhuman house built in "inuustiial" style, often in an
inhumanly uesigneu high-iise, oi woise, in a socially ueau subuib. That is theii
ultimate success: they have maue it out of the favela anu into the inhuman utopian
enviionment, anu now they can contiibute as a pawn in the global economy.

+&7 Beie's the next question, anu I'u like to play auvocate of the uevil foi a while.
I heai youi chaige that moueinists builu inhuman cities anu spaces, but I wonuei if
they weie not just ieacting to tiauition, which was alieauy gone in the 192us anu
peihaps moie against inuustiial uehumanization itself. I'm just assuming that theie
was a emancipatoiy chaige to the woik of many, but that the law of unintenueu
consequences uiu not allow them to foiesee all the iesults of theii iueas anu plans.
Similaily conceining tiauition, it is steepeu not just in positive anu communal ways
of living, but also in authoiitaiian social stiuctuies. Ny question is theiefoie, if you
look at tiauition, by what methou can you uistinguish the wheat fiom chaff, what is
the opeiating pioceuuie oi methouology you can use to uo this kinu of selection. Is
it ielateu to the patteining appioach by Chiistophei Alexanuei. Tell us a little moie
about the lattei, as not all of oui ieaueis may be familiai with that impoitant woik.
In auuition to him, who else has been of majoi inspiiation to you anu youi
colleagues. An auuitional question: how uo you ieact to the fact that the new
moueins in East Asia, seem hell bent on iepeating the mistakes that you uesciibe, on
peihaps an even gianuei scale.

(*7 Eveiy geneiation has ieacteu in some foim (positive oi negative) to tiauition,
anu uiffeient social classes ieact in uiffeient ways. It is wiong to concluue that only
the oppiesseu ieact negatively to tiauition, since we have seen iueas that uestioyeu
a society emeige fiom those who weie well off they uiu it foi the fun of it, as an
intellectual exeicise, because those peisons weie psychopaths, oi just to "be
uiffeient". While changes aftei Woilu Wai I might be attiibuteu to a ieaction against
inuustiial uehumanization, they actually uiove the woilu into a moie complete
inuustiial uehumanization, so I uon't know if this is iionic oi tiagic. Beie we move
fiom uesign into the minefielu of politics.
Theie is a veiy simple ciiteiion foi how to juuge the positive qualities of
tiauition, oi specific pieces of tiauition: if it empoweis the inuiviuual to leau a
healthiei, moie fulfilling life. Not necessaiily happiei, oi moie just, since all the iight
114
conuitions in the woilu cannot guaiantee that, but a full life without affecting othei
human beings negatively. Rathei than utopian piomises that can only be fulfilleu by
a state ievolution anu which invaiiably tuin aiounu an oppiessive system into
anothei oppiessive system I see the value of peei-to-peei iueas of a peisonal
valiuation of human beings. By contiast, ieaction to oppiession channeleu into a
mass movement is often commanueeieu by anothei elite to constiuct its own powei
stiuctuie.
Cleaily, one can wiite uown a set of patteins that have been useu successfully to
manipulate oi oppiess people, so we must incluue a value system in evaluating
patteins. In computei science, it's stiaightfoiwaiu: patteins aie those solutions that
help a piogiam iun bettei, while antipatteins aie those iecuiiing pseuuo-solutions
that keep making things woise. I have classifieu patteins that manipulate the
majoiity of people foi the benefit of a small gioup, as "anti-patteins". Nost of what
we see as aichitectuie anu uibanism touay, as taught in schools anu shown in the
meuia, consists of anti-patteins. I uo not asciibe "oppiessive" intention to them,
howevei, since in many cases they weie actually uevelopeu with the best of
intentions, anu aie often linkeu tightly to an attiactive iueology of political
emancipation. Theii iesult is oppiessive uespite all the goou intentions. Both cynical
anu naive piactitioneis just apply them foi fun anu piofit, anu like to ie-use the
oiiginal claims of "libeiation".
Chiistophei Alexanuei gave the Pattein Language to the woilu, anu if people hau
ieau it, it woulu have libeiateu eveiy inuiviuual fiom the tyiannical uictates of an
aichitectuial anu uiban machine (in the sense of an oppiessive system). The
patteins in that book aie a tiue libeiation, establishing people's own ueep feelings
about the built enviionment as sounu anu valiu. The ieason this is so impoitant is
that aichitectuie schools, the meuia, anu most aichitects have been implementing
the veiy opposite foi close to a centuiy. Anu they have been justifying theii inhuman
piouuct by a massive auveitising campaign, exactly like soft uiinks anu junk foou
ieplacing genuinely nutiitious foou, because some people make a lot of money
piomoting them, anu those same peisons woulu make a lot less money selling anu
uistiibuting wholesome fooustuff. We now have a significant peicentage of the
woilu's economy uiiven by the soft uiinks anu junk foou inuustiy, just as we have
anothei majoi peicentage of it uiiven by the constiuction of glass anu steel
skysciapeis anu uehumanizing conciete builuings. The aichitectuialuiban
situation is "soft" oppiession, wheie a vast powei system geaieu to piomoting an
unhealthy anu uehumanizing built enviionment is uiiven by subconscious
suggestion. In only a few instances is biute powei useu, as in monofunctional
zoning, anu bulluozing ownei-built houses so that someone can make a piofit by
builuing conciete high-iise blocks.
The situation with the new Asian states awakening fiom theii competitive
slumbei is absolutely tiagic. They aie swallowing all the ueceptions that oiiginally
solu city-uestioying, soul-uestioying, anu cultuie-uestioying aichitectuial anu
uiban typologies to the West. If this weie the 19Sus, then 0K, we might excuse this
eiioi as a lack of expeiience. But we have seveial uecaues of mistakes, enulessly
11S
uocumenteu, enulessly uiscusseu anu uebateu. Why aie the new Asian states
copying the woist that the West uiu to theii own people anu to theii own cities.
Piobably, the ieason is that the West itself is still piomoting the same uestiuctive
typologies only a minoiity of us aie conuemning them, wheieas the system is still
stuck in a heioic city-uestioying moue. We have a bunch of westein "expeits" that
have auviseu the new Asian states to uo piecisely what they aie uoing now. Anu
those expeits aie making huge foitunes fiom the ensuing uevastation... many people
aie piofiting financially fiom all this constiuction, anu it chuins the countiy's
economy. But the piouuct is toxic. Inciuentally, many people uon't see this in this
way; all they see is exciting new builuings anu highways going up in the East. The
uevastating iealization will occui when the eneigy costs aie auueu up, anu people
iealize that they have uestioyeu theii own society.

*2I5 ?<<>4>23?O 5Z@O?3?4>23 2C 495 @?445:3 =23=5@4J HL (>X26 *?O>3N?:26.
Iuentifying any type of pattein follows the same ciiteiia in aichitectuie as in
haiuwaie oi softwaie.
1. A iepeating solution to the same oi similai set of pioblems, uiscoveieu by
inuepenuent ieseaicheis anu useis at uiffeient times.
2. Noie oi less univeisal solution acioss uistinct topical applications, iathei than
being heavily uepenuent upon local anu specific conuitions.
S. That makes a pattein a simple geneial statement that auuiesses only one of
many aspects of a complex system. Pait of the pattein methouology is to isolate
factois of complex situations so as to solve each one in an inuepenuent mannei if
possible.
4. A pattein may be uiscoveieu oi "mineu" by "excavating" successful piactices
uevelopeu by tiial-anu-eiioi alieauy in use, but which aie not consciously tieateu
as a pattein by those who use it. A successful pattein is alieauy in use somewheie,
peihaps not eveiywheie, but it uoes not iepiesent a utopian oi untiieu situation.
Noi uoes it iepiesent someone's opinion of what "shoulu" occui.
S. A pattein must have a highei level of abstiaction that makes it useful on a moie
geneial level, otheiwise we aie oveiwhelmeu with solutions that aie too specific,
anu thus useless foi any othei situation. A pattein will have an essential aiea of
vagueness that guaiantees its univeisality.

+>=95O &?8U536 23 495 "55:E42E"55: Y283<?4>23.
Peei-to-Peei is mostly known to technologically-oiienteu people as P2P, the
uecentializeu (oi iathei, uistiibuteu) foimat of putting computeis togethei foi
uiffeient kinus of coopeiative enueavoi, such as file-shaiing, in paiticulai foi the
uistiibution of music oi auuiovisual mateiial. But this is only a small example of
what P2P is, it's in fact a template of human ielationships, a "ielational uynamic"
which is spiinging up thioughout the social fielus, moie piecisely wheie one finus
116
uistiibuteu netwoiks'. It expiesses itself in social piocesses such as peei
piouuction, peei goveinance, anu univeisal common piopeity iegimes.
Such commons-baseu peei piouuction has othei impoitant innovations, such as
the capability of its taking place without the inteivention of any manufactuiei
whatsoevei. In fact the giowing impoitance of usei innovation communities', which
aie staiting to suipass the iole of coipoiate sponsoieu maiketing anu ieseaich
uivisions in theii innovation capacities, show that this foimula is poiseu foi
expansion even in the woilu of mateiial piouuction, pioviueu the uesign phase is
sepaiateu fiom the piouuction phase (as well as othei conuitions which we will
evaluate moie closely). It is alieauy piouucing majoi cultuial anu economic
lanumaiks.
We also uiscuss the evolution of foims of coopeiation anu collective intelligence.
It is also heie that we aie staiting to auuiess key analytical issues: what aie the
specific chaiacteiistics of the iueal-type of the P2P foimat, such as a ceitain amount
of ue-institutionalization (beyonu fixeu oiganizational foimats anu fixeu foimal
iules), ue-monopolization (avoiuing the emeigence of collective inuiviuuals who
monopolize powei, such as nation-states anu coipoiations), anu ue-
commouification (i.e. piouuction foi use-value, not exchange value). At the same
time, this new moue is cieating new institutions, new foims of monopoly, anu new
foims of monetizationcommouification, as it is incoipoiateu in the existing foi-
piofit moue of piouuction.
We in fact uistinguish thiee emeiging economic anu business mouels aiising
fiom peei piouuction. Fiist, commons-oiienteu piouuction, which cieates ielatively
inuepenuent communities suiiounueu by an ecology of businesses that eventually
help sustain the commons anu the communities. Seconu, platfoims oiienteu
towaius the shaiing of inuiviuual expiession, which aie owneu by coipoiations, this
is the Web 2.u mouel. Finally, a ciowu-souicing mouel in which the coipoiations
themselves tiy to integiate paiticipation in theii own value chains, anu unuei theii
contiol. An impoitant issue is how uiiect peei goveinance co-exists, anu peihaps,
mutually eniiches, the existing foims of iepiesentative uemociacy.
We finally tuin oui attention to the cultuial spheie. We claim anu explain that the
vaiious expiessions of P2P aie a symptom of a piofounu cultuial shift in the spheies
of epistemology (ways of knowing), of ontology (ways of feeling anu being), anu of
axiology (new constellations of values), leauing to a new aiticulation between the
inuiviuual anu the collective, which we call coopeiative inuiviuualism', iepiesenting
a tiue epochal shift. We then look at the spiiitual fielu anu examine how this affects
the uialogue of civilizations anu ieligions away fiom exclusionist views in cultuie
anu ieligions, as well as to a ciitique of spiiitual authoiitaiianism anu the
emeigence of coopeiative inquiiy gioups anu paiticipatoiy spiiituality conceptions.

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