EC1013

WIRELESS NETWORKS

3 0 0 100

UNIT I PHYSICAL AND WIRELESS MAC LAYER ALTERNATIVES 9 Wired transmission techniques: design of wireless modems, power efficiency, out of band radiation, applied wireless transmission techniques, short distance base band transmission, VWB pulse transmission, broad Modems for higher speeds, diversity and smart receiving techniques, random access for data oriented networks, integration of voice and data traffic. UNIT II WIRELESS NETWORK PLANNING AND OPERATION 9 Wireless networks topologies, cellular topology, cell fundamentals signal to interference ratio calculation, capacity e pansion techniques, cell splitting, use of directional antennas for cell sectoring, micro cell method, overload cells, channels allocation techniques and capacity e pansion !"#, channel borrowing techniques, $"#, mobility management, radio resources and power management securities in wireless networks. UNIT III WIRELESS WAN 9 Mechanism to support a mobile environment, communication in the infrastructure, %&'() "$M# forward channel, %& * () "$M# reverse channel, pallert and frame formats in %& * (), %M+ * ,---. forward channel in W'"$M# and "$M# ,---, reverse channels in W'"$M# and "$M#',---, /01& and higher data rates, short messaging service in /01& mobile application protocols. UNIT IV WIRELESS LAN 9 2istorical overviews of the 3#4 industry, evolution of the W3#4 industry, wireless home networking, %555 6-,.77. +he 028 3ayer, M#" 3ayer, wireless #+M, 28051 3#4, 28051 3#4 * ,. UNIT V WPAN AND GEOLOCATION SYSTEMS 9 %555 6-,.7) W0#4, 2ome 1!, Bluetooth, interface between Bluetooth and 6-,.77, wireless geolocation technologies for wireless geolocation, geolocation standards for 5.(77 service.

Wireless Networks UNIT I An Overview of Wireless Systems

Introduction :
The cellular system employs a different design approach than most commercial radio and television systems use [1,2]. Radio and television systems typically operate at maximum power and with the tallest antennas allowed by the regulatory agency of the country. n the cellular system, the service area is

divided into cells. ! transmitter is designed to serve an individual cell. The system see"s to ma"e effi cient use of available channels by using low#power transmitters to allow fre$uency reuse at much smaller distances. %aximi&ing the number of times each channel can be reused in a given geographic area is the "ey to an effi cient cellular system design. 'uring the past three decades, the world has seen signifi cant changes in the telecommunications industry. There have been some remar"able aspects to the rapid growth in wireless communications, as seen by the large expansion in mobile systems. (ireless systems consist of wireless wide#area networ"s )((!*+ [i.e., cellular systems], wireless local area networ"s )(,!*+ [-], and wireless personal area networ"s )(.!*+ )see /igure 1.1+ [10]. The handsets used in all of these systems possess complex functionality, yet they have become small, lowpower consuming devices that are mass produced at a low cost, which has in turn accelerated their widespread use. The recent advancements in nternet technology have increased networ" traffi c considerably, resulting in a rapid growth of data rates. This phenomenon has also had an impact on mobile systems, resulting in the extraordinary growth of the mobile nternet. (ireless data offerings are now evolving to suit consumers due to the simple reason that the nternet has become an everyday tool and users demand data mobility. 1urrently, wireless data represents about 12 to 234 of all air time. (hile success has been concentrated in vertical mar"ets such as public safety, health care, and transportation, the hori&ontal mar"et )i.e., consumers+ for wireless data is growing. n 2332, more than 23 million people were using wireless e#mail. The nternet has changed user expectations of what data access means. The ability to retrieve information via the nternet has been 5an amplifi er of demand6 for wireless data applications. %ore than three#fourths of nternet users are also wireless users and a mobile subscriber is four times more li"ely to use the nternet than a nonsubscriber to mobile services. 7uch "een interest in both industries is prompting user demand for converged services. (ith more than a billion nternet users expected by 2338, the potential mar"et for nternet# related wireless data services is $uite large. n this chapter, we discuss briefl y 19, 29, 2.29, and :9 cellular systems and outline the ongoing standard activities in ;urope, *orth !merica, and <apan. (e also introduce broadband )-9+ systems )see /igure 1.2+ aimed on integrating ((!*, (,!*, and (.!*. 'etails of ((!*, (,!*, and (.!* are given in 1hapters 12 to 23.

First- and Second- eneration !ellular Systems

The fi rst# and second#generation cellular systems are the ((!*. The fi rst public cellular telephone system )fi rst#generation, 19+, called !dvanced %obile .hone 7ystem )!%.7+ [8,21], was introduced in 1=0= in the >nited 7tates. 'uring the early 1=83s, several incompatible cellular systems )T!17, *%T, 1-23, etc.+ were introduced in (estern ;urope. The deployment of these incompatible systems resulted in mobile phones being designed for one system that could not be used with another system, and roaming between the many countries of ;urope was not possible. The fi rst#generation systems were designed for voice applications. !nalog fre$uency modulation )/%+ technology was used for radio transmission.

The 97% )renamed 9lobal 7ystem for %obile communications+ initiative gave the ;uropean mobile communications industry a home mar"et of about :33 million subscribers, but at the same time provided it with a signifi cant technical challenge. The early years of the 97% were devoted mainly to the selection of radio technologies for the air interface. n 1=8?, fi eld trials of different candidate systems proposed for the 97% air interface were conducted in .aris. ! set of criteria ran"ed in the order of importance was established to assess these candidates Two digital technologies, Time 'ivision %ultiple !ccess )T'%!+ and 1ode 'ivision %ultiple !ccess )1'%!+ )see 1hapter ? for details+ [13] emerged as clear choices for the newer .17 systems. T'%! is a narrowband technology in which communication channels on a carrier fre$uency are apportioned by time slots. /or T'%! technology, there are three prevalent 29 systems@ *orth !merica T !A ; !A 7#1:?, <apanese .ersonal 'igital 1ellular ).'1+, and ;uropean Telecommunications 7tandards nstitute );T7 + 'igital 1ellular 7ystem 1833 )97% 1833+, a derivative of 97%. !nother 29 system based on 1'%! )T !A; !A 7#=2+ is a direct se$uence )'7+ spread spectrum )77+ system in which the entire bandwidth of the carrier channel is made available to each user simultaneously )see 1hapter 11 for details+. The bandwidth is many times larger than the bandwidth re$uired to transmit the basic information. 1'%! systems are limited by interference produced by the signals of other users transmitting within the same bandwidth 97% is moving forward to develop cutting#edge, customer# focused solutions to meet the challenges of the 21st century and :9 mobile services. (hen 97% was fi rst designed, no one could have predicted the dramatic growth of the nternet and the rising demand for multimedia services. These developments have brought about new challenges to the world of 97%.

/or 97% operators, the emphasis is now rapidly changing from that of instigating and driving the development of technology to fundamentally enable mobile data transmission to that of improving speed, $uality, simplicity, coverage, and reliability in terms of tools and services that will boost mass mar"et ta"e#up.

Traffic Usa"e:
! traffi c path is a communication channel, time slot, fre$uency band, line, trun", switch, or circuit over which individual communications ta"e place in se$uence. Traffi c usage is defi ned by two parameters, calling rate and call holding. !allin" rate, or the number of times a route or traffi c path is used per unit timeB more properly defi ned, the call intensity )i.e., calls per hour+ per traffic c path during busy hour. !all #oldin" time: or the average duration of occupancy of a traffi c path by a call. The carried traffi c is the volume of traffi c actually carried by a switch, and offered traffi c is the volume of traffi c offered to a switch. The offered load is the sum of the carried load and overfl ow )traffi c that cannot be handled by the switch+.

/igure shows a typical hour#by#hour voice traffi c variation for an %71. (e notice that the busiest period C the busy hour )DE+ is between 13 !.%. and 11 !.%. (e define the busy hour as the span of time )not necessarily a cloc" hour+ that has the highest average traffic load for the business day throughout the busy season. The pea" hour is defined as the cloc" hour with highest traffic load for a single day. 7ince traffi c also varies from month to month, we define the average busy season )!D7+ as the three months )not necessarily consecutive+ with the highest average DE traffic load per access line. Telephone systems are not engineered for maximum pea" loads, but for some typical DE load. The bloc"ing probability is defined as the average ratio of bloc"ed calls to total calls and is referred to as the GoS.

$iversity
n 1hapter :, we pointed out that a radio channel is subFected to fading, time dispersion, and other degradations. 'iversity techni$ues are employed to overcome these impairments and improve signal $uality [?,1:,12,23]. The basic concept of diversity is that the receiver has more than one version of the transmitted signal available, and each version of transmitted signal is received through a distinct channel. (hen several versions of the signal, carrying the same information, are received over multiple channels that exhibit independent fading with comparable strengths, the chances that all the independently faded signal components experience the same fading simultaneously are greatly reduced. 7uppose the probability of having a loss of communications due to fading on one channel is p and this probability is independent on all M channels. The probability of losing communications on all channels simultaneously is then pM. Thus, a 134 chance of losing the signal for one channel is reduced to 3.1 : G 3.331 G 3.14 with three independently fading channels [2,10]. Typically, the diversity receiver is used in the base station instead of the mobile station, because the cost of the diversity combiner can be high, especially if multiple receivers are necessary. !lso, the power output of the mobile station is limited by the battery. Eandset transmitters usually lower power than mobilemounted transmitters to preserve battery life and reduce radiation into the human body. The base station, however, can increase its power output or antenna height to improve the coverage to a mobile station.

;ach of the channels, plus the corresponding receiver circuit, is called a branch and the outputs of the channels are processed and routed to the demodulator by a diversity combiner )see /igure 13.2+. Two criteria are re$uired to achieve a high degree of improvement from a diversity system. /irst, the fading in individual branches should have low cross correlation. 7econd, the mean power available from each branch should be almost e$ual. f the cross#correlation is too high, then fades in each branch will occur simultaneously. Hn the other hand, if the branches have low correlation but have very different mean powers, then the signal in a wea"er branch may not be useful even though it has less fades than the other branches.

Ty%es of $iversity
The following methods are used to obtain uncorrelated signals for combining@ 1. S%ace diversity: Two antennas separated physically by a short distance d can provide two signals with low correlation between their fades. The separation d in general varies with antenna height h and with fre$uency. The higher the fre$uency, the closer the two antennas can be to each other. Typically, a separation of a few wavelengths is enough to obtain uncorrelated signals. Ta"ing into account the shadowing effect )see 1hapter :+, usually a separation of at least 13 carrier wavelengths is re$uired between two adFacent antennas. This diversity does not re$uire extra system capacityB however, the cost is the extra antennas needed. &' Fre(uency diversity: 7ignals received on two fre$uencies, separated by coherence bandwidth )see 1hapter :+ are uncorrelated. To use fre$uency diversity in an urban or suburban environment for cellular and personal communications services ).17+ fre$uencies, the fre$uency separation must be :33 "E& or more. This diversity improves lin" transmission $uality at the cost of extra fre$uency bandwidths. )' Time diversity: f the identical signals are transmitted in different time slots, the received signals will be uncorrelated, provided the time difference between time slots is more than the channel coherence time )see 1hapter :+. This system will wor" for an environment where the fading occurs independent of the movement of the receiver. n a mobile radio environment, the mobile unit may be at a standstill at any location that has a wea" local mean or is caught in a fade. !lthough fading still occurs even when the mobile is still, the time#delayed signals are correlated and time diversity will not reduce the fades. n addition to extra system capacity )in terms of transmission time+ due to the redundant transmission, this diversity introduces a signifi cant signal processing delay, especially when the channel coherence time is large. n practice, time diversity is more fre$uently used through bit interleaving, forward#error#correction, and automatic retransmission re$uest )!RI+. *' +olari,ation diversity: The hori&ontal and vertical polari&ation components transmitted by two polari&ed antennas at the base station and received by two polari&ed antennas at the mobile station can provide two uncorrelated fading signals. .olari&ation diversity results in : dD power reduction at the transmitting site since the power must be split into two different polari&ed antennas. -' An"le diversity: (hen the operating fre$uency is G13 9E&, the scattering of signals from transmitter to receiver generates received signals from different directions that are uncorrelated with each other. Thus, two or more directional antennas can be pointed in different directions at the receiving site and provide signals for a combiner. This scheme is more effective at the mobile station than at the base station since the scattering is from local buildings and vegetation and is more pronounced at street level than at the height of base station antennas. !ngle diversity can be viewed as a special case of space diversity since it also re$uires multiple antennas. .' +at# diversity: n code division multiple access )1'%!+ systems, the use of direct se$uence spread spectrum modulation allows the desired signal to be transmitted over a fre$uency bandwidth much larger than the channel coherence bandwidth. The spread spectrum signal can resolve in multipath signal components provided the path delays are separated by at least one chip period.

! Ra"e receiver can separate the received signal components from different propagation paths by using code correlation and can then combine them constructively. n 1'%!, exploiting the path diversity reduces the transmitted power needed and increases the system capacity by reducing interference

/adio +ro%a"ation and +ro%a"ation +at#-0oss 1odels

;xponential growth of mobile communications has increased interest in many topics in radio propagation. %uch effort is now devoted to refi ne radio propagation path#loss models for urban, suburban, and other environments together with substantiation by fi eld data. Radio propagation in urban areas is $uite complex because it often consists of refl ected and diffracted waves produced by multipath propagation. Radio propagation in open areas free from obstacles is the simplest to treat, but, in general, propagation over the earth and the water invo"es at least one refl ected wave. /or closed areas such as indoors, tunnels, and underground passages, no established models have been developed as yet, since the environment has a complicated structure. Eowever, when the environmental structure is random, the Rayleigh model used for urban area propagation may be applied. (hen the propagation path is on line of sight, as in tunnel and underground passages, the environment may be treated either by the Rician model or waveguide theory. 'irect wave models may be used for propagation in a corridor. n general, radio wave propagation consists of three main attributes@ refl ection, diffraction and scattering )see /igure :.1+ [2]. Refl ection occurs when radio wave propagating in one medium impinges upon another medium with different electromagnetic properties. The amplitude and phase of the refl ected wave are strongly related to the mediumJs instrinsic impedance, incident angle, and electric fi eld polari&ation. .art of the radio wave energy may be absorbed or propagated through the refl ecting medium, resulting in a refl ected wave that is attenuated. Diffraction is a phenomenon by which propagating radio waves bend or deviate in the neighborhood of obstacles. 'iffraction results from the propagation of wavelets into a shadowy region caused by obstructions such as walls, buildings, mountains, and so on. Scattering occurs when a radio signal hits a rough surface or an obFect having a si&e much smaller than or on the order of the signal wavelength.

This causes the 7ignal energy to spread out in all directions. 7cattering can be viewed at the receiver as another radio wave source. Typical scattering obFects are furniture, lamp posts, street signs, and foliage. n this chapter, our focus is to characteri&e the radio channel and identify those parameters which distort the information#carrying signal )i.e., base band signal+ as itpenetrates the propagation medium. The several empirical models used for calculating path#loss are also discussed.

An Overview Transmission

of

$i"ital

!ommunication

and

The basic part of any digital communication system is the communication channel. This is the physical medium that carries information bearing signals from the source of the information to the sink. n a radio system the communication channel is the propagation of radio waves in free space )see /igure -.1+. !s discussed in 1hapter :, radio waves in free space are subFected to fading. n nearly all communication systems some e$uipment is re$uired to convert the information# bearing signal into a suitable form for transmission over the communication channel and then bac" into a form that is comprehensible to the end#user. This e$uipment is the transmitter and receiver. The receiver does not only perform the inverse translation to the transmitter, but it also has to overcome the distortions and disturbances )see 1hapter :+ that occur over the communication channel. Thus, it is often more diffi cult to design the receiver than the transmitter. 7peech coding, forward#error#correcting )/;1+ coding, bit# interleaving, diversity, e$uali&ation, and modulation play important roles in a communication system, particularly in a radio system )see 1hapters 0, 8, and =+. The transmitter for a radio system consists of antenna, R/ section, encoder, and

modulator. !n antenna converts the electrical signal into a radio wave propagating in free space. The RF section of the transmitter generates a signal of suffi cient power at the re$uired fre$uency. t typically consists of a power amplifi er, a local oscillator, and an up#converter. Eowever, generally the R/ section only amplifi es and fre$uency#converts a signal )see /igure -.2+. !t the input of the transmitter the user interface interacts and converts the information into a suitable digital data stream. The information source can be analog )such as speech+ or discrete )such as data+. !nalog information is convertedinto digital information through the use of sampling and $uanti&ation. 7ampling, $uanti&ation, and encoding techni$ues are called formatting and source coding. The source encoder and modulator bridge the gap between the digital data and electrical signal re$uired at the input to the R/ section. The encoder converts the data stream into a form that is more resistant to the degradations introduced

2ase3and Systems
7ource information may contain either analog, textual, or digital data. Formatting involves sampling, $uanti&ation, and encoding. t is used to ma"e the message compatible with digital processing. Transmit formatting transforms source information into digital symbols. (hen data compression is used in addition to formatting, the process is referred to as source coding. /igure -.: shows a functional diagram that primarily focuses on the formatting and transmission of baseband )information bearing+ signals. The receiver with a detector followed by a signal decoder performs two main functions@ )1+ does reverse operations performed in the transmitter, and )2+ minimi&es the effect of channel noise for the transmitted symbol.

1essa"es4 !#aracters4 and Sym3ols

'uring digital transmission the characters are fi rst encoded into a se$uence of bits, called a bit stream or baseband signal. 9roups of b bits form a fi nite symbol set or word M )G 2b+ of such symbols [1-,10]. ! system using a symbol set si&e of M is referred to as an M-ary system. The value of b or M is an important initial choice in the design of any digital communication system. /or b G 1, the system is called a binary system, the si&e of symbol set M is 2, and the modulator uses two different waveforms to represent the binary 516 and the binary 53 )see /igure -.-+. n this case, the symbol rate and the bit rate are the same. /or b G 2, the system is called

+ulse Am%litude 1odulation 5+A16

.ulse amplitude modulation [?] is a process that represents a continuous analog signal with a series of discrete analog pulses in which the amplitude of the information signal at a given time is coded as a binary number. .!% is now rarely used, having been largely superseded by pulse code modulation ).1%+. Two operations involved in the generation of the .!% signal are@ 1. nstantaneous sampling of the message signal s)t+ every Ts seconds, where f K 1ATs is selected according to the sampling theorem. 2. ,engthening the duration of each sample obtained to some constant value T. These operations are Fointly referred to as sample and hold. Hne important reason for intentionally lengthening the duration of each sample is to avoid the

use of an excessive channel bandwidth, since bandwidth is inversely proportional to pulse duration. The /ourier transform of the rectangular pulse h)t+ is given as >sing fl at#top sampling of an analog signal with a sample#and#hold circuit such that the sample has the same amplitude for its whole duration introduces amplitude distortion as well as a delay. This effect is similar to the variation in transmission fre$uency that is caused by the fi nite si&e of the scanning aperture in television. The distortion caused by the use of .!% to transmit an analog signal is called the aperture effect. The distortion may be corrected by use of an e!uali"er. The e$uali&er decreases the in#band loss of the reconstruction fi lter as the fre$uency increases in such a manner to compensate for the aperture effect. The amount of e$uali&ation re$uired in practice is usually small. /or TATs G 3.1, the amplitude distortion is less than 3.24, in which case the need or e$uali&ation may be omitted altogether

+ulse !ode 1odulation

.ulse code modulation ).1%+ [1:] is a digital scheme for transmitting analog data. t converts an analog signal into digital form. >sing .1%, it is possible to digiti&e all forms of analog data, including full#motion video, voice, music, telemetry, etc. To obtain a .1% signal from an analog signal at the source )transmitter+ of a communications circuit, the analog signal is sampled at regular time intervals. The sampling rate is several times the maximum fre$uency of the analog signal. The instantaneous amplitude of the analog signal at each sample is rounded off to the nearest of several specifi c, predetermined levels )$uanti&ation+. The number of levels is always a power of 2. The output of a pulse code modulator is a series of binary numbers, each represented by some power of 2 bits. !t the destination of the communications circuit, the pulse code modulator converts the binary numbers bac" into pulses having the same $uantum levels as those in the modulator. These pulses are further processed to restore the original analog waveform. (hen pulse modulation is applied to a binary symbol, the resulting binary wave form is called a pulse code modulation waveform. (hen pulse modulation is applied to a nonbinary symbol, the resulting waveform is called M-ary pulse modulation waveform. ;ach analog sample is transmitted into a .1% word consisting of groups of b bits. The .1% word si&e can be described by the number of $uanti&ation levels that are used for each sample. The choice of the number of $uanti&ation levels, or bits per sample, depends on the magnitude of $uanti&ation distortion that one is willing to tolerate with the .1% format. n *orth !merica and <apan, .1% samples the analog waveform 8333 times per second and converts each sample into an 8#bit number, resulting in a ?- "bps data stream. The sample rate is twice the - "E& bandwidth re$uired for a toll#$uality voice conversion

UNIT II and UNIT III !ellular Systems :

%ost commercial radio and television systems are designed to cover as much area as possible. These systems typically operate at maximum power and with the tallest antennas allowed by the /ederal 1ommunications 1ommission )/11+. The fre$uency used by the transmitter cannot be reused again until there is enough geographical separation so that one station does not interfere significantly with another station assigned to that fre$uency. There may even be a large region between two transmitters using the same fre$uency where neither

signal is received. The cellular system ta"es the opposite approach [1,:,-,2,=,11L 1-]. t see"s to ma"e an efficient use of available channels by employing low# power transmitters to allow fre$uency reuse at much smaller distances )see /igure 2.1+. %aximi&ing the number of times each channel may be reused in a given geographic area is the "ey to an efficient cellular system design. 1ellular systems are designed to operate with groups of low#power radios spread out over the geographical service area. ;ach group of radios serve mobile stations located near them. The area served by each group of radios is called a cell. ;ach cell has an appropriate number of low#power radios to communicate within the cell itself. The power transmitted by the cell is chosen to be large enough to communicate with mobile stations located near the edge of the cell. The radius of each cell may be chosen to be perhaps 28 "m )about 1? miles+ in a start#up system with relatively few subscribers, down to less than 2 "m )about 1 mile+ for a mature system re$uiring considerable fre$uency reuse.

!s the traffi c grows, new cells and channels are added to the system. f an irregular cell pattern is selected, it would lead to an ineffi cient use of the spectrum due to its inability to reuse fre$uencies because of cochannel interference. n addition, it would also result in an uneconomical deployment of e$uipment, re$uiring relocation from one cell site to another. Therefore, a great deal of engineering effort would be re$uired to readFust the transmission, switching, and control resources every time the system goes through its development phase. The use of a regular cell pattern in a cellular system design eliminates all these diffi culties. n reality, cell coverage is an irregularly shaped circle. The exact coverage of the cell depends on the terrain and many other factors. /or design purposes and as a fi rst#order approximation, we assume that

the coverage areas are regular polygons. /or example, for omnidirectional antennas with constant signal power, each cell site coverage area would be circular. To achieve full coverage without dead spots, a series of regular polygons are re$uired for cell sites. !ny regular polygon such as an e$uilateral triangle, a s$uare, or a hexagon can be used for cell design. The hexagon is used for two reasons@ a hexagonal layout re$uires fewer cells and, therefore, fewer transmitter sites, and a hexagonal cell layout is less expensive compared to s$uare and triangular cells. n practice, after the polygons are drawn on a map of the coverage area, radial lines are drawn and the signal#to#noise ratio )7*R+ calculated for various directions using the propagation models )discussed in 1hapter :+, or using appropriate computer programs [2,?L8]. /or the remainder of this chapter, we assume regular polygons for coverage areas even though in practice that is only an approximation.

7e8a"onal !ell

eometry

(e use the u-v axes to calculate the distance D between points #1 and #2 )see /igure 2.2+. The u-v axes are chosen so that u#axis passes through the centers of the hexagons. #1 and #2 are the centers of the hexagonal cells with coordinates )u1$v1+ and )u2$v2+ [11,12].

1ulti%le Access Tec#ni(ues

n 1hapter 2 we discussed that cellular systems divide a geographic region into cells where mobile units in each cell communicate with the cellJs base station. The goal in the design of a cellular system is to be able to handle as many calls as possible in a given bandwidth with the specifi ed bloc"ing probability )reliability+. %ultiplexing deals with the division of the resources to create multiple channels. %ultiplexing can create channels in fre$uency, time, etc., and the corresponding terms are then fre$uency division multiplexing )/'%+, time division multiplexing )T'%+, etc. [1,:]. 7ince the amount of spectrum available is limited, we need to fi nd ways to allow multiple users to share the available spectrum simultaneously. 7hared access is used to implement a multiple access scheme when access by many users to a channel is re$uired [1:,1-,12]. /or example, one can create multiple channels using T'%, but each of these channels can be accessed by a group of users using the !,HE! multiple access scheme [8,=]. The multiple access schemes can be either reservation#based or random. %ultiple access schemes allow many users to share the radio spectrum. 7haring the bandwidth effi ciently among users is one of the main obFectives of multiple access schemes [1?,10]. The variability of wireless channels presents both challenges and opportunities in designing multiple access communications systems. %ultiple access strategy has an impact on robustness and interference levels generated in other cells. Therefore, multiple access schemes are designed to maintain orthogonality and reduce interference effects [13]. %ultiple access schemes can be classifi ed as reservation-based multiple access )e.g., /'%!, T'%!, 1'%!+ [-,2] and random multiple access )e.g., !,HE!, 17%!+ )see /igure ?.1+ [=,2:]. f data traffi c is continuous and a small transmission delay is re$uired )for example in voice communication+ reservationbased multiple access is used. The family of reservation#based multiple access includes fre$uency division multiple access )/'%!+, time division multiple access )T'%!+, and code division multiple access )1'%!+ [?,0,12,21,22]. n many wireless systems for voice communication, the control channel is based on random multiple access and the communication channel is based on /'%!, T'%!, or 1'%!. The reservation#based multiple access techni$ue has a disadvantage in that once the channel is assigned, it remains idle if the user has nothing to transmit, while other users may have data waiting to be transmitted.

Narrow3and !#anneli,ed Systems

Traditional architectures for analog and digital wireless systems are channeli&ed [?,11]. n a channeli&ed system, the total spectrum is divided into a large number of relatively narrow radio channels that are defi ned by carrier fre$uency. ;ach radio channel consists of a pair of fre$uencies. The fre$uency used for transmission from the base station to the mobile station is called the for%ard channel )downlin" channel+ and the fre$uency used for transmission from the mobile station to the base station is called the reverse channel )uplin" channel+. ! user is assigned both fre$uencies for the duration of the call. The forward and reverse channels are assigned widely separated fre$uencies to "eep the interference between transmission and reception to a minimum.

Fre(uency $ivision 1ulti%le Access

The /'%! is the simplest scheme used to provide multiple access. t separates different users by assigning a different carrier fre$uency )see /igure ?.2+. %ultiple users are isolated using bandpass fi lters. n /'%!, signals from various users are assigned different fre$uencies, Fust as in an analog system. /re$uency guard bands are provided between adFacent signal spectra to minimi&e crosstal" between adFacent channels. The advantages and disadvantages of /'%! with respect to T'%! or 1'%! are@ Advanta"es 1. 1apacity can be increased by reducing the information bit rate and using an effi cient digital speech coding scheme )7ee 1hapter 8+ [23]. 2. Technological advances re$uired for implementation are simple. ! system can be confi gured so that improvements in terms of a lower bit rate speech coding could be easily incorporated. :. Eardware simplicity, because multiple users are isolated by employing simple bandpass fi lters. $isadvanta"es 1. The system architecture based on /'%! was implemented in fi rstgeneration analog systems such as advanced mobile phone system )!%.7+ or total access communication system )T!17+. The improvement in capacity depends on operation at a reduced signal#to#interference )S&'+ ratio. Dut the narrowband digital approach gives only limited advantages in this regard so that modest capacity improvements could be expected from the allocated spectrum. 2. The maximum bit#rate per channel is fi xed and small, inhibiting the fl exibility in bit#rate capability that may be a re$uirement for computer fi le transfer in some applications in the future.

:. neffi cient use of spectrum, in /'%! if a channel is not in use, it remains idle and cannot be used to enhance the system capacity. -. 1rosstal" arising from adFacent channel interference is produced by nonlinear effects.

Time $ivision 1ulti%le Access

n a T'%! system, each user uses the whole channel bandwidth for a fraction of time )see /igure ?.:+ compared to an /'%! system where a single user occupies the channel bandwidth for the entire duration )see /igure ?.2+ [2]. n a T'%! system, time is divided into e$ual time intervals, called slots. >ser data is transmitted in the slots. 7everal slots ma"e up a frame. 9uard times are used between each userJs transmission to minimi&e crosstal" between channels )see /igure ?.-+. ;ach user is assigned a fre$uency and a time slot to transmit data. The data is transmitted via a radio#carrier from a base station to several active mobiles in the downlin". n the reverse direction )uplin"+, transmission from mobiles to base stations is time#se$uenced and synchroni&ed on a common fre$uency for T'%!. The preamble carries the address and synchroni&ation information that both the base station and mobile stations use for identification.

n a T'%! system, the user can use multiple slots to support a wide range of bit rates by selecting the lowest multiplexing rate or multiple of it. This enables supporting a variety of voice coding techni$ues at different bit rates with different voice $ualities. 7imilarly, data communications customers could use the same "inds of schemes, choosing and paying for the digital data rate as re$uired. This would allow customers to re$uest and pay for a bandwidth on demand. 'epending on the data rate used and the number of slots per frame, a '%! system can use the entire bandwidth of the system or can employ an /'' scheme. The resultant multiplexing is a mixture of fre$uency division and time division. The entire fre$uency band is divided into a number of duplex channels )about :23 to -33 "E&+. These channels are deployed in a fre$uency#reuse pattern, in which radio#port fre$uencies are assigned using an autonomous adaptive fre$uency assignment algorithm. ;ach channel is configured in a T'% mode for the downlin" direction and a T'%! mode for the uplin" direction. The advantages and disadvantages of T'%! are@ Advanta"es 1. T'%! permits a fl exible bit rate, not only for multiples of the basic single channel rate but also submultiples for low bit rate broadcast#type traffic. 2. T'%! offers the opportunity for frame#by#frame monitoring of signal strengthAbit error rates to enable either mobiles or base stations to initiate and execute handoffs.

:. T'%!, when used exclusively and not with /'%!, utili&es bandwidth more efficiently because no fre$uency guard band is re$uired between channels.

-. T'%! transmits each signal with suffi cient guard time between time slots to accommodate time inaccuracies because of cloc" instability, delay spread, transmission delay because of propagation distance, and the tails of signal pulse because of transient responses. $isadvanta"es 1. /or mobiles and particularly for hand#sets, T'%! on the uplin" demands high pea" power in transmit mode, that shortens battery life. 2. T'%! re$uires a substantial amount of signal processing for matched fi ltering and correlation detection for synchroni&ing with a time slot. :. T'%! re$uires synchroni&ation. f the time slot synchroni&ation is lost, the channels may collide with each other. -. Hne complicating feature in a T'%! system is that the propagation time for a signal from a mobile station to a base station varies with its distance to the base station.

Wide3and Systems
n wideband systems, the entire system bandwidth is made available to each user, and is many times larger than the bandwidth re$uired to transmit information. uch systems are "nown as spread spectrum )77+ systems. There are two fundamental types of spread spectrum systems@ )1+ direct se$uence spread spectrum )'777+ and )2+ fre$uency hopping spread spectrum )/E77+ [:,2?]. n a '777 system, the bandwidth of the baseband information carrying signals from a different user is spread by different codes with a bandwidth much larger than that of the baseband signals )see 1hapter 11 for details+. The spreading codes used for different users are orthogonal or nearly orthogonal to each other. n the '777, the spectrum of the transmitted signal is much wider than the spectrum associated with the information rate. !t the receiver, the same code is used for despreading to recover the baseband signal from the target user while suppressing the transmissions from all other users )see /igure ?.2+. Hne of the advantages of the '777 system is that the transmission bandwidth exceeds the

coherence bandwidth )see 1hapter :+. The received signal, after dispreading )see 1hapter 11 for details+, resolves into multiple signals with different time delays. ! Ra"e receiver )see 1hapter 11+ can be used to recover the multiple time

S%read S%ectrum 5SS6 and !$1A Systems

(e introduced spread spectrum techni$ues in 1hapter ?. n this chapter, we present details of direct#se$uence spread spectrum )'777+ and fre$uency#hop spread spectrum )/E77+ systems [1,2,-]. (e show how signal spreading and despreading is achieved with binary phase shift "eying )D.7M+ and $uadrature phase shift "eying )I.7M+ modulation in the '777 [11,12]. (e then address multipath issues in wireless communications and show how code division multiple access )1'%!+ ta"es advantage of multipath in improving system performance with a Ra"e receiver [?,1:]. (e conclude the chapter by presenting a summary of the challenges in implementing a 1'%! system and providing some highlights of the Telecommunication ndustries !ssociation )T !+ 7#=2 1'%! system. Those who are not familiar with spreading codes should refer to !ppendix '.

!once%t of S%read S%ectrum

n a wideband spread#spectrum )77+ system, the transmitted signal is spread over a fre$uency band that is much larger, in fact, than the maximum bandwidth re$uired to transmit the information bearing )baseband+ signal [:]. !n 77 system

ta"es a baseband signal with a bandwidth of only a few "ilohert& )"E&+, and spreads it over a band that may be many megahert& )%E&+ wide. n 77 systems, an advantage in signal#to#noise ratio )7*R+ is achieved by the modulation and demodulation process. The 77 signal is generated from a data#modulated carrier. The data# modulated carrier is modulated a second time by using a wideband spreading signal. !n 77 signal has advantages in the areas of security, resistance to narrowband Famming, resistance to multipath fading, and supporting multiple# access techni$ues. The spreading modulation may be phase modulation or a rapid change of the carrier fre$uency, or it may be a combination of these two schemes. (hen spectrum spreading is performed by phase modulation, we call the resultant signal a direct-se!uence spread spectrum )'777+ signal )see /igure 11.1+ [12]. (hen spectrum spreading is achieved by a rapid change of the carrier fre$uency, we refer to the resultant signal as a fre!uency-hop spread spectrum )/E77+ signal [1-]. (hen both direct#se$uence and fre$uency#hop techni$ues are employed, the

resultant signal is called a hybrid '7#/E 77 signal. !nother way to also generate an 77 signal is the time-hop spread spectrum )TE77+ signal. n this case, the transmission time is divided into intervals called frames. ;ach frame is further

divided into time slots. 'uring each frame, one and only one time slot is modulated with a message )details of TE77 are not given in this chapter+. The '777 is the averaging techni$ue to reduce interference whereas /E77 and TE77 are the avoiding techni$ues to minimi&e interference. The spreading signal is selected to have properties to facilitate demodulation of the transmitted signal by the intended receiver, and to ma"e demodulation by an unintended receiver as diffi cult as possible. These same properties also ma"e it possible for the intended receiver to differentiate between the communication signal and Famming. f the bandwidth of the spreading signal is large relative to the data bandwidth, the spread#spectrum transmission bandwidth is dominated by the spreading signal and is independent of the data signal bandwidth.

9uadrature +#ase-S#ift :eyin" $SSS

7ometimes it is advantageous to transmit simultaneously on two carriers which are in phase $uadrature. The main reason for this is to save spectrum because, for the same total transmitted power, we can achieve the same bit error probability, (e, using one#half the transmission bandwidth. The $uadrature modulations are more diffi cult to detect in low probability of detection applications. !lso, the $uadrature modulations are less sensitive to some types of Famming. (e refer to /igure 11.= and write@ hen the spreading codes are staggered one#half chip interval with respect to each other, the I.7M is called offset#I.7M )HI.7M+. n HI.7M, the phase changes every one#half chip interval, but it does not change more than G=3N. This limited phase change improves the uniformity of the signal envelope compared to D.7M and I.7M, since &ero# crossings of the carrier envelope are avoided. *either I.7M nor HI.7M modulation can be removed with a single stage of s$uare#law detection. Two such detectors and the associated loss of signal#to#noise ratio are re$uired. I.7M and HI.7M offer some low probability of detection advantages over the D.7M method.

!ritical !#allen"es of !$1A

1ode division multiple access )1'%!+ is based on '777. 1'%! is more complex than other multiple access technologies and as such poses several critical challenges. !ll users in a given cell transmit at the same time in the same fre$uency band. 1an they be made not to interfere with each otherO (ill a user who is near the base station saturate the base station altogether so that it cannot receive users who are farther away )"nown as near#far problem+O 1'%! uses a reuse factor of one. This means that the same fre$uency is used in adFacent cells. 1an the codes provide suffi cient separation for this to wor" well in most situationsO 1'%! uses soft handoffs where a moving user can receive and combine signals from two or more base stations at the same time. (hat is the impact on base station traffi c handling abilityO

TIA IS-;- !$1A System

Iualcomm proposed the 1'%! radio system for digital cellular phone applications. t was optimi&ed under existing >.7. mobile cellular system constraints of the advanced mobile phone system )!%.7+. The 1'%! system uses the same fre$uency in all cells and all sectors. The system design has been standardi&ed by the T ! as 7#=2 and many e$uipment vendors sell 1'%! e$uipment that meet the standard. The 7#=2 1'%! system operates in the same

fre$uency band as the !%.7 using fre$uency division duplex )/''+ with 22 %E& in each direction.P The uplin" )mobile to base station+ and downlin" )base station to mobile+ bands use fre$uencies from 8?= to 8=- %E& and from 82- to 8-= %E&, respectively. The mobile station supports 1'%! operations on the !%.7 channel numbers 131: through 132:, 1 through :11, :2? through ?--, ?8= through ?=-, and 0:= through 000, inclusive. The 1'%! channels are defi ned in terms of an R/ fre$uency and a code se$uence. 7ixty#four (alsh codes )see !ppendix '+ are used to identify the forward channels, whereas uni$ue long .* code offsets are used for the identifi cation of the reverse channels. The modulation and coding features of the 7#=2 1'%! system are listed in Table 11.=. %odulation and coding details for the forward and reverse channels differ. .ilot signals are transmitted by each cell to assist the mobile radio to ac$uire and trac" the cell site downlin" signals. The strong coding helps these radios to operate effectively at an )b A*3 ratio of a 2 to 0 dD range. The 1'%! system ) 7#=2+ uses power control and voice activation to minimi&e mutual interference. Qoice activation is provided by using a variable rate vocoder )see 1hapter 8+ which for Rate set 1 codec operates at a maximum rate of 8 "bps to a minimum rate of 1 "bps, depending on the level of voice activity. (ith the decreased data rate, the power control circuit reduces the transmitter power to achieve the same bit error rate. ! precise power control, along with voice activation circuit, is critical to avoid excessive transmitter signal power that is responsible for contributing the overall interference in the system. The Rate set 2 coding algorithms at 1: "bps are also supported. ! bit#interleaver with 23 msec span is used with error#control coding to overcome multipath fading and shadowing )see 1hapter :+. The time span used is the same as the time frame of voice compression algorithm. ! Ra"e receiver used in the 1'%! radio ta"es advantage of a multipath delay greater than 1 Gs, which is common in cellularApersonal communication service networ"s in urban and suburban environments.

$ownlink 5Forward6 52S to 1S6

The downlin" channels include one pilot channel, one synchroni&ation )synch+ channel, and ?2 other channels including up to 0 paging channels. ) f multiple carriers are implemented, paging channels and synch channels do not need to be duplicated+. The information on each channel is modulated by the appropriate (alsh code and then modulated by a $uadrature pair of .* se$uences at a fi xed

chip rate of 1.2288 %cps )see /igure 11.12+. The pilot channel is always assigned to code channel number &ero. f the synch channel is present, it is given the code channel number :2. (henever paging channels are present, they are assigned the code channel numbers 1 through 0 )inclusive+ in se$uence. The remaining code channels are used by forward traffi c channels )see /igure 11.1?+. The synch channel operates at a fi xed data rate of 1233 bps and is convolutionally encoded to 2-33 bps, repeated to -833 bps, and interleaved. The forward traffi c channels are grouped into sets. Rate set 1 has four rates@ =?33, -833, 2-33, and 1233 bps. Rate set 2 contains four rates@ 1-,-33, 0233, :?33, and 1833 bps. !ll radio systems support Rate set 1 on the forward traffi c channels. Rate set 2 is optionally supported on the forward traffi c channels. (hen a radio system supports a rate set, all four rates of the set are supported. 7peech is encoded using a variable rate vocoder )see 1hapter 8+ to generate forward traffi c channel data depending on voice activity. 7ince frame duration is fi xed at 23 ms, the number of bits per frame varies according to the traffi c rate. Ealf rate convolutional encoding is used, which doubles the traffi c rate to give rates from 2-33 to 1=,233 bits per second. nterleaving is performed over 23 ms. ! long .* code of 2-2 G 1 )G -.- G 1312+ is generated using the userJs electronic serial number );7*+ embedded in the mobile station long code mas" )with voice

privacy, the mobile station long code mas" does not use the ;7*+. The scrambled data is multiplexed with power control information which steals bits from the scrambled data. The multiplexed signal on the traffi c channel remains at 1=,233 bps and is modulated at 1.2288 %cps by the (alsh code, +i, assigned to the ith user traffic c channel. The signal is spread at 1.2288 %cps by $uadrature pseudo# random binary se$uence signals, and the resulting $uadrature signals are then weighted. The power level of the traffi c channel depends on its data transmission rate. The paging channel data is processed in a similar manner to the traffi c channel data. Eowever, there is no variation in the power level on a per frame basis. The paging channels provide the mobile stations with system information and instructions, in addition to ac"nowledging messages following access re$uests on the mobile stationsJ access channels. The -2#bit mas" is used to generate the long code. The paging channels operate at a data rate of =?33 or -833 bps. !ll ?- channels are combined to give single ' and , channels. The signals are applied to $uadrature modulators and resulting signals are summed to form a I.7M signal, which is linearly amplifi ed. The pilot 1'%! signal transmitted by a base station provides a reference for all mobile stations. t is used in the demodulation process. The pilot signal level for all base stations is much higher )about - to ? dD+ than the traffi c channel. The pilot signals are $uadrature pseudo#random binary se$uence signals with a period of:2,0?8 chips. 7ince the chip rate is 1.2288 %cps, the pilot pseudo#random binary se$uence corresponds to a period of 2?.?? ms, which is e$uivalent to 02 pilot channel code repetitions every 2 seconds. The pilot signals from all base stations use the same pseudo# random binary se$uence, but each base station is identifi ed by a uni$ue time offset of its pseudo#random binary se$uence )short code+. These offsets are in increments of ?- chips providing 212 uni$ue offset codes. These large numbers of offsets ensure that uni$ue base station identifi cation can be obtained, even in a dense microcellular environment. ! mobile station processes the pilot channel to fi nd the strongest multipath signal components. The processed pilot signal provides an accurate estimation of time delay, phase, and magnitude of the multipath components. These components are trac"ed in the presence of fast fading, and coherent reception with combining is used. The chip rate on the pilot channel and on all fre$uency carriers is loc"ed to precise system time by using the global positioning system )9.7+. Hnce the mobile station identifi es the strongest pilot offset by processing the multipath components from the pilot channel correlator, it examines the signal on its synch channel which is loc"ed to the pseudo#random binary se$uence signal on the pilot channel. 7ince the synch channel is time aligned with its base stationJs pilot channel, the mobile station fi nds the information pertinent to this particular base station. The synch channel message contains time#of#day and long code synchroni&ation to ensure that long code generators at the base station and mobile station are aligned and identical. The mobile station nowattempts to access the paging channel and listens for system information. The mobile station enters the idle state when it has completed ac$uisition and synchroni&ation. t listens to the assigned paging channel and is able to receive and initiate calls.

U%link 5/everse6 51S to 2S6 The uplin" channel is separated from the downlin" channel by -2 %E& at cellular fre$uencies and 83 %E& at .17 fre$uencies )1.8 to 1.= 9E&+. The uplin" uses the same :2,0?8 chip code as is used on the downlin". The two types of uplin"

channels are the access channel and reverse traffi c channels )see /igure 11.10+. The access channel enables the mobile station to communicate nontraffi c information, such as originating calls and responding to paging. The access rate is fi xed at -833 bps. !ll mobile stations accessing a radio system share the same fre$uency assignment. ;ach access channel is identifi ed by a distinct access channel long code se$uence having an access number, a paging channel number associated with the access channel, and other system data. ;ach mobile station uses a different .* codeB therefore, the radio system can correctly decode the information from an individual mobile station. 'ata transmitted on the reverse traffi c channel is grouped into 23 ms frames. !ll data on the reverse traffi c channel is convolutionally encoded, symbol repeated, bloc" interleaved, and modulated by (alsh symbols transmitted for each six#bit symbol bloc". The symbols are from the set of the ?- mutually orthogonal waveforms. The reverse traffi c channel for Rate set 1 may use either =?33, -833, 2-33, or 1233 bps data rates for transmission. The transmission varies proportionally with the data rate, being 1334 at =?33 bps to 12.24 at 1233 bps. !n optional second rate set is also supported in the .17 version of 1'%! and new versions of cellular 1'%!. The actual burst transmission rate is fi xed at 28.8 "sps. 7ince six code symbols are modulated as one of ?- modulation symbols for transmission, the modulation symbol transmission rate is fi xed at -833 modulation symbols per second. This results in a fi xed (alsh chip rate of :30.2 "cps. The rate of spreading .* se$uence is fi xed at 1.2288 %cps, so that each (alsh chip is spread by - .* chips. Table 11.13 provides the signal rates and their relationship for the various transmission rates on the reverse traffi c channel. /ollowing orthogonal spreading, the reverse traffi c channel and access channel are spread in $uadrature. Rero#offset ' and , .* se$uences are used for spreading. These se$uences are periodic )short code+ with :2,0?8 .* chips in length and are based on characteristic polynomials g')-+ and g,)-+.

+ower !ontrol in !$1A

! proper power control on both the uplin" and downlin" has several advantages@ 7ystem capacity is improved or optimi&ed. %obile battery life is extended. Radio path impairments are properly compensated for. Iuality of service )Io7+ at various bit rates can be maintained. The reverse lin" )uplin"+ uses a combination of open loop and closed loop power control to command the mobile station to ma"e power adFustments The mobile station and the base station receiver measure the received power and use the measurements to maintain a power level for ade$uate performance. The mobile unit measurement is part of the open loop power control while the base station measurement is part of the closed loop power control. n the closed loop mode, the mobile station transmitter power is controlled by a signal from the base station site. ;ach base station demodulator measures the received 7*R for that mobile station and sends a power command either to increase or decrease mobile station power. The measure#command#react cycle is performed at a rate of833 times per second for each obile station in 7#=2. The power adFustment command is combined with the mobileJs open loop estimate and the result is used to adFust the transmitter gain. This solves the near far interference problem, reduces interference to other mobiles using the same

1'%! radio channel, helps to overcome fading, and conserves battery power in portable and mobile units. Hn the uplin", the obFective of the mobile station is to produce a nominal received power signal at the base station receiver. Regardless of the mobileJs position or propagation loss, each mobile should be received at

the base station with almost the same power level. f the mobileJs signal arrives at the base station with a lower power level than the re$uired power level, its error rate performance will be high. Hn the other hand, if the mobileJs signal is too high, it will interfere with other users with the same 1'%! radio channel causing performance degradation unless the traffi c load is decreased. 7imilarly, a combination of open loop and closed loop power control is used on the forward lin" )downlin"+ to "eep 7*R at the mobile almost constant. /orward lin" power control mitigates the corner problem. %obiles at the edges of cells normally re$uire more power than those close to the center of the base station for two reasons@ more transmission loss and more interference from adFacent base stations. This is "nown as the corner problem. /orward lin" power control minimi&es interference to mobiles in the same base station )in multipath environments+ as well as mobiles in other base stations. >sing the downlin" power control, the base station transmits the minimum re$uired power, hence, minimi&es the interference to mobiles in the surrounding base stations. The outer loop power control is the fi ner power control over the closed loop power control. t adFusts the target signal#to#interference ratio )7 R+ in the base station according to the needs of the individual radio lin"s and aims at a constant $uality, which is usually defi ned as a certain target bit error rate )D;R+ or frame error ratio )/;R+. The re$uired 7 R depends on the mobile speed and multipath profi le. The outer loop power control is typically implemented by having the base station to each uplin" user data frame with frame $uality indicator, such as a cyclic redundancy chec" )1R1+ result, obtained during decoding of the particular user data frame.

O%en 0oo% +ower !ontrol

n the open loop power control, the mobile uses the received signal to estimate the transmission loss from the mobile unit and the base station.

Softer and Soft 7andoff

'uring soft handoff, a mobile station is in the overlapping cell coverage area of two sectors belonging to two different base stations. The communications between mobile station and base station occur concurrently via two air interface channels from each base station separately. Doth channels )signals+ are received at the mobile station by maximal combining Ra"e processing )see /igure 11.23+. 7oft handoff occurs in about 23L-34 of calls. 7oft handoffs are an integral part of 1'%! design. The determination of which pilots will be used in the soft handoff process has a direct impact on the $uality of the call and the capacity of the system. Therefore, setting soft handoff parameters is a "ey element in the system design for 1'%!. n the uplin" direction, soft handoff differs signifi cantly from softer handoff@ the code channel of the mobile station is received from both base stations, but the received data is routed to the base station controller )D71+ for combining. This is done so that the same frame reliability indicator as provided for outer loop power

control is used to select the better frame between two possible candidates within the D71. ! brief description of each type of pilot set is given below@ The active set is the set of pilots associated with downlin" traffic channels assigned to the mobile units. The active set can contain more than one pilot because a total of three carriers, each with its own pilot, could be involved n a soft handoff process.

The candidate set consists of the pilots that the mobile unit has reported are of a sufficient signal strength to be used. The mobile unit also promotes the neighbor set and remaining set pilots that meet the criteria to the candidate set. The neighbor set is the list of the pilots that are not currently on the active or candidate pilot lists. The neighbor set is identifi ed by the base station via the neighbor list and neighbor list update messages. The remaining set contains all possible pilots in the system that can possibly be used by the mobile unit. Eowever, the remaining set pilots that the subscriber unit loo"s for must be a multiple of .ilotG nc. The parameters used to control the movement of a pilot from a neighbor to a candidate, to active, and then bac" to neighbor set are given below@ 1. .ilot strength exceeds T<A$$ and the mobile unit sends a pilot strengthmeasurement message ).7%%+ and transfers the pilot to the candidateset. 2. The pilot strength drops below T<$/O+ and the mobile unit begins thehandoff drop time 5T<T$/O+6. :. T<!O1+ is used into decision matrix for adding and removing pilots from the neighbor, candidate, and active set.

Introduction to General Packet Radio Service (GPRS)

+he /eneral 0acket 1adio &ervice 9/01&: is a new nonvoice value added service that allows information to be sent and received across a mobile telephone network. %t supplements today;s "ircuit &witched $ata and &hort Message &ervice. /01& is 4<+ related to /0& 9the /lobal 0ositioning &ystem:, a similar acronym that is often used in mobile conte ts.

Key User Features of GPRS

+heoretical ma imum speeds of up to 7=7., kilobits per second 9kbps: are achievable with /01& using all eight timeslots at the same time. +his is about three times as fast as the data transmission speeds possible over today;s fi ed telecommunications networks and ten times as fast as current "ircuit &witched $ata services on /&M networks. By allowing information to be transmitted more quickly, immediately and efficiently across the mobile network, /01& may well be a relatively less costly mobile data service compared to &M& and "ircuit &witched $ata. /01& facilitates instant connections whereby information can be sent or received immediately as the need arises, sub>ect to radio coverage. 4o dial'up modem connection is necessary. +his is why /01& users are sometimes referred to be as being ?always connected?. %mmediacy is one of the advantages of /01& 9and &M&: when compared to "ircuit &witched $ata. 2igh immediacy is a very important feature for time critical

applications such as remote credit card authori@ation where it would be unacceptable to keep the customer waiting for even thirty e tra seconds. /01& facilitates several new applications that have not previously been available over /&M networks due to the limitations in speed of "ircuit &witched $ata 9(.A kbps: and message length of the &hort Message &ervice 97A- characters:. /01& will fully enable the %nternet applications you are used to on your desktop from web browsing to chat over the mobile network. <ther new applications for /01&, profiled later, include file transfer and home automation ' the ability to remotely access and control in'house appliances and machines. +o use /01&, users specifically need:

a mobile phone or terminal that supports /01& 9e isting /&M phones do 4<+ support /01&:. a subscription to a mobile telephone network that supports /01&. use of /01& must be enabled for that user. #utomatic access to the /01& may be allowed by some mobile network operators, others will require a specific opt'in. knowledge of how to send andBor receive /01& information using their specific model of mobile phone, including software and hardware configuration 9this creates a customer service requirement:. a destination to send or receive information through /01&. Whereas with &M& this was often another mobile phone, in the case of /01&, it is likely to be an %nternet address, since /01& is designed to make the %nternet fully available to mobile users for the first time. !rom day one, /01& users can access any web page or other %nternet applications' providing an immediate critical mass of uses. 2aving looked at the key user features of /01&, lets look at the key features from a network operator perspective.

Key Network Features of GPRS

/01& involves overlaying a packet based air interface on the e isting circuit switched /&M network. +his gives the user an option to use a packet'based data service. +o supplement a circuit switched network architecture with packet switching is quite a ma>or upgrade. 2owever, as we shall see later, the /01& standard is delivered in a very elegant manner ' with network operators needing only to add a couple of new infrastructure nodes and making a software upgrade to some e isting network elements. With /01&, the information is split into separate but related ?packets? before being transmitted and reassembled at the receiving end. 0acket switching is similar to a >igsaw pu@@le ' the image that the pu@@le represents is divided into pieces at the manufacturing factory and put into a plastic bag. $uring transportation of the now bo ed >igsaw from the factory to the end user, the pieces get >umbled up. When the recipient empties the bag with all the pieces, they are reassembled to form the original image. #ll the pieces are all related and fit together, but the way they are transported and assembled varies. +he %nternet itself is another e ample of a packet data network, the most famous of many such network types.

0acket switching means that /01& radio resources are used only when users are actually sending or receiving data. 1ather than dedicating a radio channel to a mobile data user for a fi ed period of time, the available radio resource can be concurrently shared between several users. +his efficient use of scarce radio resources means that large numbers of /01& users can potentially share the same bandwidth and be served from a single cell. +he actual number of users supported depends on the application being used and how much data is being transferred. Because of the spectrum efficiency of /01&, there is less need to build in idle capacity that is only used in peak hours. /01& therefore lets network operators ma imi@e the use of their network resources in a dynamic and fle ible way, along with user access to resources and revenues. /01& should improve the peak time capacity of a /&M network since it simultaneously:

allocates scarce radio resources more efficiently by supporting virtual connectivity. migrates traffic that was previously sent using "ircuit &witched $ata to /01& instead. reduces &M& "enter and signalling channel loading by migrating some traffic that previously was sent using &M& to /01& instead using the /01&B&M& interconnect that is supported by the /01& standards.

!or the first time, /01& fully enables Mobile %nternet functionality by allowing interworking between the e isting %nternet and the new /01& network. #ny service that is used over the fi ed %nternet today ' !ile +ransfer 0rotocol 9!+0:, web browsing, chat, email, telnet ' will be as available over the mobile network because of /01&. %n fact, many network operators are considering the opportunity to use /01& to help become wireless %nternet &ervice 0roviders in their own right. +he World Wide Web is becoming the primary communications interface ' people access the %nternet for entertainment and information collection, the intranet for accessing company information and connecting with colleagues and the e tranet for accessing customers and suppliers. +hese are all derivatives of the World Wide Web aimed at connecting different communities of interest. +here is a trend away from storing information locally in specific software packages on 0"s to remotely on the %nternet. When you want to check your schedule or contacts, instead of using something like ?#ctC?, you go onto the %nternet site such as a portal. 2ence, web browsing is a very important application for /01&. Because it uses the same protocols, the /01& network can be viewed as a sub'network of the %nternet with /01& capable mobile phones being viewed as mobile hosts. +his means that each /01& terminal can potentially have its own %0 address and will be addressable as such. %t should be noted right that the /eneral 0acket 1adio &ervice is not only a service designed to be deployed on mobile networks that are based on /&M digital mobile phone standard. +he %&'7DA +ime $ivision Multiple #ccess 9+$M#: standard, popular in 4orth and &outh #merica, will also support /01&. +his follows an agreement to follow the same evolution path towards third generation mobile phone networks concluded in early 7((( by the industry associations that support these two network types.

Limitations of GPRS
%t should already be clear that /01& is an important new enabling mobile data service which offers a ma>or improvement in spectrum efficiency, capability and functionality compared with today;s nonvoice mobile services. /01& does impact a network;s e isting cell capacity. +here are only limited radio resources that can be deployed for different uses ' use for one purpose precludes simultaneous use for another. !or e ample, voice and /01& calls both use the same network resources. +he e tent of the impact depends upon the number of timeslots, if any, that are reserved for e clusive use of /01&. 2owever, /01& does dynamically manage channel allocation and allow a reduction in peak time signalling channel loading by sending short messages over /01& channels instead. #chieving the theoretical ma imum /01& data transmission speed of 7=,., kbps would require a single user taking over all eight timeslots without any error protection. "learly, it is unlikely that a network operator will allow all timeslots to be used by a single /01& user. #dditionally, the initial /01& terminals are e pected be severely limited ' supporting only one, two or three timeslots. +he bandwidth available to a /01& user will therefore be severely limited. #s such, the theoretical ma imum /01& speeds should be checked against the reality of constraints in the networks and terminals. +he reality is that mobile networks are always likely to have lower data transmission speeds than fi ed networks. #t the time of writing, there has been no confirmation from any handset vendors that mobile terminated /01& calls 9i.e. receipt of /01& calls on the mobile phone: will be supported by the initial /01& terminals. #vailability or not of /01& M+ is a central question with critical impact on the /01& business case such as application migration from other nonvoice bearers. By originating the /01& session, users confirm their agreement to pay for the delivery of content from that service. +his origination may well be performed using a Wireless #pplication 0rotocol 9W#0: session using the W#0 microbrowser that will be built into /201& terminals. 2owever, mobile terminated %0 traffic might allow unsolicited information to reach the terminal. %nternet sources originating such unsolicited content may not be chargeable. # possible worse case scenario would be that mobile users would have to pay for receiving unsolicited >unk content. +his is a potential reason for a mobile vendor 4<+ to support /01& Mobile +erminate in their /01& terminals. 2owever, there is always the possibility of unsolicited or unwanted information being communicated through any media, but that does not mean that we would wish to preclude the possibility of any kind of communication through that means altogether. # network side solution such as //&4 or charging platform policing would be preferable rather than a non'fle ible limitation built into all the /01& handsets.

When we asked 4okia about this issue, it commented: ?$etails of the 4okia /01& terminals are not available at this time. %t is too early to confirm whether M+ will be supported in the first 4okia /01& terminals?. +he company;s policy is not to make details available about products before they are announced. 1eaders should contact the /&M #ssociation, Mobile &treams 3imited andBor the vendors directly to encourage them to incorporate support for /01& M+ in their initial terminals. /01& is based on a modulation technique known as /aussian minimum'shift keying 9/M&E:. 5$/5 is based on a new modulation scheme that allows a much higher bit rate across the air interface ' this is called eight'phase'shift keying 96 0&E: modulation. &ince 6 0&E will also be used for FM+&, network operators will need to incorporate it at some stage to make the transition to third generation mobile phone systems. /01& packets are sent in all different directions to reach the same destination. +his opens up the potential for one or some of those packets to be lost or corrupted during the data transmission over the radio link. +he /01& standards recognise this inherent feature of wireless packet technologies and incorporate data integrity and retransmission strategies. 2owever, the result is that potential transit delays can occur. Because of this, applications requiring broadcast quality video may well be implemented using 2igh &peed "ircuit &witched $ata 92&"&$:. 2&"&$ is simply a "ircuit &witched $ata call in which a single user can take over up to four separate channels at the same time. Because of its characteristic of end to end connection between sender and recipient, transmission delays are less likely. Whereas the &tore and !orward 5ngine in the &hort Message &ervice is the heart of the &M& "enter and key feature of the &M& service, there is no storage mechanism incorporated into the /01& standard, apart from the incorporation of interconnection links between &M& and /01&.

!!lications for GPRS

# wide range of corporate and consumer applications are enabled by nonvoice mobile services such as &M& and /01&. +his section will introduce those that are particularly suited to /01&. "hat can be distinguished from general information services because the source of the information is a person with chat whereas it tends to be from an %nternet site for information services. +he ?information intensity? ' the amount of information transferred per message tends to be lower with chat, where people are more likely to state opinions than factual data. %n the same way as %nternet chat groups have proven a very popular application of the %nternet, groups of like'minded people ' so called communities of interest ' have begun to use nonvoice mobile services as a means to chat and communicate and discuss.

Because of its synergy with the %nternet, /01& would allow mobile users to participate fully in e isting %nternet chat groups rather than needing to set up their own groups that are dedicated to mobile users. &ince the number of participants is an important factor determining the value of participation in the newsgroup, the use of /01& here would be advantageous. /01& will not however support point to multipoint services in its first phase, hindering the distribution of a single message to a group of people. #s such, given the installed base of &M& capable devices, we would e pect &M& to remain the primary bearer for chat applications in the foreseeable future, although e perimentation with using /01& is likely to commence sooner rather than later. # wide range of content can be delivered to mobile phone users ranging from share prices, sports scores, weather, flight information, news headlines, prayer reminders, lottery results, >okes, horoscopes, traffic, location sensitive services and so on. +his information need not necessarily be te tual' it may be maps or graphs or other types of visual information. +he length of a short message of 7A- characters suffices for delivering information when it is quantitative ' such as a share price or a sports score or temperature. When the information is of a qualitative nature however, such as a horoscope or news story, 7Acharacters is too short other than to tantali@e or annoy the information recipient since they receive the headline or forecast but little else of substance. #s such, /01& will likely be used for qualitative information services when end users have /01& capable devices, but &M& will continue to be used for delivering most quantitative information services. %nterestingly, chat applications are a form of qualitative information that may remain delivered using &M&, in order to limit people to brevity and reduce the incidence of spurious and irrelevant posts to the mailing list that are a common occurrence on %nternet chat groups. &till images such as photographs, pictures, postcards, greeting cards and presentations, static web pages can be sent and received over the mobile network as they are across fi ed telephone networks. %t will be possible with /01& to post images from a digital camera connected to a /01& radio device directly to an %nternet site, allowing near real' time desktop publishing. <ver time, the nature and form of mobile communication is getting less te tual and more visual. +he wireless industry is moving from te t messages to icons and picture messages to photographs and blueprints to video messages and movie previews being downloaded and on to full blown movie watching via data streaming on a mobile device. &ending moving images in a mobile environment has several vertical market applications including monitoring parking lots or building sites for intruders or thieves, and sending images of patients from an ambulance to a hospital. Videoconferencing applications, in which teams of distributed sales people can have a regular sales meeting without having to go to a particular physical location, is another application for moving images.

Fsing "ircuit &witched $ata for web browsing has never been an enduring application for mobile users. Because of the slow speed of "ircuit &witched $ata, it takes a long time for data to arrive from the %nternet server to the browser. #lternatively, users switch off the images and >ust access the te t on the web, and end up with difficult to read te t layouts on screens that are difficult to read from. #s such, mobile %nternet browsing is better suited to /01&. Mobile data facilitates document sharing and remote collaborative working. +his lets different people in different places work on the same document at the same time. Multimedia applications combining voice, te t, pictures and images can even be envisaged. +hese kinds of applications could be useful in any problem solving e ercise such as fire fighting, combat to plan the route of attack, medical treatment, advertising copy setting, architecture, >ournalism and so on. 5ven comments on which resort to book a holiday at could benefit from document sharing to save everyone having to visit the travel agent to make a decision. #nywhere somebody can benefit from having and being able to comment on a visual depiction of a situation or matter, such collaborative working can be useful. By providing sufficient bandwidth, /01& facilitates multimedia applications such as document sharing. $espite many improvements in the quality of voice calls on mobile networks such as 5nhanced !ull 1ate 95!1:, they are still not broadcast quality. +here are scenarios where >ournalists or undercover police officers with portable professional broadcast quality microphones and amplifiers capture interviews with people or radio reports dictated by themselves and need to send this information back to their radio or police station. 3eaving a mobile phone on, or dictating to a mobile phone, would simply not give sufficient voice quality to allow that transmission to be broadcast or analy@ed for the purposes of background noise analysis or voice printing, where the speech autograph is taken and matched against those in police storage. &ince even short voice clips occupy large file si@es, /01& or other high speed mobile data services are needed. With up to half of employees typically away from their desks at any one time, it is important for them to keep in touch with the office by e tending the use of corporate email systems beyond an employee;s office 0". "orporate email systems run on 3ocal #rea computer 4etworks 93#4: and include Microsoft Mail, <utlook, <utlook 5 press, Microsoft 5 change, 3otus 4otes and 3otus cc:Mail. &ince /01& capable devices will be more widespread in corporations than amongst the general mobile phone user community, there are likely to be more corporate email applications using /01& than %nternet email ones whose target market is more general. %nternet email services come in the form of a gateway service where the messages are not stored, or mailbo services in which messages are stored. %n the case of gateway services, the wireless email platform simply translates the message from &M+0, the %nternet email protocol, into &M& and sends to the &M& "enter. %n the case of mailbo email services, the emails are actually stored and the user gets a notification on their mobile phone and can then retrieve the full email by dialing in to collect it, forward it and so on.

Fpon receiving a new email, most %nternet email users do not currently get notified of this fact on their mobile phone. When they are out of the office, they have to dial in speculatively and periodically to check their mailbo contents. 2owever, by linking %nternet email with an alert mechanism such as &M& or /01&, users can be notified when a new email is received. When mobile workers are away from their desks, they clearly need to connect to the 3ocal #rea 4etwork in their office. 1emote 3#4 applications encompasses access to any applications that an employee would use when sitting at their desk, such as access to the intranet, their corporate email services such as Microsoft 5 change or 3otus 4otes and to database applications running on <racle or &ybase or whatever. +he mobile terminal such as handheld or laptop computer has the same software programs as the desktop on it, or cut down client versions of the applications accessible through the corporate 3#4. +his application area is therefore likely to be a conglomeration of remote access to several different information types ' email, intranet, databases. +his information may all be accessible through web browsing tools, or require proprietary software applications on the mobile device. +he ideal bearer for 1emote 3#4 #ccess depends on the amount of data being transmitted, but the speed and latency of /01& make it ideal. #s this generic term suggests, file transfer applications encompass any form of downloading si@eable data across the mobile network. +his data could be a presentation document for a traveling salesperson, an appliance manual for a service engineer or a software application such as #dobe #crobat 1eader to read documents. +he source of this information could be one of the %nternet communication methods such as !+0 9!ile +ransfer 0rotocol:, telnet, http or Gava ' or from a proprietary database or legacy platform. %rrespective of source and type of file being transferred, this kind of application tends to be bandwidth intensive. %t therefore requires a high speed mobile data service such as /01&, 5$/5 or FM+& to run satisfactorily across a mobile network.

UNIT IV WIRELESS LAN 9 2istorical overviews of the 3#4 industry, evolution of the W3#4 industry, wireless home networking, %555 6-,.77. +he 028 3ayer, M#" 3ayer, wireless #+M, 28051 3#4, 28051 3#4 * ,.

Evolution of The WLAN Industry

Eistory@
S 1==0@ completion of first ;;;832.11 standards )1 and 2 %bAs+ L .ET@ '777, /E77, and '/ R S !fterwards@ ;;;832.11b L 11 %bAs using 11M and ;;;832.11a L 2- %bAs using H/'%

S 7ame %!1 layer for all three

S 17%!A1!#based for contention data S 7upport RT7A1T7 mechanism to solve hidden terminal problem S .oint coordination function ).1/+ L optionalB for real#time traffic

S Topology

S 1entrali&ed L through !. S !d#hoc L supporting peer#to#peer communication between terminals

IEEE802.11 Requirements &ingle M#" supporting multiple 028s H Mechanism to allow multiple overlapping networks in the same area H 0rovisions to handle the interference from other %&M band radios and microwave ovens H Mechanism to handle IhiddenJ and Ie posedJ terminal problems H <ptions to support time'bounded services H 0rovisions to handle privacy and access security

Wireless #+M

Physical Layer:
+he basic design issue for ne t generation private communication network 90"4: is the selection of modulation methods, and a set of bit rates. # bit rate in the range of ) '7Mpbs can be achieved using the e isting wireless technologies, in a picocellular enviroment. +hus, with the e ception of 2$+V, most other #+M applications can be supported. +he preferred technique may actually vary with the specific 0"4 application scenario to be addressed, so that it is likely that both +$M# and "$M# solutions will co'e ist K7L. "$M# provides an efficient integrated solution for frequency reuse and multiple access, and can typically achieve a net bandwidth efficiency , 'M times that of comparable narrowband approaches K7LK=L. 2owever, a ma>or weakness of "$M# for multiservice 0"4 is that for a given system bandwidth, spectrum spreading limits the peak user data rate to a relatively low value K7L. 4arrow band 9+$M#: can be used to achieve high bit rates, as the implementation is well understood, and has been with us for a lon time. %n a pico'cellular enviroment, we can achieve a bit rate in the range of 6 '7A MbBs, by using the narrow band approach. <verall, with a good physical level design, it should be possible for macro 9)'7- km:, micro 9-.) km:, and pico 97--m: cells to support baud rates of the order -.7'-.,)

MsymBs, -.)'7.) MsymBs and ,'M MsymBs K7L. +hese rates should be sufficient enough to accomodate many of the broadband services

Media Acces Control (MAC):

<ne of the ma>or problem of Wireless #+M is to find a suitable channel sharingBmedia access control technique at the data'li.k layer. &hared media access leads to poor quantitative performance in wireless networks. When spread spectrum modulation is used, "$M# is the de'facto mode of operation K7L. 0erformance results from earlier studies shows that packet "$M# can achieve good traffic multiple ing efficiency and performance for "B1, VB1 and low'speed interactive data services K7L, but "$M# is limited to less than or equal to 7 MbBsec at higher speed. 4arrow band modulation 9+$M#: can also be used, and researchers also suggested slotted #3<2# with e ponential back'off, as the protocol used for M#". &lotted #3<2# has considerably better delay performance at low utilisation than a fi ed allocation scheme and fits well with the statistical multiple ing of #+M K,L. 8ounger KML argues that #3<2# and its derivatives are ruled out since less collisions are desirable in a wireless network. "&M#B"$ protocol gives the required performance on copper, but is ill suitable for wireless, where all the systems in a cell are not in communication with each other. What he suggests is a reverse channel over which the base station echoes the incoming signal. +his could be done at the e pense of doubling the bandwidth required, and a busyBidle signal could be broadcast on a separate narrow' band channel. <ne of the problem to this kind of contention'based method is that in a mi ed'media applications access cannot be prioritised, though contention algorithms can be devised which increase the probability that a high'priority message will succeed in capturing the resources it requires KML. +he system proposed by #campora et al K77LKML uses a form of +$M# 9+ime $ivision Multiple #cccess:, in which the mobiles in a cell are polled to determine which of them have data to send. +he mobiles are then aloowed to transmit in turn on receipt of a token from the base station. #fter the polling, priority is then given to units which have speech or other continous services, which can send it during the first part of the frame, and the remainder of the frame can be used for data. When the traffic is light, the unit may be allowed to send data in most of the frame. # flag bit can also be used in the packet header which is set if the mobile has more data queued for transmission. +his reduces the polling overhead KML. +he challenge in designing the M#" protocol for Wireless #+M is to identify a wireless, multimedia capable M#", which provides a sufficient degree of transparency for many #+M applications.

Data Link Layer:

Wireless #+M needs a custom data link layer protocol, and it should be as transparent as possible. # cutom data link protocol is needed due to high error rate and different packet

si@e of Wireless #+M. Wireless #+M may use 7A or ,M byte payload, as )D byte may be too long for Wireless #+Ms. +he data link protocol may contain service type definition, error control, segmentation and reassembly, and handoff support. # service type field is needed so as to indicate whether a packet is of type supervisoryBcontrol, "B1, VB1 #B1 etc. +he service type field simplifies base station protocol processing. Wireless #+M should provide an error control due to high noise interference and poor physical level characteristics of the wireless medium. +his is achieved using a 0"4 packet sequence number filed 9 e.g. 7- bits: in the header along with a standard ,'byte "1" frmae check sequence trailer K7L. 2$3" style retransmission can be used for connectionless data. &ince Wilress #+M may use 7A or ,M byte cells, segmentation and reassembly is required. +his can be achieved with a segment counter that uses, for e ample, the two least significant bits of the error control sequence 90&4: number K7L. 2andoff is an important characteristic of wireless. 2andoff occurs when the mobile unit leaves the area of one cell and enters the area of another. +herefore soft handoff without any data loss is important for any wireless network, and it should be transparent. +his can be implemented by using bits in header, which indicates 0$Fs before and after the handoff.

2iper3#4
2iper3#4 is a set of wireless local area network 9W3#4: communication standards primarily used in 5uropean countries. +here are two specifications: 2iper3#4B7 and 2iper3#4B,. Both have been adopted by the 5uropean +elecommunications &tandards %nstitute 95+&%:. +he 2iper3#4 standards provide features and capabilities similar to those of the %555 6-,.77 wireless local area network 93#4: standards, used in the F.&. and other adopting countries. 2iper3#4B7 provides communications at up to ,- Mbps in the )'/2@ range of the radio frequency 91!: spectrum. 2iper3#4B, operates at up to )M Mbps in the same 1! band. 2iper3#4B, is compatible with D/ 9third'generation: W3#4 systems for sending and receiving data, images, and voice communications. 2iper3#4B, has the

potential, and is intended, for implementation worldwide in con>unction with similar systems in the )'/2@ 1! band. Eiper,!*A2 LIo7 Io7 parameters include Dandwidth, bit error rate, latency, Fitter Eiper,!*A2 implements Io7 through time slots Hriginal re$uest by a mobile terminal made to send data uses specific time slots allocated for random access 1ollisions from other mobile terminals can occur in this random#access channel &ince messages are brief, this is not a problem Eiper,!*A2 %!1 7upports !T to %T unicastAmulticast as well as %T to %T peer#to#peer transmissions !.Js centrali&ed scheduling )not specified yet O+ LResource allocation to %T L'ynamic resource distribution to up#and down#lin"s L1ould consider Io7 and lin" adaptation L.rovision for collision free transmission Random access scheme L'efines associationAdeassociation *1andom access from mobile uses slotted #3<2# with e ponential backoff and #"E at ne t frame Dasic %!1 /rame 7tructure # single sector system

UNIT V WPAN AND GEOLOCATION SYSTEMS 9 %555 6-,.7) W0#4, 2ome 1!, Bluetooth, interface between Bluetooth and 6-,.77, wireless geolocation technologies for wireless geolocation, geolocation standards for 5.(77 service

IEEE 802.15 - Wi !"!## P! #$%&" A !& N!'($ )# *WPAN#+ "

&hort 1ange 3ow 0ower 3ow "ost &mall 4etworks

802.15 is a wireless specification defined by IEEE for wireless personal area networks (WPANs ! w"ic" "as c"aracters s#c" as s"ort$ran%e! low power! low cost! s&all networks and co&&#nication of de'ices wit"in a Personal (peratin% )pace. *"e initial 'ersion! 802.15.1! was adapted fro& t"e +l#etoot" specification and is f#lly co&patible wit" +l#etoot" 1.1. +l#etoot" beco&es widely #sed specification for wireless co&&#nications a&on% portable di%ital de'ices incl#din% notebook co&p#ters! perip"erals! cell#lar telep"ones! beepers! and cons#&er electronic de'ices. *"e specification also allows for connection to t"e Internet. 802.15.1,+l#etoot" specify standards in on t"e P"ysical layer and -ata link layer of t"e ()I &odel wit" t"e followin% fo#r s#b$layers. /0 layer. *"e air interface is based on antenna power ran%e startin% fro& 0 d+& #p to 20 d+&. +l#etoot" operates in t"e 2.1 234 band and t"e link ran%e is anyw"ere fro& 10 centi&eters to 10 &eters.

+aseband layer. establis"es t"e +l#etoot" p"ysical link between de'ices for&in% a piconet $ a network of de'ices connected in an ad "oc fas"ion #sin% +l#etoot" tec"nolo%y. 5ink &ana%er. sets #p t"e link between +l#etoot" de'ices. (t"er f#nctions of t"e link &ana%er incl#de sec#rity! ne%otiation of +aseband packet si4es! power &ode and d#ty cycle control of t"e +l#etoot" de'ice! and t"e connection states of a +l#etoot" de'ice in a piconet. 5o%ical 5ink 6ontrol and Adaptation Protocol (526AP . pro'ides t"e #pper layer protocols wit" connectionless and connection$oriented ser'ices. *"e IEEE 802.15 Workin% 2ro#ps are &akin% pro%ress to i&pro'e t"e +l#etoot" standards. *"ey proposes two %eneral cate%ories of 802.15. t"e low rate 802.15.1 (*21 and "i%" rate 802.15.7 (*27 . *"e *21 'ersion pro'ides data speeds of 20 8bps or 250 8bps! low power and low cost sol#tions. *"e *27 'ersion s#pports data speeds ran%in% 20 9bps or %reater! for &#lti$&edia applications.

H$,!RH$,!R- is a wireless networking specification for home devices to be connected to each other. %t was developed in 7((6 by the 2ome1! Working /roup, a consortium of mobile wireless companies that included &iemens, Motorola, 0hilips and more than 7-- other companies. +he group was disbanded in Ganuary ,--D after Wi'!i 6-,.77b networks became accessible to home users and Microsoft began including support for Bluetooth, a standard the 2ome1! competed with, in its Windows operating systems. #s a result 2ome1! has fallen into obsolescence. +hus, 2ome1! became obsolete and there is currently no group developing the standard further. +he archive of the 2ome1! Working /roup is maintained by 0alo Wireless. 2ome1! used frequency hopping spread spectrum 9!2&&: in the ,.M /2@ frequency band and could achieve a ma imum of 7- MbitBs throughput. its nodes can travel within a )- meter range of an access point while remaining connected to the personal area network 90#4:. 2ome1! allowed both traditional telephone signals and data signals to be e changed over the same wireless network. +herefore, in 2ome1!, cordless telephones and laptops, for e ample, could share the same bandwidth in the same home or office. #vailable 2ome1! 3#4s supported 7.A MbitBs, relatively slow compared to second generation 6-,.77 3#4s which support 77 MbitBs. 6-,.77n standard will reach 7-MbitBs at least.

2ome1! 9for home radio frequency: is a home networking standard developed by 0ro im %nc. that combines the 6-,.77b and $igital 5nhanced "ordless +elecommunication 9$5"+: portable phone standards into a single system. 2ome1! uses a frequency'hopping technique to deliver speeds of up to 7.A Mbps over distances of up to 7)- ft ' too short a range for most business applications, but suitable for the home market that it was specifically developed for. 2ome1! is one of two standards currently vying for the wireless home network market share. +he other main contender, Wi'!i uses a direct sequence spread spectrum 9$&&&: transmission method to deliver speeds of up to 77 Mbps. 2ome1! is said to have better mechanisms in place to deal with interference 9from microwave ovens, for e ample: and to handle voice, video, and audio data better than Wi'!i. 4evertheless, Wi'!i is significantly faster than 2ome1! ' albeit more e pensive as well. Wi'!i products have already become fairly well established in corporate wide area networks 9W#4s:, which tend to support the older standard for home networks, since consumers tend to prefer to use the same technologies in both home and work settings. #lthough industry support is split between the two technologies, a number of companies 9such as %BM and 0ro im itself: have begun to back both standards

."/!'$$'0.
+l#etoot" is a s"ort$ran%e radio link intended to replace t"e calble(s connectin% portable and,or fi:ed electronic de'ices. 8ey feat#res are rob#stness! low co&ple:ity! low power and low cost ;1<. *"ere are already si&ilar standards in t"is &arket! s#c" as Ir-A! 3o&e/0 and IEEE 802.11 fa&ily. +l#etoot" is desi%ned to offer so&e #ni=#e ad'anta%es t"at none of t"e ot"ers can pro'ide. 0or e:a&ple! Ir-A #ses infrared as &edi#&! so its ran%e is li&ited to aro#nd 1 &eter! and it re=#ires a line$of$si%"t co&&#nication. In co&parison! +l#etoot" can operate at a ran%e #p to 10 &eters! or e'en 100 &eters wit" en"anced trans&itters. /0 si%nals %oes t"ro#%" walls! so a +l#etoot" network can span se'eral roo&s. 6o&pared wit" 3o&e/0 and IEEE 802.11 fa&ily! +l#etoot" "as &#c" lower data rate and trans&ission ran%e (10 &eter . W"ile 3o&e/0 s#pports 1.> ? 10 9bps data rate and IEEE 802.11a,b s#pports 51,11 9bps! +l#etoot" s#pports only @80 8bps! w"ic" can be #sed for @21 kbps downstrea& and 5@.> kbps #pstrea& asy&&etric data transfer! or 172.> kbps sy&&etric data transfer. +ot" 3o&e/0 and IEEE 802.11 operates at 100 &eter ran%e! w"ile +l#etoot" operates at #p to 10 &eter. 3owe'er! as a res#lt of t"e lower data rate and trans&ission ran%e! +l#etoot" offers &#c" lower cost per node (appro:i&ately 5 ? 10A of

3o&e/0 and IEEE 802.11 . )o it is &ore s#itable for applications in'ol'in% low data rate (data and 'oice ! s&all n#&ber of de'ices (8 at &a:i&#& ! low power cons#&ption and s"ort ran%e (#p to 10 &eter ! s#c" as P6$to$ perip"eral networkin%! "o&e networkin%! "idden co&p#tin%! data sync"roni4ation (s#c" as between P6 and P-A ! &obile p"one de'ices! and f#t#re s&art de'ices or entertain&ent e=#ip&ent.
"luetoot# Protocol Stack *"e followin% c"art ill#strate t"e relations"ip of IEEE.15,+l#etoot" to ()I &odel.

IEEE 802.15 and +l#etoot". WPAN 6o&&#nications 6o&posed of protocols to allow +l#etoot" de'ices to locate eac" ot"er and to create! confi%#re and &ana%e bot" p"ysical and lo%ical links t"at allow "i%"er layer protocols and applications to pass data t"ro#%" t"ese transport protocols $rans!ort Protocol Grou! /adio 0re=#ency (/0 +aseband )endin% and recei'in% &od#lated bit strea&s

 5ink 9ana%er

-efines t"e ti&in%! fra&in% 0low control on t"e link.

9ana%in% t"e connection states. Enforcin% 0airness a&on% sla'es. Power 9ana%e&ent

5o%ical 5ink 6ontrol BAdaptation Protocol 3andles &#ltiple:in% of "i%"er le'el protocols )e%&entation B reasse&bly of lar%e packets -e'ice disco'ery B Co)

%iddleware Protocol Grou! )er'ice -isco'ery Protocol ()-P 9eans for applications to disco'er de'ice info! ser'ices and its c"aracteristics. *6P,IP /06(99 Piconets 6able replace&ent protocol! e&#lation of serial ports o'er wireless network Network Protocols for packet data co&&#nication! ro#tin%

9aster -e'ice in Piconet w"ose clock and "oppin% se=#ence are #sed to sync"roni4e all ot"er de'ices (sla'es in t"e Piconet. It also carries o#t Pa%in% proced#re and also 6onnection Establis"&ent.

)la'es Dnits wit"in t"e piconet t"at are syncroni4ed to t"e &aster 'ia its clock and "oppin% se=#ence. After connetion establis"&ent! )la'es are assi%ned a te&porary 7 bit &e&ber address to red#ce t"e no. of addresin% bits re=#ired

Point to Point 5ink 9aster $ sla'e relations"ip +l#etoot" de'ices can f#nction as &asters or sla'es

Piconet

It is t"e network for&ed by a 9aster and one or &ore sla'es (&a: @ . Eac" piconet is defined by a different "oppin% c"annel to w"ic" #sers sync"roni4e to.

Eac" piconet "as &a: capacity (1 9bps . 3oppin% pattern is deter&ined by t"e &aster.

Packet Structure

$ata in piconet is encoded in packets. +he general packet format is shown below:

-i1/ ! 52 G!%! &" P&3)!' -$ ,&' $4 ."/!'$$'0 516 # packet could contain a shorthanded access code 9A6 bytes: part of the parket only, or access code plus header, or all the three parts.

ccess &ode
#ccess code is used for synchroni@ation, $" offset compensation and identification. %t is show below:

-i1/ ! 2 A33!## C$7! -$ ,&' $4 ."/!'$$'0 P&3)!' 516 +here are three kinds of access codes. "hannel #ccess "ode 9"#": is used to identify the piconet. #ll packets sent through one channel of the piconet carries the address of the master device. $evice #ccess "ode 9$#": is used for special signaling procedures, such as paging and response to paging. # $#" for paging carries the address of paged device. 5ach Bluetooth device has a unique address called B$N#$$1. %t contains two parts: company %$ which is unique across the world, and device %$ which is unique within the products of the company. +he &ync Word of the access code is derived from a B$N#$$1 address using 9AM,D-: e purgated block code with an overlay of an AM'bit full length 04 sequence. +he preamble is simply a fi ed I-7-7J or I7-7-J sequence depending on whether the 3&B of the following sync word is I-J or I7J. %f there is no header following in the packet, the access code does not have a trailer.

'eader
2eader part of the packet is used by the 3ink "ontrol 93": logical channel. %t has the following format:

-i1/ ! 2 H!&7! -$ ,&' $4 ."/!'$$'0 P&3)!' 516 #MN#$$1: temporary address assigned to active members of the piconet, used on all packets in both direction sent between the master and the addressed slave. #n all'@ero #MN#$$1 is used to broadcast to all slaves.

+805: type of packet. +here are 7, types of packets for each &"< and #"3 physical links, and four types of common control packets for both. !3<W: for flow control. #1O4: for #"E. &5O4: contains sequence number for packet ordering. 25": header error check for header integrity.

3.6.

Payload

+here can be two types of payload: voice and data. &"< packets only have voice field, while #"3 packets only have data field.

L(GI& L LINK &(N$R(L N) ) P$I(N PR($(&(L (L*& P)

3,"#0 layer operates over a single #"3 link provided by the baseband, which is setup by the 3M layers using 3M messages. +his #"3 link is always avaliable between the master and any slaves. 3,"#0 layer serves upper layer by transmitting data over channels 9!ig. 6:. 5ach channel has two end points and a logical channel %$ 9"%$:. # channel is setup in the following procedure: 7. 7. "onnection # 3,"#0 entity requests connection to a remote device. +he request has been passed from upper layers of the first 3,"#0 entity. When a response is received, the local device enters "onfig state. ,. "onfiguration "onfiguration process involves a negociation between two end points of the channel over ma imum transmission unit 9M+F:, a flush time out and quality of service 9Oo&: agreement. <nce all these issues have been successfully negociated, the two end points enters <pen state, in which data transfer may begin. D. $isconnection When a 3,"#0 layer receives a disconnect request from upper layer, it passes it to the remote device. When response received, the channel enters "losed state.

,.

D.

&onnection State %ac#ine

stand,y

in+uiry

!a/e

$ransmit %

&onnect ed %

Park P%
In+uiry Scan

'old %

Sniff %

device t#at wants to ,e discovered will !eriodically enter t#is mode and listen for in+uiry !ackets-

In+uiry )evice sends an In+uiry !acket addressed to GI & or )I & $ransmission is re!eated on t#e in+uiry #o! se+uence of fre+uencies-

In+uiry Res!onse .#en an in+uiry messa/e is received in t#e in+uiry scan state0 a res!onse !acket (F'S) containin/ t#e res!ondin/ device address must ,e sent after a random num,er of slots-

Pa/e $#e master uses t#e clock information0 a,out t#e slave to ,e !a/ed0 to determine w#ere in t#e #o! se+uence0 t#e slave mi/#t ,e listenin/ in t#e !a/e scan mode $#e master sends a !a/e messa/e

Pa/e Scan $#e !a/e scan su,state can ,e entered ,y t#e slave from t#e stand,y state or t#e connection state- It listens to !ackets addressed to its ) &-

Pa/e Res!onse (n receivin/ t#e !a/e messa/e0 t#e slave enters t#e slave !a/e res!onse su,state- It sends ,ack a !a/e res!onse consistin/ of its I) !acket w#ic# contains its ) &0 at t#e fre+uency for t#e ne1t slot from t#e one in w#ic# !a/e messa/e was received-

Power &ontrol %odes Sniff %ode $#is is a low !ower mode in w#ic# t#e listenin/ activity of t#e slave is reduced In t#e sniff mode0 t#e slave listens for transmissions only at fi1ed intervals $sniff0 at t#e offset slot )sniff for Nsniff times- $#ese !arameters are /iven ,y t#e L%P in t#e master w#en it issues t#e SNIFF command to t#e slave 'old %ode Slave tem!orarily (for $#old sec) does not su!!ort c#annel (!ossi,le S&( links will still ,e su!!orted) "y t#is ca!acity can ,e made free to do ot#er t#in/s like scannin/0 !a/in/0 in+uirin/0 or attendin/ anot#er !iconet $#e slave unit kee!s its active mem,er address ( %2 ))R)&L !ackets on t#e

Park %ode $#is is a very low !ower mode wit# very little activity-

$#e slave #owever0 stays sync#roni3ed to t#e c#annel$#e !arked slaves re/ularly listen for ,eacon si/nals at intervals decided ,y t#e ,eacon structure communicated to t#e slave durin/ t#e start of !arkin/-

$#e !arked slave #as to ,e informed a,out a transmission in a ,eacon c#annel w#ic# is su!!orted ,y t#e master to kee! !arked slaves in sync#roni3ation and send t#em any ot#er information-

ny messa/e to ,e sent to a !arked mem,er are sent over t#e ,roadcast c#annel-

It also #el!s t#e master to #ave more t#an seven slaves-

Security %easures Limited4Restricted ccess to aut#ori3ed users"ot# Link Level 5ncry!tion 6 ut#entication-

Personal Identification Num,ers (PIN) for device accessLon/ encry!tion keys are used (7*8 ,it keys)$#ese keys are not transmitted over wireless- (t#er !arameters are transmitted over wireless w#ic# in com,ination wit# certain information known to t#e device0 can /enerate t#e keys-

Security values

Furt#er encry!tion can ,e done at t#e a!!lication layer-

)evice

ddress9Pu,lic

ut#entication Key(7*8 ,its)9Private 5ncry!tion Key(897*8 ,its)9Private Random Num,er

$ime9)ivision )u!le1 Sc#eme

H H H H

"luetoot# devices use a $ime9)ivision )u!le1 ($))) sc#eme &#annel is divided into consecutive slots (eac# :*; s) (ne !acket can ,e transmitted !er slot Su,se+uent slots are alternatively used for transmittin/ and receivin/ Strict alternation of slots ,4t t#e master and t#e slaves %aster can send !ackets to a slave only in 5<5N slots Slave can send !ackets to t#e master only in t#e ()) slots

Interference ,etween "luetoot# and 8=*-77

"luetoot# interferes wit# 8=*-77, Q 8=*-77, frames collide wit# "luetoot# !ackets (lon/er frames #ave a #i/#er !ro,a,ility of collision) Q Q Retransmissions increase delay Im!act can ,e severe0 de!endin/ on t#e distance from t#e node e+ui!!ed wit# 8=*-77, to t#e access !oint and to t#e "luetoot# nodes

8=*-77, also interferes wit# "luetoot# Q Q Q 'i/# !ower 8=*-77, transmitter can saturate t#e "luetoot# receiver &an also cause increased errors if t#e ,ands are overla!!in/ Im!act can ,e severe0 de!endin/ on t#e !ower of t#e 8=*-77, nodes and t#e distance to t#em

Conditions for Collision

!requency <verlap * 0robability of collision is reduced by using a narrower occupied channel width H +ime <verlap * 0robability of collision is reduced by minimi@ing transmit time 9ie transmit at higher data rate: H &ufficient %nterference 5nergy * %nterference energy can be reduced by: H spatial separation H tighter filtering H processing gain Wireless eolocation System Arc#itecture T89!# $4 G!$"$3&'i$% S8#'!,#2 H R!,$'! P$#i'i$%i%1 S8#'!,# R 4etwork'Based #pproach dedicated receivers >ointly compute location of a mobile using certain measurements 9angleBtime of arrival, signal strength, S : e ample: 0in0oint and 0al+rack indoor geolocation systems H S!"4-P$#i'i$%i%1 S8#'!,# R 2andset'Based #pproach mobile locates its own position and reports it to the network e ample: /0& H H8: i7 P$#i'i$%i%1 S8#'!,# R 4etwork T 2andset #ssisted e ample: #ssisted /0& 9#'/0&:

Angle-of-Arrival (AOA) ; 7i !3'i$% $4 & i<&" $4 !3!i<!7 #i1%&" i#

/#!7 '$ 7!'! ,i%! ,$:i"!=# "$3&'i$% H /B& measures direction of signal received from mobile, with respect to some fi ed direction directional antennas must be employed , or more /B& are neededC if accuracy of measurement 9i.e. beam width of directional antenna: is UV U #<# will restrict mobileWs position around true 3<& with angular spread of ,V H 7 &(:&3)#: requires speciali@ed listening receivers 9antennas: if mobile lies in between /B&s, on a straight line,

,'/B& #<# does 4<+ work * more than , /B& needed dramatic errors if 3<& is blocked or there is lots of scattered signal U not suitable for indoor systems Ti,!-Di44! !%3!-$4-A i<&" * location of mobile is estimated using received time'of'arrival differences , rather than absolute time, at several /B&s H often referred to as hyperbolic system because constant time difference between two propagation delays corresponds to a hyperbolic curve H advantages: synchroni@ation with mobile, or precise estimation of mobileWs processing time 4<+ required H disadvantages: B/&s must be synchroni@ed sensitivity to signal propagation time measurement 9e.g. due to multipath: 9+$<#: #pproach /B&7: +<#7 R treceivedN/B&7 * 9tsentNMF T XtMF: /B&,: +<#, R treceivedN/B&, * 9tsentNMF T XtMF: +$<#7, R +<#7 * +<#, R R treceivedN/B&7 * treceivedN/B&, 1eceived &ignal &trength * 1&& provides an estimate of distance between mobile and /B& H as in +<# approach, estimated distance determines a circle on which mobile lies D /B& neededC H drawbacks: requires a precise Ypath lossW model very unreliable due to large standard deviation in errors of most path loss models H solution: !ingerprinting for a specific site, develop a Ysignature databaseW, i.e. fingerprint each location on a fine grid, in advance mobileWs received signal is compared with each entry in the database, until a match is found can be very accurate, but time'consuming and requires constant updates