Solar Energy Vol.71, No.3, pp.

155–164, 2001
2001 Published by Elsevier Science Ltd
Pergamon PII: S 0 0 3 8 – 0 9 2 X ( 0 1 ) 0 0 0 4 1 – X All rights reserved. Printed in Great Britain
0038-092X / 01 / $ - see front matter
2 www.elsevier.com / locate / solener

15 NON-IMAGING, FOCUSING HELIOSTAT

16 Y. T. CHEN*, K. K. CHONG, T. P. BLIGH 1 , L. C. CHEN, JASMY YUNUS, K. S. KANNAN, B.

17 H. LIM, C. S. LIM, M. A. ALIAS, NORIAH BIDIN, OMAR ALIMAN, SAHAR SALEHAN,
18 SHK. ABD. REZAN S.A.H., C. M. TAM and K. K. TAN
19 Faculty of Electrical Engineering, University of Technology Malaysia, 81310 Skudai, Johor, Malaysia

20 Communicated by LORIN L. VANT-HULL

21 Abstract—A non-imaging focusing heliostat for effective use of thermal solar energy is proposed. The
22 heliostat consists of a number of grouped slave mirrors, which are able to move according to a proposed
23 formula to eliminate the first order aberration. The master mirror tracks the sun by a proposed rotation-
24 elevation mode to project solar rays together with the rest of slave mirrors into a fixed target. The merit of this
25 design is that it may benefit the use of solar energy in high temperature applications by allowing a single stage
26 collector to replace a conventional double stage structure; it may also benefit high concentration applications,
27 e.g., solar powered Stirling engines, solar pumped lasers, etc. The feasibility and a reliability test of the
28 proposed method by a prototype heliostat in the University of Technology, Malaysia is reported.  2001
29 Published by Elsevier Science Ltd.

30 1. INTRODUCTION the heat part of a Stirling engine. Only the solar 53

furnace, employing two-stage reflection through 54
31 Two types of solar collectors are used in thermal
plane heliostats directing parallel beams into a 55
32 energy applications: moving target type and fixed
huge parabolic mirror, can provide very high 56
33 target type. The popular devices for moving target
concentration (greater than 5000) and power to 57
34 type include parabolic dish, parabolic trough,
focus the solar rays at small area. However, a 58
35 spherical bowl (or so-called Fixed Mirror Distrib-
two-stage solar furnace typically involves high 59
36 uted Focus) etc. (Stine and Harrigan, 1985). The
cost and long engineering time, particularly for 60
37 fixed target type which involves the use of a
the precise optical alignments, hindering the 61
38 heliostat includes the central power tower (Stine
popular use of the solar furnace. 62
39 and Harrigan, 1985; Winter et al., 1991a), the
This paper proposes a new design to achieve 63
40 solar furnace (Riskiev and Suleimanov, 1991;
high concentration and power while keeping the 64
41 Lewandowki et al., 1991) etc. The moving target
fabrication cost relatively low. Our modification 65
42 devices are usually used for smaller scale and
from the conventional heliostat comprises two 66
43 lower power applications comparing to that of
steps: firstly, we designed the slave mirrors, such 67
44 fixed target solar collectors. In the case of the
that they are able to be controlled to realize a 68
45 central power tower, if the heliostat consists of a
variable focusing; secondly, we changed the usual 69
46 plane reflective surface, inevitably, the images at
azimuth-elevation tracking mode (Alpert et al., 70
47 the target have relatively large dimensions, limit-
1991; Murphy, 1986) replacing it with an 71
48 ing the achievable concentration. Even if concave
rotation-elevation mode. 72
49 mirrors are used, the large aperture is only
These modifications have to take place concur- 73
50 moderately reduced (Baranov, 1980), and cannot
rently (Chen and Bligh, 1997). It would be a 74
51 be directly used to apply to the small receiving
trivial idea to realize sunlight focusing by man- 75
52 area of some thermo-mechanical convectors, e.g.,
ipulating each slave element mirror if the tradi- 76
tional sun tracking method is employed. This will 77
be very costly. For example, if there are M rows 78
and N columns of element mirrors on the helios- 79

†
tat, because each mirror will require two degrees 80
3 * Author to whom correspondence should be addressed. Tel.:
of freedom, 2 3 (M 3 N) controlling devices have 81
4 160-7-550-5162; fax: 160-7-556-6272; e-mail:
5 ytchen@suria.fke.utm.my to be used. That is hardly practical. Therefore, a 82
6 1
Visiting professor from the Department of Engineering, different tracking method has to be explored to 83
7 University of Cambridge. make the construction of the heliostat with many 84

1
148 2 Y. T. Chen et al.

92 element mirrors cost effective while maintaining a 2. THE PRINCIPLE OF NON-IMAGING 121
93 precise sun tracking. In our new design, the frame FOCUSING HELIOSTAT 122
94 of the heliostat, instead of moving the facet along
In our design of the non-imaging focusing 123
95 the azimuth direction, moves the facet along the
heliostat, mirrors are arranged in rows and col- 124
96 rotation direction and then along elevation. The
umns. The central column is maintained in the 125
97 rotation-elevation mode of tracking is not so
optical plane by rotating the frame. The master 126
98 popular in heliostat control, therefore no detailed
mirror is fixed at the centre with slave mirrors 127
99 analysis has been published hitherto. However, it
surrounding it, they share the same frame but the 128
100 has been mentioned by some authors in a previous
slave mirrors have two extra degrees of freedoms 129
101 publication (Schubnell and Ries, 1990; Zaibel et
to move about their pivot points. To focus all the 130
102 al., 1995). Consequently, it has the advantage that
mirror images into one fixed target, each slave 131
103 the elevation axis is maintained perpendicular to
mirror is angularly moved about its pivot point to 132
104 the plane containing the mirror normal, the sun
reflect sunrays onto the same target as the master 133
105 and the target, i.e., in the plane of reflection. In
mirror. The result at the target is the total 134
106 our design, by introducing a new rotation axis to
combination of individual mirror images. As the 135
107 the heliostat frame, the slave mirrors of the same
sunlight is not coherent, the result is the algebra 136
108 column or the same row can be arranged to share
sum of the energy of the beams without a specific 137
109 the same driving device. Thus, the number of
optical image. 138
110 controlling components can be significantly re-
111 duced to M 1 N. Furthermore, as we will explain,
112 in contrast with the alignment procedure of the 2.1. Primary tracking 139
113 conventional two-stage solar reflector system, The purpose of primary tracking is to target the 140
114 which is rather complicated and costly, in our solar image of the master mirror into a stationary 141
115 design the alignment procedure can be simplified, receiver. Then, this image acts as a reference for 142
116 thus, the engineering time can be greatly shor- secondary tracking where all the slave mirror 143
117 tened. images will be projected on it. In Fig. 1(a), we 144
118 The working principle of the heliostat will be define ON
1 as the vector normal to the reflector 145
119 described in two parts: primary tracking of helios- surface; OS
1 as the vector that points to the sun; 146
120 tat and secondary tracking of slave mirrors. OT
1 as the vector that points to a fixed target. Fig. 147

86

87 Fig. 1. Rotation modes of non-imaging focusing heliostat. (a) 1

ON is defined as the normal vector of the heliostat surface; OS1 is
88 the vector that points to the sun; OT
1 is the vector that points to a fixed target. (b) The rotation of the plane of reflection, that
89 plane which contains the three vectors (OS,
1 ON 1 and OT1 ), during primary tracking. In the new reflection plane, the vector OS 1
90 points to the new position of the sun and the vector ON9
1 is the reflector normal of the new orientation so that the sunlight is still
91 reflected towards the target.
207 Non-Imaging, Focusing Heliostat 3

154 1(b) shows the rotation of the plane of reflection, tems: one attached to the centre of the earth and 182
155 that plane which contains the three vectors (OS,
1 the other attached to the local heliostat. 183
156 ON
1 and OT 1 ), during primary tracking. In Fig. In Fig. 3(a), by defining a coordinate system 184
157 1(b), the vector OS9
1 points to the new position of with the origin, C, set at the centre of the earth, 185
158 the sun and the vector ON9
1 is the reflector normal the CM axis is a line from the origin to the 186
159 of the new orientation so that the sunlight is still intersection point between the equator and the 187
160 reflected towards the target. The tracking move- meridian of the observer at Q. The CE (east) axis 188
161 ment can be studied by two independent com- in the equatorial plane is perpendicular to CM 189
162 ponents (Fig. 2): axis. The third orthogonal axis, CP is the rotation 190
axis of the earth. Vector CS
1 pointing to the sun 191
163 2.1.1. Rotation movement. The heliostat has to
can be described in terms of its direction cosines, 192
164 rotate about the TT 9 axis so that the plane of
Sm , Se and Sp to the CM, CE, and CP axes 193
165 reflection can follow the rotation of the vector OS.
1 respectively. Given the direction cosines of CS
1 in 194
166 Therefore, as the sun moves through the sky from
167 the morning to solar noon, the plane will rotate terms of declination angle (d ) and hour angle (v ), 195

168 starting from horizontal and turning to vertical. we have a set of coordinates in matrix form 196

169 The angular movement about this rotation axis is Sm Cos d Cos v
170

171
denoted as r.
2.1.2. Elevation movement. The rotation of the 343
S 5 e 5 2 Cos d Sin v
S
Sp Sin d 4 (1) 197

172 heliostat about the FF9 axis (perpendicular to the

173 plane) will adjust the reflector normal position Fig. 3(b) illustrates another coordinate system, 198
174 within the plane until it bisects the angle between which is attached to the local heliostat. The local 199
175 OS
1 and OT. 1 As a result, the sunlight will be heliostat reference frame is referred to only when 200
176 reflected onto the target. This angular movement the heliostat frame is oriented in such a way that 201
177 depends on the incidence angle of the sun relative the normal of the master mirror becomes parallel 202
178 to the heliostat surface normal and it is denoted as with the rotation axis. The origin of the coordinate 203
179 u. system is defined at the centre of the master 204
180 The formulas for r and u can be derived by mirror and is denoted as O. The OR axis is 205
181 transformation of two different coordinate sys- parallel with the array of mirrors arranged in the 206

150

151 Fig. 2. Diagram to show the mounting of non-imaging focusing heliostat. The heliostat has two tracking axes that are
152 perpendicular to each other, as does the conventional mount. First rotational axis is pointing toward the target and it is indicated
153 by TT 9 axis. The second axis, elevation axis is attached parallel to the reflector and it is shown as FF9 axis.
 SE989

258 4 Y. T. Chen et al.

209

210 Fig. 3. (a) Coordinate system attached to earth reference frame. The vector 1 CS that points towards the sun can be described in
211 terms of hour angle v and the declination angle d. The observer Q is located at the latitude F. By defining a coordinate system
212 with the origin, C, set at the centre of the earth, the CM axis is a line from the origin to the intersection point between the equator
213 and the meridian of the observer at Q. The CE (east) axis in the equatorial plane is perpendicular to CM axis. The third
214 orthogonal axis, CP is the rotation axis of the earth. (b) Coordinate system attached to the local heliostat reference frame. The
215 vector 1OS is in the function of the angle b and the angle r. The relationship between the incidence angle u and the angle b is
216 p / 2 5 2u 1 b. The local heliostat reference frame is referred to only when the heliostat frame is oriented in such a way that the
217 normal of master mirror becomes parallel with the rotation axis. The origin of the coordinate system is defined at the centre of the
218 master mirror and is denoted as O. The OR axis is parallel with the array of mirrors arranged in the vertical direction of the
219 heliostat frame. The second axis, OU axis is parallel with the array of mirrors arranged in the horizontal direction. The third
220 orthogonal axis, OT axis is a line pointing out from the origin towards the target direction.

221 vertical direction of the heliostat frame. The its projection on the plane that contains the OR 240
222 second axis, OU is parallel with the array of and OU axes. From the law of reflection, Figs. 1 241
223 mirrors arranged in the horizontal direction. The and 3 show that u is obviously: 242
224 third orthogonal axis, OT is a line pointing out
225 from the origin towards the target. Similar to the
1 p
u 5] ]2b
2 2
S D (3) 243
226 case of 1
CS, vector OS
1 pointing to the sun can be
227 described in terms of its direction cosines, Hr , Hu The new set of coordinates, H, can be interrelated 244
228 and Ht to the OR, OU, and OT axes respectively. to the earth frame based coordinates, S, by three 245
229 In daily sun tracking, the elevation axis (FF9) is successive rotation transformations. 246
230 rotated about the OT axis from the morning to the The first transformation is effected by a rotation 247
231 evening, but the OR and OU axes remain static all about the CE axis through the latitude angle F 248
232 the time. The angle between the OU axis and the (see Fig. 3(a)). In matrix notation, it takes the 249
233 FF9 axis is r and these two axes coincides with form 250
234 each other at solar noon.
235
236
237
Given the direction cosines of OS1 in terms of
the angles b and r, we have a set of coordinates
in matrix form
F5 0 F
Cos F 0 Sin F
1 0
2 Sin F 0 Cos F
G (4) 251

In the non-imaging focusing heliostat, the rotation 252

Hf Cos b Cos r axis (TT 9 axis) has to be aligned pointing towards 253
238 H
343
H 5 r 5 2 Cos b Sin r
Ht Sin b
4 (2) the target and the elevation axis (FF9 axis) is
perpendicular to the first axis and attached parallel
254
255
to the reflector. If more than one heliostat share a 256
239 where b is the angle between the vector OS
1 and common target, each heliostat has its own orienta- 257
344 Non-Imaging, Focusing Heliostat 5

259 tion of the rotation axis relative to the earth r 5 ArcSin 297
surface. Taking into account of the orientation
260
261 angles of the rotation axis, which are facing angle H 2 Cos d Cos v Sin f Sin F 1 Cos d Sin v Cos f 1 Sin d Sin f Cos F
]]]]]]]]]]]]
Cos b
298

262 f and target angle l, it is necessary to have two (10) 299

263 transformations. The facing angle, f, is the
264 rotation angle about the Zenith made by the Substituting the Eq. (9) into Eq. (3), we have 300
265 rotation axis (OT) when it rotates from the p 1
266 direction pointing towards north to the direction u 5 ] 2 ] ArcSin 301
4 2
pointing towards a fixed target (assuming that the
267
268 fixed target and central point of master mirror are H 2Cos d Cos v (Sin l Cos F 1Cos l Cos f Sin F )2Cos d Sin v Cos l Sin f
1Sin d (Cos l Cos f Cos F 2 Sin F Sin l) J 302

269 at the same horizontal level). Hence, f 5 08 if the (11) 303

270 heliostat is placed due south of the target; f 5 908
271 if the heliostat is located due west of the target. Eqs. (10) and (11) represent a rotation-eleva- 304
272 The transformation matrix for the angle f about tion tracking mode. We used this mode to perform 305
273 the Zenith is sun tracking by using a prototype and it has been 306

1 0 0 proven successfully. However, with the move- 307

274
3
f 5 0 Cos f 2 Sin f
0 Sin f Cos f
4 (5)
ment of the central master mirror, the images of
the slave mirrors will be inevitably aberrant. To
achieve a high concentration, the slave mirrors
308
309
310
275 In general, the central point of the master mirror need to be adjusted accordingly to overcome this 311
276 is not at the same horizontal level with the aberration. This adjustment is rather minor, par- 312
277 focusing target. Therefore, a rotation transforma- ticularly if the target is far away from the 313
278 tion through the angle l about OU axis is heliostat. The principle of this secondary order 314
279 required. l 5 08 means that the central point of tracking is illustrated in the following section. 315
280 the master mirror is at the same horizontal level
2.2. Secondary tracking 316
281 as the target; l 5 108 means that the OT axis is at
282 the position 108 clockwise from the horizontal The new tracking mode encourages the ar- 317
283 line i.e., the target is below the heliostat. The rangement of the slave mirrors to be grouped into 318
284 transformation matrix is then rows and columns, as under this mode the mirrors 319
in the same row or column will have the same 320

285
Cos l
l5 0 F 0 Sin l
1 0
2 Sin l 0 Cos l
G (6)
movement. Fig. 4 shows the side view of a 25-
mirror heliostat with P representing the heliostat
frame and the central row (row 3) contains master
321
322
323
286 Finally, H is the product of l, f, F and Sas mirror. The elevation axis FF9 lies outside the 324
287 follows: page and the rotation axis, OT points towards the 325
target. Slave mirrors of row 1, 2, 4 and 5 are 326
288 H 5 lfF S (7) attached to the heliostat frame in such a way that 327
they can turn about their own pivot point P1 , P2 , 328
Cos b Cos r Cos l 0 Sin l P4 and P5 respectively. To superpose four rows of
3 43 4
329
289 2 Cos b Sin r 5 0 1 0 solar images onto the central image, each row of 330
Sin b 2 Sin l 0 Cos l slave mirrors has to be rotated through an angle, 331
1 0 0 Cos F 0 Sin F s, 332
290
3
3 0 Cos f 2 Sin f
0 Sin f Cos f
43 0 1 0
2 Sin F 0 Cos F
4 1
2
H Cos u
s 5 ] ArcTan ]]]] S
H Sin u 1 L
D (12) 333

291 F
Cos d Cos v
3 2 Cos d Sin v
Sin d
G (8)
where L is the distance between the central point
of the master mirror at O and the target point at T
(refer to Fig. 4); H (positive for rows above the
334
335
336
292 From the solutions of the matrix, we obtain b master mirror and negative for rows below the 337
293 and r as master mirror) is the distance from the centre of 338
the master row to the centre of the row where the 339
294 b 5 ArcSin
corresponding slave mirror is located. 340
295 H 2Cos d Cos v (Sin l Cos F 1Cos l Cos f Sin F )2Cos d Sin v Cos l Sin f
1Sin d (Cos l Cos f Cos F 2 Sin F Sin l) J Similarly, to overlap four columns of slave
images onto the central master image, each col-
341
342
296 (9) umn has to be moved through an angle, 343
404 6 Y. T. Chen et al.

346

347 Fig. 4. The side view of a 25-mirror heliostat with P representing the heliostat frame. The central row (row 3) contains master
348 mirror. Slave mirrors of row 1, 2, 4 and 5 are attached to the heliostat frame in such a way that they can be turned about their
349 own pivot point P1 , P2 , P4 and P5 respectively.

between heliostat and target is relatively short. 376

350
1
g 5 ] ArcTan ]]]
2
H
S
L Cos u
D (13) The detailed study will be submitted for publi- 377
cation soon. But it is necessary to point out here 378
351 where the definition of L and u remain the same that the residual aberration is reasonably small 379
352 while H is the distance between the centre of the and can be neglected in most applications. In the 380
353 master column and the centre of the column case of our first generation prototype as will be 381
354 where the corresponding slave mirror is located. discussed in next section, for H51 m, if the target 382
355 Figs. 5 and 6 give some examples of the is 20 m away from the heliostat, the residual 383
356 angular movements for L540 m and different aberration on the target is 1.25 cm, if the distance 384
357 values of H as 0.4 m, 0.8 m, 1.2 m and 1.6 m. In is 5 m, it is 5 cm. The larger the ratio of L to H, 385
358 Fig. 5, we can see that the angle s is rather small the smaller the effect will be. This is so because 386
359 with maximum value less than 1.28. For angles of Eqs. (12) and (13) will make more effective 387
360 incidence u less than 808, the angle g is smaller correction to the residual aberration at longer 388
361 than 78 (see Fig. 6). Because the angles s and g distance. Of course, at longer distance, the control 389
362 are small, the angular movements can be approxi- precision and resolution of the correction move- 390
363 mated to linear movement which benefits the ment of the slave mirrors have to be higher. Our 391
364 design of heliostat because low cost driving theoretical study has been well proven by the 392
365 devices can be used. observation using the prototype heliostat. 393
366 In the above, we described a variable focusing In addition to the residual aberration, the 394
367 method to overcome the image aberration. A focusing area of the heliostat is also limited by the 395
368 natural question then is: how much can we image of the solar disc. Because the sun presents 396
369 eliminate the effects. This is important, as any a finite object which has an angular diameter 9.4 397
370 residual aberration left will affect the size of the mrad at the earth, the minimum spot diameter of a 398
371 focused image. We have used a computer program perfectly focused solar image is approximated to 399
372 to conduct a lengthy study of this problem. It has the focal length of the reflector multiplied by 9.4 400
373 shown that although the above method can indeed mrad (Winter et al., 1991b). If a flat circular 401
374 eliminate most of the aberration, some residual mirror reflects solar radiation to a target, the solar 402
375 effects still exist particularly when the distance image at the target will have a diameter of the 403
419 Non-Imaging, Focusing Heliostat 7

406

407 Fig. 5. The angular movement s versus the incidence angle u of the sun for L 5 40 m and different value of H as 0.4 m, 0.8 m,
408 1.2 m, and 1.6 m. In the graph, s is rather small with maximum value less than 1.28.

413 mirror itself plus the diameter of the solar disc reflected to a target 20 m away has a size of 59 416
414 image (the cosine effect is ignored). For instance, cm diameter. However the size of the image can 417
415 the image of a flat mirror with diameter 40 cm be made smaller when the mirror is concave. The 418

410

411 Fig. 6. The angular movement g versus the incidence angle of the sun for L 5 40 m and different value of H as 0.4 m, 0.8 m, 1.2
412 m, and 1.6 m. For u less than 808, g is smaller than 78.
485 8 Y. T. Chen et al.

425 minimum spot size of the concave mirror is achieve sun tracking. Eight additional small 454
426 essentially limited by two main factors: astigmat- motors drive four columns and four rows where 455
427 ism and the image of the solar disc. For each the slave mirrors are attached. The target is set 456
428 perfectly focused slave mirror image, the mini- due north of the heliostat. The distance between 457
429 mum spot size of the solar disc image increases the target and heliostat is variable. 458
430 with the target distance. Due to this fact, it is easy A Pentium based PC is used to control both the 459
431 to understand that there will be a discriminating primary tracking and secondary tracking accord- 460
432 target distance where the spot size of the solar ing to solar time, local latitude and the orientation 461
433 disc image starts to surpass the mirror size. In the angles of the heliostat’s rotation axis relative to 462
434 case of our heliostat, it is convenient to use square the earth surface. The secondary tracking is purely 463
435 mirrors. For the use of 40 cm340 cm element open loop. The primary tracking is structurally 464
436 mirrors, the discriminating distance at which the closed-loop where two optical encoders are used 465
437 concentration equals to the number of mirrors is to provide an absolute reference and precise 466
438 42 m. The limiting factors for the achievable counting to prevent loosing steps due to environ- 467
439 concentration will be discussed in detail in our mental effects, e.g. wind. In this context, two 468
440 next paper. optical encoders with a precision of 5000 counts / 469
rev are attached on the shafts of the rotation and 470
elevation axes to count the actual movement. Fig. 471
441 3. PROTOTYPE OF NON-IMAGING FOCUSING
7 shows a prototype heliostat that has successfully 472
442 HELIOSTAT IN UTM
focused 25 images into one fixed target and 473
443 To test the feasibility of the new architecture, a maintained it throughout the day. The prototype 474
444 prototype non-imaging focusing heliostat with 25 has been used for the testing run of a Stirling 475
445 mirrors has been constructed in the campus of engine and solar pumped laser. The details of the 476
446 University of Technology Malaysia (UTM). Mir- work will be reported later. The heliostat has 477
447 rors made of glass with dimension of 40 cm340 undergone more than 400 solar days’ test since it 478
448 cm each are arranged into five rows and five was installed in 1997. 479
449 columns to form a total reflective area of 4 m 2 . Unlike a two-stage solar furnace, optical align- 480
450 The entire body consists of one master mirror and ment will not be complicated and time consum- 481
451 24 slave mirrors. The heliostat frame can be ing. However, in order to achieve good precision, 482
452 rotated around elevation and rotation axes via two a certain method of alignment has to be employed 483
453 main stepper motors and associated gears to as briefly described in the following. 484

421

422 Fig. 7. The prototype of non-imaging heliostat that has successfully focused 25 images into one fixed target and maintained it
423 throughout the day. In UTM, the heliostat has undergone more than 400 solar days’ test since it was installed in 1997. (right –
424 front view, left – side view).
576 Non-Imaging, Focusing Heliostat 9

493 In our new scheme of design, the precision of alignment was conducted in the field by opening 523
494 the optical alignment of the rotation axis with the each slave mirror, one by one, and adjusting the 524
495 target is important. This is particularly so when offset screws to superpose its image with that of 525
496 more than one heliostat is used for a common master mirror. The process would not take a very 526
497 target. All the rotation shafts must be well in line long time. The alignment takes 2–3 min for each 527
498 with the target. In our prototype, although a single mirror only. 528
499 heliostat is used, for the purpose of testing, an For each row and column, offset screws are 529
500 alignment structure was constructed. The structure also available to reduce the residual aberration. 530
501 is illustrated schematically in Fig. 8 where a laser This adjustment will take some time. A video 531
502 tube or a telescope can be employed along the camera is used to capture the image and to store it 532
503 central axis of the shaft, which is mounted on a in the computer with time recorded. The offset 533
504 platform capable of two-degree-of-freedom ad- adjustment is then made using the offset screws 534
505 justment. The laser or telescope is used to opti- according to these daily image recordings. This 535
506 cally align the target by maneuvering the plat- process will continue for a few days to achieve 536
507 form. After the alignment is completed, locking the minimum residual aberration (Chai, 1998). 537
508 bolts are used to tighten the adjustable parts. The pointing stability has been observed for a 538
509 Practical experience has proven that with this long time using the video camera and computer 539
510 simple structure, not only the alignment can be set up. Although the backlash of the mechanical 540
511 done easily but also the aforementioned platform parts and effect of wind and rain have been 541
512 can be loaded with a heliostat of a few hundred compensated by the structurally closed-loop con- 542
513 kilogrammes without losing rigidity. trol using optical encoders, residual image move- 543
514 The next optical alignment procedure is to align ments still exist due to the imperfection of 544
515 the slave mirrors. This procedure has two steps: mechanical design and the error of the parameters, 545
516 overlapping the slave images with that of master i.e., the orientation of the heliostat rotation axis, 546
517 mirror and reducing the residual aberration by the distance from the heliostat to the target, the 547
518 fine-tuning. latitude of the location, etc. For the past years, 548
519 Each slave mirror is equipped with offset great efforts have been made in improving the 549
520 screws for the convenience of optical alignment. precision. A special simulation program has been 550
521 When the heliostat was initially installed, all the used to analyse the image movement and related 551
522 slave mirrors were paper blocked. The optical factors to aid the precision improvement. From 552
our observation of the tracking error in the 553
previous prototype, the position of the image 554
central point was at 0.7 cm above the required 555
position at 11:00 am; it shifted 0.5 cm vertically 556
downward and stayed there at 11:15 am; and 557
finally it was located at 0.3 cm below the required 558
position from 1:51 pm to 4:30 pm. The measured 559
uncertainty of the pointing precision is about 1 560
cm, which is well within the range of tolerance 561
for most applications. 562

4. DISCUSSION OF COST-EFFECTIVENESS 563

In the above, we have presented the principle of 564

a new proposal for a solar collector and a 565
prototype, which are different from currently used 566
methods. One major problem obviously raised: 567
whether this scheme is cost-effective comparing 568
with current approaches. Of course it would not 569

487 be fair to use the present prototype to make the 570

calculation. The cost-effectiveness will be jus- 571
488 Fig. 8. Mechanical Design for the Optical Alignment of the tified by more considerations as discussed in the 572
489 Rotational Axis with the Target Plane. A laser tube or a
490 telescope can be employed along the central axis of the shaft, following. 573
491 which is mounted on a platform capable of two-degrees-of- First, we shall consider the application aspect. 574
492 freedom for optically alignment to the target. Although our present prototype is at a small scale 575
677 10 Y. T. Chen et al.

577 because we need to prove the principle and to In our second generation prototype, an acrylic 624
578 accumulate enough experience, the proposal was mirror was adopted. For a 16 m 2 collection area, 625
579 made aiming to a large scale or medium scale the total heliostat weights also 400 kg. In order to 626
580 solar plant within the discriminating distance further reduce the weight, we are studying the 627
581 discussed in the above. For example, in principle, possibility of fabricating small membrane mirrors 628
582 using the above-described principle and tech- using materials like aluminum coil and other thin 629
583 niques, there is no problem to build a high films such as Mylar etc. For that purpose, two of 630
584 temperature solar furnace of a few hundreds kW us (Y.T. Chen and B.H. Lim) are studying a new 631
585 or higher. We believe a single stage solar furnace method to measure the reflectivity of mirrors at 632
586 is obviously cheaper than a two-stage one. As a 10 23 –10 24 level (relative measurement). This 633
587 matter of fact, a 150 kW solar furnace is under new method may provide a tool to study the life 634
588 construction using the present single stage scheme of alternative reflectors within a shorter time span. 635
589 in UTM campus. It consists of 12 non-imaging
590 focusing heliostats with a power tower at the
Acknowledgements—We acknowledge with thanks the support 636
591 centre. for this work by IRPA Grant. K.K. Chong, B.H. Lim, K.K. 637
592 We made an experiment to apply our prototype Tan and Omar Aliman wish to express their special thanks to 638
593 to supply power for a low power Stirling engine NSF Fellowship for the financial backing. Sheikh Abdul 639
Rezan, C.M. Tam and C.S. Lim are grateful for the support of 640
594 that may be just a match to the cost of a parabolic Intel and UTM-PTP Fellowships. 641
595 dish. However, the fixed target character of our
596 present approach will allow a much higher power
597 and heavier engine to be used because the engine REFERENCES 642
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