Grassland Ecosystem

A biological community that contains few trees or shrubs, is characterized by mixed herbaceous (nonwoody) vegetation cover, and is dominated by grasses or grasslike plants. Mixtures of trees and grasslands occur as savannas at transition zones with forests or where rainfall is marginal for trees. About 1.2 108 mi2 (4.6 107 km2) of the Earth's surface is covered with grasslands, which make up about 32% of the plant cover of the world. In North America, grasslands include the Great Plains, which extend from southern Texas into Canada.

The European meadows cross the subcontinent, and the Eurasian steppe ranges from Hungary eastward through Russia to Mongolia; the pampas cover much of the interior of Argentina and Uruguay. Vast and varied savannas and velds can be found in central and southern Africa and throughout much of Australia. See Savanna

Grasslands occur in regions that are too dry for forests but that have sufficient soil water to support a closed herbaceous plant canopy that is lacking in deserts. Thus, temperate grasslands usually develop in areas with 1040 in. (25100 cm) of annual precipitation, although tropical grasslands may receive up to 60 in. (150 cm). Grasslands are found primarily on plains or rolling topography in the interiors of great land masses, and from sea level to elevations of nearly 16,400 ft (5000 m) in the Andes. Because of their continental location they experience large differences in seasonal climate and wide ranges in diurnal conditions. In general, there is at least one dry season during the year, and drought conditions occur periodically.

Significant portions of the world's grasslands have been modified by grazing or tillage or have been converted to other uses. The most fertile and productive soils in the world have developed under grassland, and in many cases the natural species have been replaced by cultivated grasses (cereals).

Different kinds of grasslands develop within continents, and their classification is based on similarity of dominant vegetation, presence or absence of specific dominant species, or prevailing climate conditions.

The climate of grasslands is one of daily and seasonal extremes. Deep winter cold does not preclude grasslands since they occur in some of the coldest regions of the world. However, the success of grasslands in the Mediterranean climate shows that marked summer drought is not prohibitive either. In North America, the rainfall gradient decreases from an annual precipitation of about 40 in. (100 cm) along the eastern border of the tallgrass prairie at the deciduous forest to only about 8 in. (20 cm) in the shortgrass prairies at the foothills of the Rocky Mountains. A similar pattern exists in Europe. Growing-season length is determined by temperature in the north latitudes and by available soil moisture in

many regions, especially those adjacent to deserts. Plants are frequently subjected to hot and dry weather conditions, which are often exacerbated by windy conditions that increase transpirational water loss from the plant leaves.

Soils of mesic temperate grasslands are usually deep, about 3 ft (1 m), are neutral to basic, have high amounts of organic matter, contain large amounts of exchangeable bases, and are highly fertile, with well-developed profiles. The soils are rich because rainfall is inadequate for excessive leaching of minerals and because plant roots produce large amounts of organic material. With less rainfall, grassland soils are shallow, contain less organic matter, frequently are lighter colored, and may be more basic. Tropical and subtropical soils are highly leached, have lower amounts of organic material because of rapid decomposition and more leaching from higher rainfall, and are frequently red to yellow.

Grassland soils are dry throughout the profile for a portion of the year. Because of their dense fibrous root system in the upper layers of the soil, grasses are better adapted than trees to make use of light rainfall showers during the growing season. When compared with forest soils, grassland soils are generally subjected to higher temperatures, greater evaporation, periodic drought, and more transpiration per unit of total plant biomass. See Biomass

Throughout the year, flowering plants bloom in the grasslands with moderate precipitation, and flowers bloom after rainfall in the drier grasslands. With increasing aridity and temperature, grasslands tend to become less diverse in the number of species; they support more warm-season species; the complexity of the vegetation decreases; the total above-ground and below-ground production decreases; but the ratio of above-ground to below-ground biomass becomes smaller.

There are many more invertebrate species than any other taxonomic group in the grassland ecosystem. Invertebrates play several roles in the ecosystem. For example, many are herbivorous, and eat leaves and stems, whereas others feed on the roots of plants. Earthworms process organic matter into small fragments that decompose rapidly, scarab beetles process animal dung on the soil surface, flies feed on plants and are pests to cattle, and many species of invertebrates are predaceous and feed on other invertebrates. Soil nematodes, small nonarthropod invertebrates, include forms that are herbivorous, predaceous, or saprophagous, feeding on decaying organic matter. See Soil ecology

Most of the reptiles and amphibians in grassland ecosystems are predators. Relatively few bird species inhabit the grassland ecosystem, although many more species are found in the flooding pampas of Argentina than in the dry grasslands of the western United States. Their role in the grassland ecosystem involves consumption of seeds, invertebrates, and vertebrates; seed dispersal; and scavenging of dead animals.

Small mammals of the North American grassland include moles, shrews, gophers, ground squirrels, and various species of mice. Among intermediate-size animals are the opossum, fox, coyote, badger, skunk, rabbit, and prairie dog; large animals include various types of deer and elk. The most characteristic large mammal species of the North American grassland is the bison, although many of these animals were eliminated in the late 1800s. Mammals include both ruminant (pronghorns) and nonruminant (prairie dogs) herbivores, omnivores (opossum), and predators (wolves).

Except for large mammals and birds, the animals found in the grassland ecosystem undergo relatively large population variations from year to year. These variations, some of which are cyclical and others more episodic, are not

entirely understood and may extend over several years. Many depend upon predatorprey relationships, parasite or disease dynamics, or weather conditions that influence the organisms themselves or the availability of food, water, and shelter. See Population ecology Within the grassland ecosystem are enormous numbers of very small organisms, including bacteria, fungi, algae, and viruses. From a systems perspective, the hundreds of species of bacteria and fungi are particularly important because they decompose organic material, releasing carbon dioxide and other gases into the atmosphere and making nutrients available for recycling. Bacteria and some algae also capture nitrogen from the atmosphere and fix it into forms available to plants.

Much of the grassland ecosystem has been burned naturally, probably from fires sparked by lightning. Human inhabitants have also routinely started fires intentionally to remove predators and undesirable insects, to improve the condition of the rangeland, and to reduce cover for predators and enemies; or unintentionally. Thus, grasslands have evolved under the influences of grazing and periodic burning, and the species have adapted to withstand these conditions. If burning or grazing is coupled with drought, however, the grassland will sustain damage that may require long periods of time for recovery by successional processes.

An Inner Mongolian grassland in thePeople's Republic of China Grasslands are areas where the vegetation is dominated by grasses (Poaceae), however sedge (Cyperaceae) and rush (Juncaceae) families can also be found. Grasslands occur naturally on all continents except Antarctica. Grasslands are found in most ecoregions of the Earth. For example there are five terrestrial ecoregionclassifications (subdivisions) of the temperate grasslands, savannas,

and shrublandsbiome ('ecosystem'), which is one of eight terrestrial ecozones of the Earth's surface. Vegetation Grassland vegetation can vary in height from very short, as in chalk where the vegetation may be less than 30 cm (12 in) high, to quite tall, as in the case of North American tallgrass prairie, South American grasslands

and African savanna. Woody plants, shrubs or trees, may occur on some grasslands

forming savannas, scrubby grassland or semi-wooded grassland, such as the African savannas or theIberian dehesa. Such grasslands are sometimes referred to as wood-pasture orwoodland. As flowering plants, grasses grow in great concentrations in climates where annualrainfall ranges between 500 and 900 mm (20 and 35 in).[2] The root systems of perennial grasses and forbs form complex mats that hold the soil in place.

Evolution Graminoids are among the most versatile life forms. They became widespread toward the end of the Cretaceous period, and fossilized dinosaur dung

(coprolites) have been found containing phytoliths of a variety of grasses that include grasses that are related to modern rice and bamboo.[3] The appearance of mountains in the western United States during

the Miocene andPliocene epochs, a period of some 25 million years, created a continental climate favorable to the evolution of grasslands. Existing forest biomes declined, and grasslands became much more widespread. Following the Pleistocene Ice Ages, grasslands expanded in range in the hotter, drier climates, and began to become the dominant land feature worldwide.[1]

Climate Grasslands often occur in areas with annual precipitation between 600 mm (24 in) and 1,500 mm (59 in) and average mean annual temperatures ranges from 5 and 20 C (Woodward et al. 2004). However, some grasslands occur in colder(-20C) and hotter(30C) climatic conditions.[4] Grassland can exist in habitats that are frequently disturbed by grazing or fire, as such disturbance prevents the encroachment of woody species. Species richness is particularly high in grasslands of low soil Infertility fertility may such also as serpentine prevent woody

barrens and calcareousgrasslands.

encroachment as low nutrient levels in the soil may inhibit the growth of forest and shrub species.most plants from growing. Temperate grasslands occur in temperate climates typified by distinct seasonality (warm summers and cold winters).

Biodiversity and conservation

Grasslands

dominated

by unsown

wild-plant

communities

("unimproved

grasslands") can be called either natural or 'semi-natural' habitats. The majority of grasslands in temperate climates are 'semi-natural'. Although their plant communities are natural, their maintenance depends upon anthropogenic activities such as low-intensity farming, which maintains these grasslands through grazing and cutting regimes

These grasslands contain many species of wild plants grasses, sedges, rushes and herbs 25 or more speerican prairie grasslands or lowland wildflower meadows in the UK are now rare and their associated wild flora equally threatened. Associated with the wild-plant diversity of the "unimproved" grasslands is usually a rich invertebrate fauna; also there are many species of birds that are grassland "specialists", such as the snipe and the Great Bustard. Agriculturally improved grasslands, which dominate modern intensive agricultural landscapes, are usually poor in wild plant species due to the original diversity of plants having been destroyed by cultivation, the original wild-plant communities having been replaced by sown monocultures of cultivated varieties of grasses and clovers, such as Perennial ryegrass and White Clover. In many parts of the world "unimproved" grasslands are one of the least threatened habitats, and a target for acquisition by wildlife conservation groups or for special grants to landowners who are encouraged to manage them appropriately.

Human impact and economic importance

Grassland in Cantabria, northernSpain.

A restored grassland ecosystem atMorton Arboretum in Illinois. Grasslands are of vital importance for raising livestock for human consumption and for milk and other dairy products.

Grassland vegetation remains dominant in a particular area usually due to grazing, cutting, or natural or manmade fires, all discouraging colonisation by and survival of tree and shrub seedlings. Some of the world's largest expanses of grassland are found in African savanna, and these are maintained by

wild herbivores as well as by nomadic pastoralists and their cattle, sheep or goats. Grasslands may occur naturally or as the result of human activity. Grasslands created and maintained by human activity are called anthropogenic

grasslands. Hunting peoples around the world often set regular fires to maintain and extend grasslands, and prevent fire-intolerant trees and shrubs from taking hold. The tallgrass prairies in the US Midwest may have been extended eastward into Illinois, Indiana, and Ohio by human agency. Much grassland in northwest Europe developed after the Neolithic Period, when people gradually cleared the forest to create areas for raising their livestock.

Types ( biomes ) Tropical and subtropical These grasslands are classified with tropical and

subtropical savannas and shrublands as the tropical and subtropical grasslands, savannas, and shrublands biome. Notable tropical and subtropical grasslands include the Llanos grasslands of northern South America.

Temperate Mid-latitude grasslands, including the Prairie and Pacific Grasslands of North America, the Pampas of Argentina, Brazil andUruguay, calcareous downland, and the steppes of Europe. They are classified with temperate savannas and shrublands as thetemperate grasslands, savannas, and shrublands biome. Temperate grasslands are the home to many large herbivores, such asbison, gazelles, zebras, rhinoceroses, and wild horses. Carnivores like lions, wolves and cheetahs and leopards are also found in temperate grasslands. Other

animals of this region include: deer, prairie dogs, mice, jack rabbits, skunks, coyotes, snakes, fox,owls, badgers, blackbirds (both Old and New World varieties), grasshoppers, meadowlarks, sparrows, quails, hawks andhyenas.

Negri-Nepote Temperate Grasslands in New Jersey Flooded Grasslands that are flooded seasonally or year-round, like

the Everglades of Florida,

the Pantanal of Brazil, Bolivia and Paraguay or

the Esteros del Ibera inArgentina.They are classified with flooded savannas as the flooded grasslands and savannas biome and occur mostly in the tropics and subtropics. Watermeadows are grasslands that are deliberately flooded for short periods.

Montane High-altitude grasslands located on high mountain ranges around the world, like thePramo of the Andes Mountains. They are part of the montane grasslands and shrublands biome and also constitute tundra. Tundra Similar to montane grasslands, polar arctic tundra can have grasses, but high soil moisture means that few tundras are grass-dominated today. However,

during

the Pleistocene ice

ages,

polar

grassland

known

as steppe-

tundra occupied large areas of the Northern hemisphere. These are in the tundra biome. Desert and xeric Also called desert grasslands, this is composed of sparse grassland ecoregions located in the deserts and xeric shrublands biome.

Fauna

Mites, insect larvae, nematodes and earthworms inhabit deep soil, which can reach 6 metres (20 ft) underground in undisturbed grasslands on the richest soils of the world. These invertebrates, along with symbiotic fungi, extend the root systems, break apart hard soil, enrich it with urea and other natural fertilizers, trap minerals and water and promote growth. Some types of fungi make the plants more resistant to insect and microbial attacks.

Grassland in all its form supports a vast variety of mammals, reptiles, birds, and insects. Typical large mammals include the Blue Wildebeest, American

Bison, Giant Anteater and Przewalski's Horse.

While grasslands in general support diverse wildlife, given the lack of hiding places for predators, the African savanna regions support a much greater diversity in wildlife than do temperate grasslands. There is evidence for grassland being much the product of animal behaviour and movement; some examples include migratory herds of antelope trampling

vegetation and African Bush Elephants eating Acacia saplings before the plant has a chance to grow into a mature tree.

Ranching and Grassland Ecosystems Very few ranchers concern themselves with thoughts of ecosystems. But why not?

Ecosystems function as a whole unit. Every part and parcel is critical to maintaining the balance. So when we place a few hundred head of sheep or cattle in a pasture of grasswe need to pay attention to what the affect is and at least know if we're helping or hindering.

Our goal is healthy land, healthy livestock and making a dollar. When it comes right down to it, the resource that allows us to do so is the land and the grass. In the long run, without grass, no one wins. Grasslands can be influenced and altered over time. Perhaps by giving this some rudimentary thought we can obtain a brighter view of the bigger picture, knowledge of our role in altering these living comunities, and how this affects livestock, land, and sustainability. We can see evidence of human altered ecosystems all over planet earth. And sadly our success rate in the win-lose instead of win-win department is pretty high. As ranchers utilizing the grass for our livelihoods, our goals, at the very least, need to take these living grasslands into consideration.

A grassland ecosystem will have certain physical factors, the soil, water, and air, that determine what microbes, plants and animals will live there. The microbes, plants, and animals together with the soil, water and air they live in create the ecosystem.

So an ecosystem determines its inhabitants and the inhabitants determine the ecosystem. It's similar to a community.

The community is defined by the living organisms (microbes, plants and animals) functioning together in the area they live in (soil, water and air). Within the larger living community there can be numerous smaller ones. There may be a wetland ecosystem or woodlot ecosystem or the ecosystem could vary

depending on the grassland type and climate. Arid or temperate areas have vastly different ecosystems than tropical grasslands. If we zoomed in still further we would discover the habitat and various species within the ecosystem.

Grasslands Issues

Grasslands cover less than one percent of a province that is dominated by mountains and trees, but there are few large, unaltered areas. This page will provide a brief overview of different issues that affect grasslands. To learn more about the GCC's efforts to deal with specific issues, click on the embedded links.

Grasslands in the Okanagan and Thompson valleys and the Rocky Mountain trench have been lost to urban development, highways and railway lines, orchards, vineyards and other uses. All of our grasslands have been used for livestock grazing for over 150 years and for recreation activities for over 50 years. Non-native species have spread throughout the grasslands where disturbances have removed native species.

As a result of all these changes, although grasslands cover less than one percent of a province that is dominated by mountains and trees, the area of native grasslands remaining is much less than that. It is difficult to find any large areas of grasslands that have not been disturbed at all. Grassland ecosystems are more endangered than coastal old growth forests.

Most of our species at risk are found in the grasslands of the province. In many cases, their rarity is largely due to loss or fragmentation of habitat by the many disturbances that humans have caused.

Natural Disturbances Natural Disturbances change grasslands in many ways, adding to the diversity of these ecosystems. Some types of disturbance can be predicted, such as annual flooding of riparian areas along rivers and streams, while others happen unexpectedly, such as a fire after a lightning storm. Landslides, wind storms and flash floods also take their toll, but usually only affect a small area.

Want to know more about Natural Disturbances?

Go to Grasslands Ecosystem: Abiotic Components Human Disturbances British Columbias grasslands developed about 8,000 years ago, after the last glacial period. They contain a wonderful variety of native plants, shrubs and trees that have adapted to grow in these sometimes harsh conditions. Many creatures rely on grasslands for habitat year round while others migrate into grasslands to breed and raise young.

But, many different types of human disturbances have both reduced the area of grasslands and changed the grasslands ecosystems. There are now few large unaltered areas of grasslands in the province.

Until about the 1840s the only human-induced change to grasslands was created by small numbers of First Nations people. Their activities included harvesting plants, berries and fruits, using trees for canoes, shelter, baskets, and warmth, and hunting animals fur for food, clothing and shelter.

It is known that as many as 120 plants were used by the Thompson people of the Spuzzum-Spences Bridge area for food, flavouring or drinks. Some of their activities may have caused heavy, localised disturbances, but they were usually carried out conservatively to ensure an annual supply of food. First Nations people are known to have burned some areas to provide better growth of plants and shrubs, usually in the fall and in a controlled way.

Grazing Native animals that depend on grasslands have had to compete with a number of introduced grazing animals over the past 160 years. Since the 1840s, grasslands have been used for grazing horses, cattle, and sheep, and sometimes in very large numbers. Early grazing practices and the sheer numbers of animals on the grasslands destroyed or altered many grassland communities. Changes in those grazing practices, particularly in the past thirty years, have allowed most grassland communities to improve.

Early explorers noted that First Nations people were using and eating horses in the Kootenays before 1800, and in the Fraser River grasslands in 1808. The Hudsons Bay Company, which established in Kamloops in 1812, used as many as 300 horses in each brigade by 1821to pack out the furs and pack in supplies. The brigade routes followed established routes through the grasslands from Alexandria on the Fraser River via Kamloops and the Okanagan valley to the Columbia River.

The grasslands in the Kamloops area were used to over-winter many hundreds of these horses into the 1870s. There are records of thousands of horses owned by First Nations families in the Kootenays in the 1880s. Wild horses were rounded up in the Kelowna area in the 1890s to sell to miners going to the Klondike gold rush. Reports of wild horses roaming some grassland areas of the interior continue to this day.