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Project MUSE - Theory & Event - Fichte's Passport - A Philosophy of the Police
AccessprovidedbyGoldsmith'sCollege, UniversityOfLondon[viaShibboleth]

Browse>Philosophy>PoliticalPhilosophy>Theory&Event>Volume16,Issue2,2013

Fichte'sPassportAPhilosophyofthePolice
GrgoireChamayou(bio) TranslatedbyKieranAarons(bio)
Abstract Fichte'sphilosophyrepresentedoneofthefirstcoherentattemptstoprovideautopianphilosophicalfoundationforpreventativepolicepower, onewhichanticipatedinsurprisingwaysthefundamentallogicalpremisesofmoderndataveillanceor"datapower".Thisarticleexamines Fichte'sproposalsforanewsystemofpolicepassportsandthelogicofcontrolonwhichitrests,contextualizingitwithinthetransformationof policepracticesduringhislifetime.ItconcludeswithadiscussionofHegel'scriticismofthelogicalincoherenceofsecuritarianpolicing,andits relevanceforoursituationtoday.

1.Passports
In1797thephilosopherFichtedescendedonetimefromtheheightsofspeculativephilosophy,settingasidetheabstractdance oftheegoandthenonego,inordertoproposeconcretemeasures,policemeasures.HewritesintheFoundationsofNatural Rightthat,"Theprincipalmaximofeverywellconstitutedpolicepowermustbethefollowing:everycitizenmustbereadily identifiable,wherevernecessary,asthisorthatparticularperson.Policeofficersmustbeabletoestablishtheidentityofevery subject."1 Theimmediateconsequenceofthisprincipleofidentification,orratherofpoliceidentifiability ,wasanewsystemofpassports: "Everyonemustalwayscarryapassportwithhim,issuedbythenearestauthorityandcontainingaprecisedescriptionofhis personthisappliestoeveryone,regardlessofclassorrank,"withthefurtherspecificationthat,"Sincemerelyverbal descriptionsofapersonalwaysremainambiguous,itmightbegoodifimportantpersons(whothereforecanafforditaswell) weretocarryaccurateportraitsintheirpassports,ratherthandescriptions."2 Intheeighteenthcenturytherealreadyexistedpassportsthattravelerswererequiredtoobtainfromauthoritiesnotonlywhen crossingStateborders,butalsowhenmovingwithinaterritoryfromonetowntoanother.Theseinternalpassports,lettersof safeconductandtravelauthorizations,wereissuednowandthenontheoccasionofatrip.Asameansofcontrollingmobility, theapparatuswasbydefaultdirectedtowardcertainundesirablecategoriesofthepopulation:"theidle,beggars,vagrantJews, Gypsiesandotherunknownorsuspicioustypes."3Whencircumstancesappearedtodemandittheapparatuswouldbetightened up,buttheredidnotyetexistanyunifiedsystemofidentificationdocumentssuchasweknowittoday.Hencewecan immediatelygraspthenoveltyofFichte'sproposal:togeneralizethesystemofpassportsacrosstheentirepopulation,makingit auniversal,obligatoryandpermanentsystem.4 Ifthepolicecouldbereducedtoasingleprincipleorformula,itwouldendwithaquestionmark.Itwouldbeasimpleand implacablequestion:'Whoareyou?'Whatdefinesthepolice,whatgivesititsultimateessenceisthisinterpellation,thisperfectly concreteoperationthatforushasbecomesofamiliar,ofcheckingouridentity:'Papersplease!'Thepassportmakesitpossible torespondtothisinjunctionimmediatelyandwithoutambiguity.Thisisitsprincipalfunctionasanidentityonpaper. Yetwhenitcomesfromthemouthofthepolice,thequestion'whoareyou?'alwaysassumesotherfunctionsthanasimple recognition.Ifthequestionofidentitycarrieswithitcomplexphilosophicalquestions,ontheotherhand,asPhilipAgrewrites,"In aninstitutionalsetting,to'knowwhosomebodyis'isroughlyspeakingtheabilitytogetholdofthem."5WhenthisbodyIwas speakingtovanishesintothecrowd,byknowinghisname,Iwillbeabletofindhimagain.Inversely,ifIlearnhisname,by consultingacentralregistryIwillfindadescription[signalement]ofthecorrespondingbody.Iwillknowhishistory,Iwillfindhis coordinates,Iwillfindhimagain.Givenabody,finditsname.Givenaname,finditsbody.Givenasetofproperties,findthe nameandlocatethecorrespondingbody.Questionsofidentificationareunfoldedwithinthistriptyque,thistriplerelationof correspondence,translationandequivalencebetweenthename,thebodyanditsattributes:toindividualizeadescription,to corporealizeaname,tonameabody.Thegoalaboveall,thewillthatanimatestheinstallationofthesesystemsof correspondence,istoacquireapower,andfundamentally,apowerofcapture.Tobeabletorecognizeistobeabletofindagain: onceIhaverecognizedyou,youwillnotescapeme. Consequently,fromthepoliceperspectivethequestionoftheegoandofidentityreceivesaratherprosaicinterpretation.In thissensethereisacertainironyinseeingwhatiscertainlyoneofthemostspeculativeexpressionsofthephilosophyofthe selfthatofFichteleadinanentirelypracticalwaytotheinventionofatoolofpoliceidentification,theconstitutionofapolice technologyoftheego.Asaresult,afteranintervalofdozensofpages,wefindinFichte'stextarevealinghiatusregardingthe differentialstatusofthefaceinmattersofmoralityaswellasthoseofthepolice.Ontheonehand,inalyricaland anachronisticallyLevinasianpassage,thefaceispresentedastheveryfoundationofethicsorofthemoralrelationtothe Other6ontheotherhand,thefacelaterappearsinadifferentregister,thistimeensnaredinanexigencybelongingpurelytothe police:thateveryone'sfacebepermanentlyseen,thatnoonebeabletoconcealtheirface,nowappearsasanimperativeof securitarianidentification.Thegreatethicaldiscoursesonthesacrednessofthefaceoftenservetoconcealmuchmoredownto

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earthpoliceprojectsofidentifyingsubjects.7 Thepassportisnotonlyanidentificationdocument,butalsoaportablearchiveofone'stravels.Thewrittentracesofprevious IDchecksallowonetoknownotonlywhoyouare,butwhereyou'vebeen.Tothedescriptiveorderisthereforeaddedanarrative order(one'sitinerary).Thequestion'whoareyou?'isextendedintothequestion'whogoesthere?'Totheselittlepersonalbooks, thesetelegraphicnovels,nowcorrespondotherworks:thesearetheregisterswhere,ateachIDcheckpointinns,sentryboxes, villagegatesthetracesofeverypassagearerecordedinduplicate.Totheportablearchivesformedbypassportscorrespond thestaticarchivesoftheregisterskeptateverycheckpoint. Yetthisisnotall:tothememoryofeverypastvoyage,tothearchivesofyesterday'strips,isaddedanothertypeoftrace,this timeprescriptivethatofthefutureitinerary.ForFichte'spassportfunctionslikeatravelwarrant:ateachcheckpointonemust indicatethenextstageofthejourney.Consequently,movementscanbestrictlycontrolled,aswecancontinuallytrackeachand everyoneofthem.8Thusequipped,thepoliceknowwhereeveryonehasbeen,wheretheyare,andwheretheyareheaded. Thusdefined,Fichte'spassportfunctionsasanapparatusforthetraceabilityofpeople,todayunderstoodinthebroadsenseof thetermasthe"abilitytofindthehistory,theuseorthelocationofanentitybymeansofregisteredidentifications."9

2.BillsofExchange
Everyfalsebill[...]comesbacktoyouinturn.Timeisastrictbookkeeper,atruecontinuumofthingsthatoverlooksnothingandneverlies (Herder).10

Whatpurposedothesepassportsserve?Afterhavingpresentedhisplan,Fichteproceedstoshowtheirutility.Heoffers severalconcreteexamplesintendedtodisplaytheirmerits.Amongothers,thegeneralizationofthepassportsystemwouldput anendtoaveryspecifictypeoffraudrelatedtowhatintheeighteenthcenturywerecalled"billsofexchange." Whatisatissuehere?Billsofexchangearepayments,proofsofdebt,documentsoneacceptsinlieuoffuturepayment.The generalprincipleissimple:theissuercommitsinwritingtopayacertainsumofmoney,atacertaindate,eithertoacertain personortothebearerofthebillofexchange,thelatterbeingpayableeitherdirectlyfromtheissuer,orfromathirdpartywhose nameisindicatedonthebill."Thebillofexchangeisadocumentbywhichthemerchanteitherisduethepaymentofa determinatesum,orwhichrequiresathirdcommercialparty,towhichheisrelated,topaysaidsumtothebearerofthebillbya certaindate."11 HereisanexampleofsuchabillfromGermany,dated1736:
BillofExchange,June14,1736 Clickforlargerview

Hereisyetanotherexample,thistimeinletterform,drawnfromafinancemanualintheeighteenthcentury:
BillofExchange12

Clickforlargerview

Severaltypesofbillsofexchangeexistintheeighteenthcenturywithvaryingcharacteristics,basedonmoreorlesscomplex financialarrangements.Withoutgoingintodetail,itwillsufficetonotethattheholderofabillofexchangecouldeitherredeemits valuewiththeissuerorwithathirdpartyrepresentinghim,orelse,withcertaintypesofbills,passitovertosomeoneelseasa formofpayment.Theacknowledgementofdebtthereforebecomesameansofmarketexchange,acurrencyequivalent,aform ofpapermoney.Henceitsotherdefinition:billsofexchangeare"paperswhich,incertaincircumstances,aresubstitutedfor liquidcurrency."13 Asaresult,thesebillscirculate.Theycanbeusedatamarketplaceasameansofpaymentinplaceofmoney.Theypass fromhandtohand,andeachtimethedocumentis"endorsed,"whichistosaytheonewhoredeemsitinscribeshisnameand hissignatureonthebackofthedocument.Belowisanexampleofamodelendorsement,afictiveexampleinwhichNikolaus KmmeltransferredthroughanendorsementabillofexchangeaspaymenttoJohannesSalzortohisorder:14

Clickforlargerview

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Attheendofthecycleofexchange,thesebills,payabletotheirbearerwillbebroughtbacktohewhomusthonorthem,and convertedintoliquidcurrency.Hencethetermbillofexchange:theycanbeexchangedinfineformoney,convertedintomoney. Whatwemusttakenoteofispreciselythesystemofsubstitutionatplayhere:thebillofexchangereplacesmoney.Itisits equivalent,whichistosaytheequivalentofsomethingthatisalreadyitselfanequivalentsincemoneyservesasthegeneral equivalent.Yet,asweshallseebelow,thislogicofequivalenceandsubstitution,inwhichelementsreplaceotherelementsinan indefinitechain,isattheheartoftheproblemthatisabouttotakeshapehere. Technically,asameansofpayment,billsofexchangepresentseveralspecificcharacteristicsdistinguishingthemfromthe liquidcurrencyforwhichtheyaresubstituted. Firstofall,itisaquestionofascripturalcurrency,whichistosayacurrencyfoundedonaplayofaccountingentries,whose valueisnotwithoutrelationtothevalueofitsmaterial,madeofinkandpaperratherthanofpreciousmetal. Second,itisaquestionofafiduciarymoney,whosevalueisconditionedbythetrustbetweentheagentsofexchange.IfI acceptthebillissuedbysuchandsuchmerchant,thisisbecauseItrustinhiscapacitytohonorit,becauseIhavefaithinhis promiseofreimbursement.Theconditionofthissystemofmarketcirculationofbills,whichcouldbedescribedasavastmarket ofpromises,liesinthecredibilityoftheissuers.Asaresult,astheauthorofatreatiseonbillsofexchangeintheeighteenth centurywrote,"Thusthecredit,orthetrustthatoneplacesintheotheristhemeansbywhichsuchabillofexchangereceives itsvalidity."15Afundamentalrelationthereforetiescreditinthefinancialsensetocreditinthe"moral"sense,debtcreditand trustcredit. Thethirdcharacteristicofthisparticularformofmoneyconcernsthepracticeofendorsement.Asopposedtomoney,whichas theexpressiongoes,hasnosmell,inthesensethatitpreservesnotraceofitsorigin,billsofexchangeremainimpregnatedwith anindeliblescent.Thehandsbetweenwhichtheypasseachleavetheirmarkinthecodifiedandverifiableformofapropername andasignature.Whereasthebanknoteisaformofamnesiacmoney,circulatingwithoutpreservinganymemoryofitsitinerary, thebillofexchangeisonthecontraryamemoryladenmoney.Itcarriesonitsbackthelistofitssuccessivebearers,the archiveofitscirculation,thenarrativeofitslittlecommercialbiographyachainofnames,arounddanceoftransactions.In short,itisatraceablemoney.Totheanonymousandamnesiacmaterialprincipleofmoneyisopposedtheprincipleof traceabilityandhypermnesiaofthebillofexchange.Aswecansee,thisapparatusisverysimilartothatofthepassport:each movement,eachtransactionleavesawrittentrace.Asweshallsee,thisispreciselywhatinterestsFichteinthisapparatus,one whichheintendstoperfect. Yetaproblemariseshere,mainlythatoffraud:
Inlargetradingcenters,especiallyatfairs,abillofexchangemayverywellchangeownersseveraltimesinasingleday.Thepeople throughwhosehandsithaspassedmaynotknoweachother.Now,itistrue,amerchantisunlikelytoacceptabillofexchangeunlesshe knowstheissuerandrecognizeshissignatureonit.Butsignaturescanbeforgedandthesimplefactisthatcounterfeitbillsofexchange areactuallyproducedandaccepted,soitmustbepossibletodefraudpeoplewiththem.Now,soonerorlater,whenthebillmakesitsway backtotheallegedissuer,theforgerywillbediscovered.Butthenhowisitpossibletoidentifyandapprehendtheforger,sothathecanbe heldresponsibleforthelosshehascaused?[...]Thenamesofthosethroughwhosehandsthebillhaspassedwillalwaysbemarkedon thebackofit.Butundertheusualwayofdoingthings,apersoncangiveafalsename.Assoonasonebeginstolookforhim,heis nowheretobefound.16

Herewehaveaproblemofsecureexchanges,aproblemofthesecurityofcommerceor,asFichtewrites,aproblemof"the securityofproperty."Yet,iffraudismadepossible,thisisduetoahistoricalphenomenonlinkedtotheextensionofthesphere ofexchange.Inarestrictedmarket,inwhicheveryoneknowseachother,itisdifficulttoputfalsebillsintocirculation.Mutual acquaintance[l'interconnaissance]onitsownassurestrust.Yet,inmorewidelyextendedmarkets,inwhichagentstradewith peoplewhomtheydon'tknow,whomthey'veneverseenandwhomtheymayneverseeagain,suchaspontaneousguarantee disappears.Thisbecomesallthemoretruethemorethespeedofcirculationacceleratesandthenumberofmediatorsmultiplies. Theproblemoffraudinbillsofexchangeisthusdirectlylinkedtothephenomenonofmarketextensionandtotheintensification ofmarketexchangesbeyondthesphereoflocalfamiliarity,whichistosaybeyondconditionsinwhichtheidentificationofthe agentscannolongerbeassuredbytraditional,informalmeansfoundedontheregularityofhabitualcontact. Thefraudinquestionconcernsfalsehoodandtheuseofthefalse.Tobemoreprecise,intheeighteenthcenturywemay distinguishbetweentwobroadkindsoffalsehoodinwriting,accordingtowhichbillsareeitherfalseorfalsified:"thefalsebillsare thoseonwhichthesignatureofhefromwhomthesumispayableisfalse[...]Falsifiedbillsarethoseonwhichthesum,the dateofpaymentortheendorsementshavebeencounterfeited".17Thefirstcasereferstoausurpationofidentityortotheuseof afictiveidentitythesecondisbluepenciling,themodificationofanexistingbill.Inthetwocases,theproblemthatneedstobe resolvedisthatofauthenticity:howcanweassurethatthepeopleandthebillsareauthentic,whichistosay,thattheyarereally whatorwhomtheypurporttobe?Theproblemofsecurityariseshereasaquestionoftruth. Inthecaseoffraud,wecanmountaninvestigation.Thequestionherewouldbe:howcanwetrackdowntheforger?Two thingsarenecessary:todiscoverhisidentity,andtofindoutwhereheishiding. However,althoughthepracticeofendorsementtheoreticallyprovidesthepossibilityoftracingbackthenameoftheguilty party,theapparatuscontainsaweakness.Iftheforgerhasutilizedafalseidentity,wewillnotbeabletofindhim.The precautionswillhavebeenfruitless.ItisatthisprecisepointthattheFichtianinnovationstepsin.Itisaquestionofguaranteeing bymeansofthepassportthepossibilityoftrackingdowntheguiltyparties,inthedoublesenseoffindingboththeiridentityand theirlocation.

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Project MUSE - Theory & Event - Fichte's Passport - A Philosophy of the Police

Accordingtooursuggestion,anyonewhotransfersabillofexchange(assumingthattherecipientdoesnotalreadyknowexactlyand personallywhoheis)wouldhavetopresenthisidentitycardinordertoshowthatheisthisparticularperson,wherehecanbefound,etc. Therecipientofthebillhasadutytolookattheidentitycardandtherecognizethetransferoraccordingly.Onthebackofthebillof exchange,nexttothenameofthetransferor,hewillsimplyaddthewords:withanidentitycardfromsuchandsuchanauthority.The recipientwillhavetowritedownonlytwomorephrases,anditwilltakejustaminuteortwolongertolookatthepersonandhisidentity cardbutotherwise,thematterisjustassimpleasbefore.Nowifthebillofexchangeturnsouttobeacounterfeit,andifaninvestigation pointstoaparticularperson,thenwhereishetobefound?Giventheconstitutionofourpolicepower,nooneisallowedtoleaveone locality(hecanbestoppedatthecitygate)withoutspecifyingtheplaceheintendstotravelto,whichwillbenotedintheregisterofthe placeandonhisidentitycard.Andifheshouldleavethatplace,theverysameruleswouldapplyagain,andsotherewouldbea continuousrecordofhiswhereabouts.18

Thenewmeasuresconsistinadoublingoftheendorsementofthebillthroughacontrollingofidentity.Itisanoperationof identificationinwhichwecomparethedescriptionfoundonthepassportwiththephysicalpersoninordertoassurethatthe namehegivesusistrulyhisown.Thecontributionhereconsistsinthecombinationoftechniquesofrecordingandof identification.Everytracewrittenonthebillishencefortharecordofanoperationofidentification(suchandsuchindividual, whoseidentitywascertifiedbyhispassportcarriedoutthisorthattransaction). Thepassportintervenesinthisapparatusasaproofofidentity,aformalandinstitutionalproofbasedontheuseofanofficial document.Thephenomenonisthatofatechnicizationandastatificationoftheoperationofrecognition.Thepieceofidentity appearshereforitspartasasubstitute,aStatistsubstituteforthespontaneousformsofinterpersonalrecognition,mediatedby aninstrumentofcertificationissuedbyacentralauthority. Inthisapparatus,itiseachofuswhoverifiestheidentityofeveryotherpersonbymeansofthepassport,whichhenoteson thebackofthebillofexchange.Nopoliceofficer,noagentoftheStateintervenesdirectlyintheprocess.Theidentification documentsarenotonlyatechnicalmediationbetweentheStateandindividualsunderthemodeofcontrol,butalsoanofficially guaranteedmediationbetweenindividuals.Inotherwords,thepassport,asanStatistinstrumentforthecertificationofidentity,is putintousewithintherelationbetweenpersons,andnotsimplyintherelationbetweentheStateanditssubjects,andthisisso preciselyinordertoassurethesecurityofmarketexchanges. Anotherimportantpointhere:theoperationofcontrollingidentityisnotonlylefttotheagentsofexchange,butalsointegrated withinthetransactionitself,asanecessaryformality,asoneofitseverydayconditionsofeffectuation.Nomoreexchange withoutidentitycontrol,andnomoreidentitycontrolwithoutawrittentrace.Whatcomestolighthereinthishighlyparticularcase ofbillsofexchangeisaprincipledestinedtohaveabrightfuture:aprincipleoftheautomaticcaptureoftransactionaldata, foundedonasystemofcertification.Tracesofacontroltherefore,butofacontrolintegratedinthetransactionitself,sothat eachexchangeiscoupledwiththeproductionofanauthenticatedarchive. Billsofexchangeandpassportsfunctionaccordingtoaverysimilarprinciple.Tothenamesofthetownsonehaspassed throughcorrespondthenamesofthosebetweenwhosehandsthebillhaspassed.Aspaperinstruments,theybothcarrywith themthehistoryoftheircirculation.Butthetwoartifactsarenotonlyconnectedbyahomologicalrelation.InFichte'splan,the twoapparatusesarequiteconcretelyarticulatedtooneanother.Thesignatureonthebackofthebill,besidewhichonefindsthe referencetothecorrespondingpassport,materializestheintersectionoftwotrajectoriesfixedonpaperbythisoperationof recording.Foragivennamewithintheseriesofendorsements,oncanchooseeithertomovebackthroughtheverticalaxisof transactionsinordertoretracethehistoryofexchanges,orelseonecanfollowthehorizontalaxisoftheindividual'smovements inordertoreconstitutehispath. Theentireplanconsistsinarticulatingtheaxisofthecirculationofbillstotheaxisofthecirculationofpeople,inassociatingin aninextricablewaythetraceabilityofmeansofpaymentwiththetraceabilityofagentsofexchange,withthegoalofcreatinga securitizedmarket.Asystemofgeneralizedtraceability,inwhichtheitinerariesofpeopleandofthingsformacrisscrossing networkofpathsthatintersectandofwhichonecanalways,beginningfromthearchivesofcontrol,drawupthemap.Creationof aterritorywithnowayoutandatimewithoutanylacunae. Thisdoubleapparatusoftraceabilityofpeopleandofthingsappearsasapowerfulmeansoffacilitatingtheinvestigation. Thankstothechainofrecordedidentificationswehenceforthhaveatourdisposal,itwillnolongerbedifficulttofindthelink responsibleforthefraud.Wewillimmediatelyknowthetrueidentityoftheforgeraswellaswheretoapprehendhim. Todescribesuchanapparatus,Fichtespokeofa"policeorganization,"whichindicatesthatthepoliceshouldbeunderstood herenotmerelyasaninstitution(e.g.,onechargedwithtrackingdownsuspects)butalso,andmorefundamentally,asawayof organizingthings.Itisaproblemofreorganizingtherealsoastofacilitatefutureinvestigations,ofconstructingaworldsuitedto investigation. MythesisisthattheapparatusesoftraceabilityareforthisreasonprofoundlydifferentfromwhatCarloGinzburgcalledthe "evidentialparadigm"19orelsetheyradicalizeittothepointofsurpassingit. ForGinzburg,theevidentialparadigmisessentiallygovernedbyproblemsofattribution:howcanweknow,intheabsenceof anyobvioussignature,whotheauthorofapaintingoracrimereallyis?Whichhiddenfeaturesandcharacteristicsallowusto recognizehimorher?Howcanwereachback,throughthesign,towardstheonewhoproducedit,andwhomthesignstill secretlycontinuestoindicate?Thiskindofinterrogationinvolvestheslowworkofdecipheringclues,theinterpretiveregression fromthepresenttowardthepast,fromtheeffecttothecause.Inthisevidentialparadigm,westudytheactuallyexistingtraces soastoreadinthemthevestigesofapastweseektoreconstitute.Thisisaretrospectivemovementrequiringanentireart,all theknowhowoftheinvestigatorandthesagacityofthedetective. Theparadigmoftraceabilityproceedsdifferently.Infact,itreversesthetemporallogic.Inplaceoftheseaposteriorimaterial

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traces,wenoworganizeinanaprioriwaytheproductionoffuturetraces.Thespontaneoustracesthatservedasthebaseofthe evidentialparadigmarereplacedbyprefabricatedtracescapturedbymeansofautomaticrecordingapparatusesintegratedinto activityitself,everymaterialflownowbeingcoupledwithaproductionofaflowofdata. Asaresult,thisnewregimeoftraceproductionhopestosolvethewholeproblemofattributioninadvance,beforeiteven arises:toassurethetraceisattributableevenbeforeitsactualproduction.Theproblemisnolongerthatofbeginningfroma giventraceandthensubsequentlydeterminingitsauthor.Rather,beginningwithagivenindividual,theproblemistoensurethat, inthefuture,hebemadetheabsoluteauthortowhichhisactsaretobeattributed.Traceabilitythusappearsastheengineering oftracesignatures.Everyactmustbesigned.Everyactmustincludeanautomaticsignature.Ratherthansplotchesofmud,we haveaname,aplaceandadateinformationfastenedtoeachfootprint.Whereastheevidentialparadigmimpliesascienceof theindividual,traceabilityappearsonthecontraryasatechnics oftheindividual,asaprocedureofindividuationdestinedto produceentitiesthatareidentifiableandeasilyfound.20 Wemakesurethatactivityleavestracesandthatthesetraceshaveacodeimposedupontheminwhichtheyareexpressed. Suchapreexistingcodewillrendertheworkofinterpretationsuperfluous:itsufficestoreadthetraces,inblackandwhite.There willnolongerbeanyneedfortheslowandpatientworkofdecipheringthatcallsforsomanyvarietiesofingenuity,forthetraces willbeseizedwithinacodeandagrammarthatimmediatelyrendersthemlegibletheywillspeakforthemselves,forwewill havetaughtthemtospeak,becausewewillhavebecomediscourse. Whereastheevidentialparadigmisfoundedonasemiotics ,onanartofinterpretingsigns,traceabilitydependsona signaletics.Theidealoftraceabilityistorendertheinterpretiveworkthatwasattheveryheartoftheevidentialparadigm superfluous,andthisbytherecordingandcodingoftracesthathavebecomeatoncesignalsandsignatures. Suchanapparatusthereforeallowsthepolicetodispensewiththetediousworkofinvestigation.Wewillnowproceedbya simpleretrospectivereadingofthehistoryoftherecordedtraces.Atthelimit,theinvestigationitselfwillbecomesuperfluous. Theoldclueswillhavebeenreplacedbyavastarchiveofwrittenproofestablishedbyanticipation.Iftheconceptualpersonaof theevidentialparadigmisthedetective,intheparadigmoftraceabilityitisthearchivist. Infacttherearetwoclassicpolicefiguresthatthelogicofapparatusesoftraceabilitytendideallytodoawaywith:notonlythe detective,butalsothespy.Fichteexplicitlylinkshisplanofageneralizedtraceabilitytothediminutionofsurveillancefunctions: withsuchasystemthereisnolongeranyneedtohaveagentsfollowingindividualsuspectsaround,nomoreinformants,no moretailing.Theideaisthatthemultiplicationofcontrolpointswillrendertheseoldformsofsurveillancesuperfluous.Weno longerneedtodirectlyfollowsomeone,wenowfollowatadistance,bytraces,throughtheaggregationofaseriesofwritten notationsratherthanthroughthecontinuityofalook.Themodelisnolongerthatofacentraleye,butratheroneofachainof hands,avastnetworkofwriting. Mythesisisthatwhatwehavehereislessanapparatusofsurveillancethanoneofcontrol.Etymologically,the"contrerolle" referredtothecopyofadocumentofalist,anaccountbook,aregisterofbirths,marriagesanddeathsthatisarchivedand usedtoverifyotheritems.Controlisdefinedfirstofallasanoperationofverificationbymeansofasystemofwrittennotation. Assuchitisstrictosensudistinctfromsurveillance,whichasaprocessisoriginallymuchmoreopticalthanscriptural.Atthe limit,tosurveyitsufficesthatonehaveeyes,whereascontrolimpliesanensembleofdocumentsandarchives. IthinkthatthistypeoftechnologyofpowerismarkedlydifferentthantheonedescribedbyFoucaultunderthenameof Panopticism.Certainly,institutionsofhierarchicalsurveillancecontrolandrecord.Theymobilizeanentireapparatusofwritingat thesametimeastheyceaselesslywatchovertheirsubjects.Thesurveyortakesnotes.Thepracticeoftheexaminationgives risetopilesofforms,reportsandfiles.21ButifthePanopticonisagraphomaniacalinstitution,itswritingappearstobe essentiallysubordinatedtothelook,astherecordofanobservationoranexamination.Whatwefindintheexampleofthebills ofexchangeareoperationsofnotationthatinasensebecomeautomaticexudationsofthetransactions.Notransactionswithout writing,yetnotinthesensethatareportisdrawnupaboutactivity,butratherinthesenseofarecording,thewrittencaptureof tracesfindsitselfincorporatedwithintheactivityitselfasitsconditionofpossibility.Thisisanapparatusinwhicheveryact producesinandofinitselfitsownwrittentrace,withoutthemediationofathirdterm. Moreover,werecallthatthedisciplinaryefficacyofthePanopticonhingesontheinteriorizationbyitssubjectsofthelookthat surveysthem.Itmatterslittlewhetherthereisorisnotasurveyorinthetower:itsufficesthattheinmatesbelievetheretobefor themtothinktheyarebeingwatchedandtomodifytheirconductaccordingly.Now,ifthepsychologicalefficacyofapparatuses oftraceabilityalsoresidesinaprocessofinteriorization,thelatterdoesnothavethesameobject.Whatthesubjectof traceabilityinteriorizesisnottheideathatheorsheisbeingobservedhereandnowevenifinfactheisnotbutthatwecan alwayscatchupwithhim,thatwewillalwaysknowwhathehasdoneandwherehecanbefound.Ifsurveillancefunctionsinthe present"Iseeyou"traceabilityfunctionsinthefutureanterior:"Iwillknowwhatyouwillhavedone".Theprocessesare similar,butdistinct.Todistinguishthisregimefromtheclassicmodelsofsurveillance,thenotionof"dataveillance"22hasbeen proposed:awatchfulnessexercisedbytherecordingofdatapreservedforafutureuse.Traceabilityconsistsinorganizingwithin thepresentthefuturecapabilityofrereadingthepast. Asaresult,ifdisciplinarysurveillance"presupposesamechanismthatcoercesbymeansofobservation,"23traceability impliesanapparatusthatcoercesbymeansofmemory.Whereasthefirstisbasicallyfoundedonanopticalart,thesecond mobilizesamnemotechnics thatinduceseffectsofpower.Theformerareobservationmachines,thelattermemorization machines.Theformerfunctionthroughthepermanenceofthelook,thelatterthroughacontinuousmemorization.Theartofthe visibleversusthetechnologyofthememorable.Inthiskindofapparatuswearenotdisciplinedbytheinteriorizationofalook, butbytheinteriorizationofanexternalmemory. Whatpsychologicaleffectdoesthishave?Aboveallitisaneffectofdissuasion.Forthepotentialperpetratoroffraud,this

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archivaltechnologyshouldproducetheassuranceofbeingdiscoveredandcaptured.ForFichtethisispreciselytheconditionof theefficacyofthelegislation:thathenolongerhaveeventheslightesthopeofimpunity. Thereisawholephilosophicaltraditionthatconsiderspunishmenttobeadissuasivemeasure,athreatthatissupposedto discourageindividualsfromcommittingtheact,awholechapterofpenalphilosophythatconceivesofthesanctionasan intimidationmeasure,whichbypunishingcurrentoffenderswillavertfutureones.However,accordingtosucharationale,penal dissuasionfunctionsonlyifthechancesofescapingpunishmentarelittleornone.Evenifthepunishmentsprovisionedbythe codeweresevere,ifthepowersofinvestigationandtrackingareweakthehopeofescapingthemwillbelarge,andthe dissuasionminimal.Brieflyput,penaldissuasionisafunctionoftheefficacyofthepolice,sothat,asFichtewrites,"The requirementthatthepolice,asservantofthelaw,apprehendeveryguiltypartywithoutexceptionisabsolutelynecessary."24Yet thisnecessity,whichisunrealizableinnormalStates,willbefulfilledintheFichtianState,inwhichthepoliceknow"whereeach oneisateveryhouroftheday,andwhatheisdoing."25Traceabilitymakesthedreamofimpunitydisappear. Theproblemherehastodowiththerelationbetweenthelawandthereal,withtheefficacyofthelaw.Whatisrequiredforthe sentencessetforwardbythecodetobecomeeffectivedeterrents?Thisproblemofagap,ofanoncorrespondencebetweenthe realandthelaw,iswhatdefinestheproperspaceofpoliceaction,understoodasthemediationbetweenthelawandthereal,as theinstrumentfortheconcretizationofthelaw.Beforeexaminingingreaterdetailthewayinwhichthisconcretizationofthelaw throughthepolicetakesplace,IwouldliketoreturntotheFichtiandefinitionofpolicepower.

3.Police
ThepassportplanthatFichteproposeshereisapolicemeasure.Butwhatisthepolice?Whatisthestatusofthemeasuresthat itenacts?Iwillattempttoanswerthisquestionintwostages:first,byoutliningFichte'sdefinitionofpolicesecond,bysituating thisdefinitioninitshistoricalandtheoreticalcontextattheendoftheeighteenthcentury. Iwillbeginwithageneralremark:here,asthetitleoftheworkindicates,theconceptofthepolicesurfaceswithintheframeof aphilosophyofright.Thequestionofthepolicewhatitis,whatitcandoisfirstposedinrelationtothelaw,andmore specificallyinrelationtopoliticalright.Inperfectlyclassicalfashion,Fichtethinksthefoundationofpoliticalsovereigntythrough atheoryofthesocialcontract,bymobilizingthefictionofanoriginalcontractbetweensubjectsandthesovereignfromwhichthe rightsandmutualneedsofeachpartyarederived.Yet,atthecenterofthisclassiccontracturalistmatrixisinsertedsomething thatIbelieveiscompletelynovel:anewconceptionofthepoliceconformingtowhatwasintheprocessofbeingdeveloped duringthisperiodincertaincurrentsofPolizeiwissenschaft.Thuswehaveacouplingoftheoldtheoryofthesocialcontractwith thenewlyemergingpolicerationality. Fichtepresentstherelationbetweenthepoliceandthelawinafewdifferentways.Hisfirstlineofquestioningconcernsits foundation:whatfoundstherightofthepolice?Atthispointitisamatterofadeductiveapproachthatseeksthecontentofthis right,whichisaStatistrightinsofarasitflowsfromthetermsoftheoriginalcontract.Itisthereforeaquestionofthenormative foundationofpolicepower.ButFichtealsoquestionsthespecificityofpolicenormativity:howarepolicelawsandmeasures distinguishedfromthelawmorebroadly?Whatisthespecificityofthenormativepowerofthepolicewithrespecttothatofthe law,whetherthisbecivilorpenal?Itisquestion,therefore,ofhowtocharacterizepolicenormativityasaspecificorderof constraint:whatdistinguishesthe"youmust"statedbythepolicefromthe"youmust"statedbythelaw? WhatfoundspolicepoweraccordingtothistheoryisthedutythattheStatehastoprotectitscitizens,andwhichgoverns institutionsofsecurity.Thepowerofprotection,therefore,whichispresentedasaduty.Buttothisdutyalsocorrespondsaright, arightofconstrainttheStateexertsoveritscitizens.Inaschemaofreciprocitybetweenrightsanddutiestypicalof contracturalistlogic,policepowerfindsitselflegitimizedatoncebythedutytoprotectandtherightofconstraint,arightof constraintpresentedasbeingthestrictcounterpartandatthesametimethemeansofthedutyofprotection.Itisinasense theideaofasecuritypact,inwhichnaturallibertyisswappedforStateprotection.Yetthepolicearenotcontentsimplywith puttinginplacethese"institutionsofprotectionandsecurity"(firstbranchofthepolice)intendedtodirectlyprotectcitizens (armedpatrols,roadsignage,thefightagainstcharlatanism,protectionfromdisasters,firesorfloods),butalsopromulgatetheir ownspecificlaws,policelaws.Theobligationtocarryapassportreferstothelattertypeoflaw. Inordertoprotectitissometimesnecessarytoconstrain.Butwhatisconstraint?Fichtespecifiesthetypeofprocedurethatin hisviewshouldbecoveredbythisnotion.Theguidingquestionisthefollowing:canoneinventatypeofprocedurethat absolutelyobligessubjectstorespectthelaw?Thismeansofforcedobediencewouldbea"lawofconstraint"lawbeing understoodherenotinthejuridicalsensebutratherinthemechanicalsenseofanecessaryprinciple. Thefirstimagethatcomestomindwhenonespeaksofconstraintisthatofaphysicalimpediment,acoercion:toforce someonetodosomething,toexertpressureonhisorherbody.Itwouldthenbeaquestionoforganizing"anapparatusunder whichamechanicalforceofnaturewouldkeeppeoplefromengaginginwrongfulactions"26Wefindexamplesofthissortof apparatusinthepoliceliteratureoftheeighteenthcentury:forexample,antitheftmachinessuchthatwhenawindowisopened fromoutsidebyanunauthorizedpersonachargeofbuckshotisunloaded.Examples,therefore,ofapparatusesthatarephysical, thathinderorthatautomaticallyretaliate.ButFichterejectsthisoptionasbeingatonceimpracticalandillegitimate.Ageneral apparatusofabsolutephysicalconstraintwouldnotonlybedifficulttorealize(onecanalwaysopposeforcewithforce,onecan always resist),butalsocontrarytotheprinciplesofright.Toobtainageneralobedienceitisnecessarytoresorttosomething otherthanpurerelationsofforce,somethingotherthanhindrances,thanaballandchainandastraightjacket. What'sleft?"Theapparatuswearelookingforwouldhavetobedirectedtothewillitselfitwouldhavetoenableandrequire thewilltodetermineitselfandwillonlythosethingsthatcancoexistwithlawfulfreedom."27Inotherwords,asopposedtothe unrealistichypothesisofaconstantphysicalconstraint,akindofgeneralizedpolicecorsetage,Fichteprefersanothersolution, onethatisatoncemorepracticalandmoreinconformitywiththelaw:aconstraintaimedlessatthebodythanatthemind,less

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attheactsthemselvesthanatthewilltocommitthem.Whereasphysicalconstraintplacesthebodyinchains,the"lawof constraint"willbetheinstrumentofapsychichindrancethatwillgivebacktothebodyitsfreedomofmovement,allthewhile controllingitthroughtheintermediaryofthewill.Policeconstraintwilltaketheformofatechnologyofthewill. Thechallengeconsistsinfindingadevicebywhichthewillcanbemadetonolongerwanttobeillegal.Butatthisstagethe questionstillremains:howtoforcethewilltowillonlythatwhichthelawauthorizes,andnothingelse?Forthisitisnecessaryto arrangethingssothatonceitgerminatesinthemind,theillegalwillannulsitselfonitsown.Whatisnecessaryistofinda meansoftrappingthewillinacontradictionthatdiffusesit,adeviceforautomaticallyturningthewillagainstitself.Thiscouldbe thecaseifonecouldmanagetoputintoplace"anapparatus[...]thatwouldoperatewithmechanicalnecessitytoguaranteethat anyactioncontrarytorightwouldresultintheoppositeofitsintendedend,suchanapparatuswouldnecessitatethewilltowill onlywhatisrightful."28Imagineaworldinwhicheveryillegalthingwilled,oncetherequisiteactionwaseffectuated,wasturned intoitsopposite.Aworldorganizedinsuchawaythatthewilltocommitanillegalactionalwaysturnedagainstitsagentassoon ashetriedtoundertakeit,inwhichthishappenedautomatically,accordingtoamechanicalnecessity.Herewehaveanattempt attheannulmentofillwillbyareversalofitseffectsthatturnsitagainstitself. Philosophyhaslongasked,atleastsincePlato,whetheritispossibletowillevil.Thisoldtheoreticalquestionreceivesherea newtechnopracticalsolution:itmatterslittlewhetheryouwillevil,forwhenyouundertaketherealizationofthiswillyouwillend upwiththeoppositeofwhatyouintended.Youarefreetowillthat,butknowthattheconsequencewillinevitablybetheopposite ofwhatyouwanted.Youwanttogetrichthroughtheft?Youwillinevitablyendupbeingfined.Whatwassupposedtobethe meanstoanendrevealsitselfinfacttobetherealizationofitsopposite. Thisprocedureofvolitionalincapacitationconsistsinactinguponthemotivesofactionthroughaplayofmechanicalcounter measures.Itisaquestionofdefusingthewillbymeansofananticipativecalculusofitsconsequences:itbeinggiventhata determinateactionwillsetinmotionanecessaryandforeseeablereaction,theagentmustconsequentlyintegratethisintohis calculation.Inotherwords,thegoalhereisnottoproduceagoodwill,whichistosay,onewhosemotivesareinthemselvesin conformity,bothinternallyandautonomously,withtherequisitesofthelawtheclassicalpostKantiandefinitionofmorality but toproducetheconditionsofacontrolledwill,awillthat,evenifthisdoesnotariseinternallyfromitself,isstilldeterminedbythe morallaw,andwhichcannotwillanythingotherthantheauthorizedjuridicallaw.Whatwehavehereisatechnologynotof moralitybutofpurelegality ,definedasthesimpleconformityofexternalactionstothelaw.Itmatterslittlewhetheryouactfrom outofafearofsanctionorfromatruealtruism,allthatcountsisthatyouactlegally.Itisnotamatterofformingamoral subject,butratheralegalsubject.Itisinthistypeofsecuritarianrationalitythatonemustlookfortheemergenceofrulesof actiondisconnectedfromeveryexigencyofanormativeautonomyofthesubject,determinedpurelybyamechanicalplayof anticipationofthe'action/reaction'sort. Theannulmentofthecriminalwilloccursinthisschemathroughthethreatofarepressiononecannotescape,bythe dissuasiveshadowoftheineluctablechoppingblockofthelaw.Itisinthissensethattheapparatusissaidtobe"mechanical", thatanecessaryrelationofconsecutionisestablishedbetweentheillegalactanditssanction.Youwanttopassoffaforgedbill, butyouknowthatassoonasyouexchangeityouwillinevitablybeseizedandpunished,andasaresultofthisveryexchange itself,whichwashowwewereabletofindyou. Consequently,toturntheeffectsagainsttheintentionthatdrivesthem,itisnecessaryforthemeansemployedtoconcretely endupbeingtheoppositeofwhattheyweresupposedtodo.Thissupposesawholetechnicalworkofreorganizingtheworld,the unfurlingofanentirepoliceengineering.Thatthesanctionnolongerbeasimplethreatbutamechanicalconsequenceofthe crimeimpliesthatwetechnicallyinscribethenecessityofthesanctionwithintheveryorderofthefunctioningofthereal, convertingthepenallawintoaquasiphysicallaw. Toeffectuatesuchanorderingoftheworld,thepolicewillrelyonahighlyspecificnormativeinstrumentthatFichtecallsthe "policelaw,"andwhichitisimportanttodistinguishinseveralrespectsfromotherformsoflaw. Policelawsdifferfromproperlycivillawsfirstofall"bythefactthatthelatterprohibitactualinjuries,whiletheformeraimat preventingthepossibility ofinjury."29Adifferenceofobject:whereascivillawsaredirectedtowardthereal,policelawstargetthe possible.Toprovideasimpleexample,whereasthelawingeneralsays"itisprohibitedtosteal",thepolicelawsays"itis forbiddentoconcealyourface"thisisbecausethegesturecanforexamplefacilitatearmedrobbery. Inthisoperationofinterdictionthepolicecarryoutaregressionoftheprohibitedacttoitsconditionsofpossibility.Itisanorm thatisappliedtotherealbyconsideringitinlightofthevirtualitiesitpresents.Putotherwise,andthispointisabsolutelycrucial, thepoliceisdefinedasapoweroverthepossible,asapowerthatlimitsthepossible,apowerthatisessentiallypreventative, whichexertsitselfinthenameofthatwhichhasnotyetbeencommittedbutwhichcouldbe.Itisbecauseyoucouldmakean illegaluseofsuchandsuchafreedomthatIdepriveyouofit. Yetthereisasecondimportantdifference,whichthistimeconcernsthemodalitiesoftheinterdiction:whereasthelegal interdictiontakestheformofaverbalprohibitionitisforbiddentocommitsuchandsuchactunderpenaltyofsuchandsuch sanctionthepolicemeasuretakestheformofaconcreteimpediment.Thepolicearenotcontenttoissueinterdictions,they makeuseofmaterialarrangementsinordertopreventthethingfromtakingplace.Thusforexamplethepoliceprohibition"itis forbiddentoconcealyourfaceinpublic"isimmediatelycoupledwithatechnicalmeasure:publiclighting,whichmakesthe disappearanceofthefaceintotheobscurityofthenightphysicallyimpossible.Wherethelawonlytalks,thepoliceactontheir words,translatingitsdiscursiveinterdictionsintomaterialapparatuses.Wherethejuridicalnormisabstractandformal,thepolice measureisconcreteandtechnical. Fromoneregimetotheotherwepassfromarelationofformalsubsumptiontoarelationofrealsubsumptionofthe phenomenontothenorm.Inthepoliceregime,ideallyanyway,onecannolongerbreaktheprohibitionsinceoneisconcretely submittedtoitsexigencies.Thepolicepresentsitselfasthepoweroftherealimpossibilizationofwhatisprohibited.Itfunctions

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asanapparatusofconversion,convertingthelegalprohibitionintoamaterialimpossibility,likeatechnologythatreconfigures thepossiblefromthepointofviewofthenecessary.30 Finally,thereisathirdessentialdifference:whereas"thecivillawprohibitsactions that,inandofthemselves,violatethe rightsofothers[...]Policelawprohibitsactionsthat,inandofthemselves,donotharmanyoneandappearentirelyneutral,"31 butwhichmakeiteasierforonetoharmothersandwhichmaketheprotectionofothersaswellastheapprehensionoftheguilty difficultfortheState.AsFichtewrites,"wedon'thurtanyonesimplybybeingonadarkstreet,butinthisobscurityitwouldbe easilypossibletodoso,anditisthispreciselythatmustbeexcluded."Putotherwise,thepolicemeasureprohibitsactsthatare inthemselvesinnocentinthenameofasecondaryanduncertainpossibilityofharm.Sothatthepolicelawproducesoffenses suigeneris ,offencesthataresuchonlyinvirtueofabreachofpolicemeasures,withoutcomprisinganyrealdamagepurely formaloffences,offenceswithoutvictims. Thisintroducesafundamentaldecouplingofpolicerationalityfromprinciplesofright:adisjunctionofthecriminalandthe harmfulthatleadstoanautonomizationonarbitrarybasesofwhatconstitutesanoffenceandwhatauthorizesconstraint. Whatbeginstotakeshapewiththesethreedistinctcharacteristicsisasharpoppositionbetweentwoverydifferentnormative regimes:juridicolegalnormativityandpolicenormativity.Tosummarize,ifthejuridicallawformallyprohibitsrealinjuryonthe basisoftheharmitcauses,policelawpreventsorreallyprohibitsfactsthatarenotharmfulinthemselves,butwhicharevirtually permittingillegalismstooccur.Policelawisdefinedastherealbanofinnocentfactsinthenameofapossibleinfraction. Itisimportanttoregisterwhatisemergingintheselines:asuigeneris rationalityofthepolicenorm,developedinrupturewith thefundamentaltraditionalprinciplesofthejuridicalorder,arightdisconnectedfromeveryexigencyofjustice,apoliceright, entirelysecuritarianandpreventive,asblindtotheefficacyoftheactasitistotherealityofharm.Apowerofabsolute constraintexerciseduponinnocentfactsinthenameofapossibledanger. ThisconceptionofpolicepowerisnotentirelyFichte'sowninvention.Heinheritsitinlargepartfromamovementalready underwayduringhistimeincertaincurrentsof"Polizeiwissenschaft"thatsoughttoredefinepolicerationality. Intheeighteenthcentury,theconceptofthepoliceisstillunstable.Thereisnoconsensusonitsdefinition,andwefindnearly asmanydefinitionsofthepoliceastherearetreatieswrittenuponit.Despitethislackofnotionalunity,ageneraltendency remainseasytosee.Inaveryschematicfashion,weareintheprocessofpassingfromanextensiveandpositivenotiontoa restrictedandnegativenotionofpolice.32 Theclassic"Policey"coversaverylargedomain,andinthisfirstacceptationamountstoanartofgoverningapeopleinevery dimensionofitslife.Thisbroadextensionoftheoldconceptofpolice,anotionquasisynonymouswithpoliticalart,isfarfrom thatwhichwecommonlyunderstandtodaybythenotionof"police,"distilledinimagesofasiren,abatonandaticketbook. ThesecondcharacteristicoftheoldnotionofpoliceconcernsitsarticulationtoacertaintheoryoftheendsoftheState.What istheaimofthepoliticalcommunity?Theclassicresponse,ofAristotelianorigin,consistsinsayingthatthegoalofpolitical associationisnotonlytolivebuttolivewell,thatpoliticsthereforeisnotboundsolelytotheassuranceoftheprimarybiological functionsoflifebutalsototherealizationofagoodlife.Thisthesis,takenupagainbyaspectsofmodernpoliticalphilosophy, formedthebasisofwhatiscalleda"eudaemonist"conceptionofpoliticalsovereigntyaccordingtowhichtheendoftheState wastoassurethehappiness,wellbeing,or(inGerman)the"Wohlfahrt"ofitssubjects.ThiswasapositivedefinitionoftheState ashappinessorasprovidence,wellbeingorpublicsafety,directedatoncetowardthehealthofthebody,thesalvationofthe soul,temporalhappiness,morality,prosperityandsecurity. Themeansfortherealizationofthispositiveandtotalizingfinalitywasacertainbodyofknowledgeintendedtobringitabout: thescienceofpolice,"Polizeiwissenschaft,"understoodasthescienceofhappiness,ageneralrationalityofthewellbeingof people. ItshouldbenotedthatthisdoctrineoftheendsoftheStateofferedatthesametimeatheoryofthefoundationsofpolitical authority.Itwasinthenameofthehappinessofthepeoplethatthesovereignexercisedhisauthority.Itwasthroughthis conceptof"Wohlfahrt"thathisrightofconstraintwasfounded.Oncesuchanendwaspresentedasthefoundationofsovereign power,itsauthoritycouldofcourseclaimforitselfanextensionastotalasitsobject. Thiseudaemonistconceptionofsovereigntywasstronglycriticizedthroughouttheeighteenthcentury.CantheStatebase itselfonapositiveanddeterminatedefinitionofhappinessinordertoexercisearightofconstraint?Enlightenmentthinkersin Germanyconcentratedtheirattacksonthisprecisepoint,developingwhatonecouldcallapoliticallyliberalcritiqueofthe doctrineoftheStateofwellbeing.Thepursuitofhappinessbeingeachandeveryone'sownaffair,noauthoritycanclaimto assertitsvisionofhappinessasthefoundationofapowerofconstraint.Thiscriticismimpliesamuchmorerestrictedfinalitybe assignedtotheStatethanthatofWohlfahrt.TheaimoftheStatecannotbethepositiverealizationofhappinessbutrather somethingmoremodest,relatedonlytotheconditionsoftheindividual'spursuitofhappiness.Fromthispointon,thepolicecan nolongerbeunderstoodasthegeneralscienceofthepeople'shappiness:fromarationalityofpublichappiness,wemustpass toamorerestricteddefinition. Itisinthiscontextthatthepolicetendedtoberedefined(tendedonly,however,sinceimportantelementsoftheolddefinitions stillremained)aroundthecardinalnotionofsecurity .Wethereforewitnessamovementrestrictingtheconceptofthepolice,a limitationthatwillbringthenotionclosertoourunderstandingofthetermtoday,whichistosayaninstitutionchargedwiththe taskofinternalsecurity.Atendencytopassfromhappinesspolicetosecuritypolice,fromPoliceytoPolizei. Thismovementofrestrictionimpliesaseriesofimportantdisplacementswithinthedefinitionofpolicepower,theechoof whichwecanhearinFichte'stext.

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Afirstdisplacementconcernsboththemissionassignedtothepoliceaswellasitsmodeofaction.Itwillnolongerhaveas itstaskthepositiverealizationofwellbeing,butrather,inapurelynegativemode,thepreventionofdisorders,abusesorcriminal offencestheavoidanceofeverythingthreateningsecurity.OnthistopictheclassicalreferenceisthedefinitionPttergivesin hisInstitutionsiurisgermanici(1770)whichhiscommentatorsbaptizedasthebirthofthemodernpolice:"Thispartofsupreme powerwhichaddressesitselftoavertingfutureevilswhichthreatentheinternalaffairsoftheStateingeneraliscalledthepolice right[...]Thetaskofthepoliceisnottopromotethepublicgood,unlessinsofarasbydoingdo,itsparestheStatefromthe threatofanevil."33Thepassagefromatotalizingandpositivefinalitytoafiniteandnegativeone:toavertevils,preventturmoil. Thepolicepresentsitselfinacertainrespectasapowerofnegationofthereal,onewhichsubtractsandpreventsmorethanit producesorcreates.Wepassfromapositiveconceptionofittoanegativity.Atthesametime,wewitnessthedivorceofthe notionofpolicefromthatofpoliticsaswellasthesubordinationoftheformertothecardinalnotionofsecurity.Forexample, whenSonnenfelsredefinesthescienceofpoliceas"theprinciplesthatfoundandenablethemasteryovertheinternalsecurityof theState."34Heunderlinestheoriginalityofthisnotioninrelationtotheolddefinitionsofthepolice:"TheoldGermanauthors[...] associatedthepolicewithanextremelyvaguenotion:thescienceofarrangingingoodformandgoodordertheinternal constitutionoftheStateinviewofgeneralhappiness.Yetintheseterms,thisisratheradefinitionofpoliticalscience."M.von Justigivesitamoreprecisemeaning,whichneverthelessremainsvast.Hewrites,"Itisthescienceoforganizingtheinternal constitutionoftheStatesothatthewellbeingoftheindividualfamiliesremainscloselylinkedtothegeneralgood."35For Sonnenfels,tothecontrary,theprimaryobjectiveofthepoliceconsistsinstrengtheningtheinternalsecurityoftheState.36 Thisredefinitionofthepolicenotonlymakesitintoanentirelynegativeactivity,butalsoapreventativeone.Eveniftheterm "preventativepolice"doesn'tappearuntilthebeginningofthenineteenthcentury,itisindeedthisideathatemergesattheendof theeighteenthcenturyinawholeseriesofauthors,suchasPtter,Hbelin,vonSonnenfels,vonBergandBenson,whodefine policeactionas"theuseofanyadequateandlegitimatemeanstoavoidtheobstaclesanddangersthatcomprisethesecurity andthewellbeingofcitizens,ortoprevent,inthenameofthesupremepower,futureevilsthatpresentageneralnuisancewithin theState."37Itisnotenoughtointerveneafterthefactinordertorepressorcorrect,weneedtoactpriortothis,beforethecrime iscommitted,or,evenbetter,beforeitevencouldbe.Hencethetwofolddimensionofthepolice,whichisdirectlyrelatedtoits preventativeredefinition:itisaquestionatonceofapoweroverthefutureandoverthepossible. Foritsadherents,redefiningthepoliceasapoweroverthefuturechieflyservestofixaclearlineofdemarcationbetween policeandjudiciarypower,distinguishingtheobjectofthepolicefromthatofjustice:"Futureevils",writesvonBerg,"areinthe lastaccountonlytheobjectofpolice,foritsprincipalgoalisavoidanceandprevention.Pastevils,insofarastheyaresubmitted tothejudgmentoflaw,belongtothejusticesystem."38Thisredefinitionmayappearcounterintuitivesinceitdoesn'tcorrespond verywelltothetwotraditionalimagesofpolice,investigativeandrepressivesiftingthroughthepastinordertoestablishthe facts,anddeployingitselfinthehereandnowinordertoputanendtoapresentoffence.Nevertheless,fromthepointofviewof theseauthors,inbothcasespoliceactionstillfundamentallytendstowardfuturedesigns.Inthecaseoftheinvestigativepolice, wecanalwayssaythatcapturingtheguiltyservesabovealltodissuadenewcriminaldesires.Asforrepression,evenifitis carriedoutinthepresent,itcanbesaidthatthisisalwayswiththehopesofstoppingthefuturedevelopmentsofactionalready underway.39 Thispoweroverthefutureisthusimmediatelydefinedasapoweroverthepossible,inthemodeofanimpossibilizationof criminaloffences.HenceforSonnenfels,whilethefreesubmissionoftheparticularwilltothelawisdesirable,itisnotalways assured,and"consequentlythepolicemustattempttogroundobedienceontheimpossibilityoftheinfraction."40Inorderto determinethewillofagents,itisaboveallnecessarytostripthem,bypolicemeans,ofeveryhopeof"notbeingdiscoveredand remainingimpune."41Thatthepossiblebelimitedtothepermitted:thisistheideathatpolicearechargedwithrealizing, understoodasamediationbetweenthelawandthereal.Inthispassagefromthepoliceasscienceofhappinesstothepoliceas atechnologyofcontroloverpossibility,itisaquestionofproducing,throughthematerialreconfigurationofthereal,thestrict conditionsofacontrolledfreedom,whichimpliesputtinginplaceanentirearsenalofsecuritizationtechnologies. Yetitisnecessarytospecifythemeaningofthispreventativedimension.Ifweintendtointerveneinthepsychologicaland technicalconditionsofthecommissionofanact(thefeelingofimpunity,aswellasthematerialinstruments),wenevertheless leaveasideanyconsiderationofthedeeperrootsoftheactinquestion.Crimeisnotconceivedofasasocialphenomenonbut onlyastheencounterbetweenanindividualwillandaseriesofconditionsofeffectuation.Wewanttopreventthecommissionof theact,butthegenesisoftheactremainsoutsideofourfieldofvision.Thismodeoftreatment,fixedtoconditionsratherthanto thecauses,ischaracteristicofsecuritarianrationality,whichisfundamentallyandasaresultofthisprecisehistorical separationofmodernpolicefrompoliticsapolitical,inthesensethatitoverlooksthegenesisofthesocialfactsthatittakesas itsobjects.Consequently,wemustnotmistakethemeaningofpolice"prevention":thispreventionisstrictlysecuritarian,and notsocial. Fichtetakesoverthisnewnegative,preventative,securitarianconceptionofpolicepower.Hesystematizesitandintegratesit withinasocialcontracttheoryinwhichsecurityispresentedasthefoundationofsovereignty.Whatisputinplacehereinthis fusionoftheoldcontracturalistdoctrineofprotectivesovereigntywiththisnewminimalconceptionofpoliceactionisthe definitionofasecuritariansovereignty . Yet,theironyinthisprocedureisthat,asIwilltrytoshow,thislimitationoftheconceptofthepoliceparadoxicallyendsup fosteringwithinitatendencytowardalimitlesspower.Inordertoisolatetheconceptualrootsofthisparadox,Iwouldliketo makeadetourthroughthecriticismsandobjectionsthatweremadeofFichte'spassportsystem.

4.Forgers,continued.
Irememberagreatvizierwho,inordertopreventcounterfeitbillsfrombeingwritten,proposedbanningtheteachingofwriting(Sintenis).42

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Letusreturntothepassportplan:itsprinciple,aswesaw,consistedinpreventingthecounterfeitingofbillsofexchangeby ensuringatraceabilityoftheagentsoftheexchange.Wecannolongerpassfalsebillssincethepassportwillalwaysmakeit possibletotrackdowntheguiltyparty. Afirstobjectionimmediatelycomestomind:inthisnewsystem,whatpreventsaforgerfromalsoforgingthepassports?The questionmakessense,andFichteanswersitinadvance:
But,someonemightobject,itispossibletomakecounterfeitpassports,andthiswouldcompletelyunderminethesuccessofthese measures.Ourresponseis:thepossibilityofsuchcounterfeitingmustitselfbeeliminated,andthereareundoubtedlyadequatemeansfor doingso,e.g.,theuseofpaperorparchmentthatismanufacturedexclusivelyforidentitycards(aswasdoneinthecaseoftheFrench assignats ),keptundertheexclusivecontrolofthehighestauthorities,manufacturedundertheirsupervision,anddistributedtolower authoritieswhomustkeepanaccountofthepaperthatisusedup.Butcannotonecounterfeitthispaperitself?EventheFrench assignats ,mentionedabove,werecounterfeitedinspiteofsuchprecautions.Theywereindeed,becausecounterfeitingsatisfied substantialinterests(monetaryaswellaspoliticalanimosity)andbecausethesamepieceofcounterfeitpapercouldbeusedahundred timesover.Inthesituationweareconsidering,apieceofcounterfeitpapercanbeusedtomakeonlyonepassportandwhowouldgoto suchgreatlengths,andperfectsomanyskills,forthat?Themostonecouldachievewouldbetocirculateavaluablecounterfeitbillof exchange.Butwouldalltherequisitecostandeffortletalonetherisksreallybeworthit?43

Fichtethusenvisagesatechnicalsolution,throughtheuseofaspecialpaper.Buthisansweris,infine,hardlyconvincing.In spiteofwhathehadpreviouslysaid,inthelastinstanceitisbasednotonthetechnicalimpossibilizationofcounterfeiting,buton acalculusofintereststheexplanationofwhichisconfusing.Theargumentconsistsinsayingthatthecostsoffabricatingafalse passportoutweighthegainsonecouldexpectfromitspossession.Itwouldbeextremelycostlytoproduceasinglepassport. Butit'shardtoseewhatpreventssomeonefromproducingawholeseriesallatonce,orfromusingasinglepassportseveral times. Yetbehindthisapparentlyanecdotalquestionemergesacontradictionofstructuralproportionsthatreachestotheveryheart oftheconceptionofthepoliceasapreventativepower. Whatisimportanthereisthelogicthatappearsinthistext.Theproblemoffalsificationneverinfactappearstobesolvedina definitiveway.Thedifficultyisceaselesslydisplacedfromoneelementtoanother.Topreventthefalsificationofthebillonehas tosignone'sname,butthisnamecaninturnbefalse.Inordertoavoidthefalsificationofthenameweintroducepassports,but apassportcanitselfbeimitated.Topreventthecounterfeitingofpassports,weneedtointroduceaspecialpaperoverwhichthe authoritieshaveamonopoly,butthispaperitselfcanonceagainbeimitated,andsoon.Eachguaranteeofsecurityturnsoutto needitsownadditionalguaranteeofsecurity,andthiscontinuesinanendlesschain.Theresultisthattheimpossibilization announcedearlierisitselfrevealedtobeunrealizableattheendoftheday.Thesecuritizationmeasurescontinuetosucceedone another,oneaftertheother,inaheadlongflightthatneverseemstofindastoppingpoint. TheyoungHegelreadFichte'stextonthepassportsandimmediatelysubjectedittoaravagingcritique.InTheDifference BetweenFichte'sandSchelling'sSystemofPhilosophy (1801),44heputsforwardascathinglyironiclinebylinecommentaryon it:
ThewholevarietyofcrimespossibleinimperfectStatesispreventedbymakingthepolicemoreperfect.Thuswithrespecttocounterfeit billsofexchangeandmoney,weseehow,onpp.148ff.:[...]'Incasethecheckstillturnsouttobebad,thepersonwillsoonbefound whentheinvestigationhasestablishedwhoitis.Nobodyispermittedtoleaveaplacehecanbestoppedatthegate.'(Thefactthatour villagesandmanyofourcitieshavenogatesnottospeakofisolateddwellingsisnoobjection.Onthecontrary,thenecessityofgatesis herewithdeduced.)[...]'Thepassismadeoutofspeciallymanufacturedpaper[...]exclusivelyownedandsupervisedbythehighest authorityandthesubordinateauthoritieswhichhavetoaccountforthepaperconsumed.Thispaperwillnotbeimitated,forthereisneedof onlyonepassforafalsecheck,andthatonepasswouldrequiretoomanypreparationsandthecooperationoftoomanyarts.'(Hereitis postulatedthatinawellorderedStatetheneedformorethanonesinglecounterfeitpassportcouldnotarise.Factoriesforcounterfeit passports,whichareoccasionallydiscoveredinordinaryStates,wouldfindnocustomers.)AnotherStateinstitutionwouldalsoassistin preventingthecounterfeitingoftheprivilegedpaper.Thisistheinstitutionaimedat'preventingthecounterfeitingofcoins[...]sincethe Stateownsthemonopolyofmetals,etc.,theStatemustnotdistributethemetalstotheretailerswithoutproofastowhomandforwhatuse thereceivedmetalswereissued.'InthePrussianarmyaforeignerissupervisedbyonlyonetrustee.InFichte'sstateeverycitizenwill keepatleasthalfadozenpeoplebusywithsupervision,accounts,etc.,eachofthesesupervisorswillkeepatleastanotherhalfdozen busy,andsoonadinfinitum.Equally,thesimplesttransactionwillcauseaninfinitenumberoftransactions."45

Whatwefindherefirstofall,inthemockingremarkaboutthedeductionofthedoors,isacriticismoftheFichtianclaimtobe abletodeduce,beginningfromaprioriprinciples,empiricalrealityallthewaydowntoitsslightestdetails.Schellingformulatesa similarcondemnationaroundthesametime,andalsoinamockingtone:"It'sbeenalongtimesinceexperiencedspecialists appliedthemselvestodiscoveringthebestwaystostructureapoliceorganizationinacity,topreventtheforgeryofbillsof exchangeorofofficialdocuments(...)AndherecomesMr.Fichte,withhisclaimtodeduceapriorithewholepoliceinstitution, splittinghairstodescribethedutiesoftheguardsatthegatesofcity."46 NotonlyisFichte'sdeductiveclaimridiculous,butwhenheentersintosuchconsiderationsheleavesthedomainof philosophyplainandsimple.HegelformulatesthiscriticismclearlyintheprefacetohisPhilosophyofRight:"Platocouldwell haverefrainedfromrecommendingnurses nevertostandstillwithchildrenbuttokeeprockingthemintheirarmsandFichte likewiseneednothaveperfectedhispassportregulationstothepointof'constructing',astheexpressionran,therequirement thatthepassportsofsuspectspersonsshouldcarrynotonlytheirpersonaldescriptionbutalsotheirpaintedlikeness.In deliberationsofthiskind,notraceofphilosophyremains."47TheHegeliancriticismhereisbasedonadoublereproach:first,itis notthebusinessofphilosophytoprescribe(itstaskistoconceptualizewhatis,nottosaywhatshouldbe)second,itisnot preoccupiedwithcontingentdetails,butwiththeactualandrationalheartofthereal. However,inthe1801texttheHegeliancriticismmorespecificallyconcernswhathecallsthe"themakingofendless determinations"thatheseesmanifestedintheincessantmovementofdeferralofFichte'scontrolmeasures:tocombatthe forgingofbills,weneedpassports,buttocombattheforgingofpassports,weneedspecialpaper,buttocombatthefraudulent

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useofthisspecialpaperweneedagentstosurveyitsuse,buttoaverttheeventualcorruptionoftheseagentsweneedagents tosurveythem,andnodoubtadditionalsurveillancetosurveythesurveyors.Theresultisthatinsuchasystemwearenever finishedcontrollingtheconditionofthecontrol,orofsecuritizingtheconditionofsecurity.Byalwaysdiscoveringacondition behindthecondition,thewillofdeterminationisengulfedwithinaseriesthatisneverclosed,wherethereisalwaysanother elementlefttodetermine,andwhoseindeterminationinreturnconditionsalltheothers. ForHegel,thisdynamismhasitsrootinwhathecallstheantinomyofunlimitedlimitation.Thisconceptiscrucial,forIbelieve itallowsustoseizeoneoftheconstitutivecontradictionsofsecuritarianpower.Whatistheproblemhere?Whatdoesthis phenomenonof"unlimitedlimitation"havetodowithpolicemeasures? ForFichte,aswehaveseen,policepowerisdefinedasapoweroflimitation,apowerwhoseessentialactivityconsistsin installinglimits.ItisthisaboveallthatHegelisreferringto. Thefirstcharacteristicofpolicelimitationisitsexteriority.Limitationoccursthroughtheexerciseofanexternalconstraintof thewill,inamechanicalmode.Thepoliceproceedbyputtingpressureonsubjectswhich,fromwithout,isintendedtoforcethem toactinconformitywiththelaw.Bydoingso,weabandontheobjectiveofaninternaldeterminationofthewill.Fichte'ssystem, a"systemofexteriority"asHegelreferstoit,appearsasoneofthemostcoherentattemptstoconstructasystemofsociallife thatcompletelydoeswithoutamorallifeconceivedasforeigntoit.Howcanwebringitaboutthatsubjectsactlegallyifwecan't relyonanyoftheirinternaldeterminationstodoso?Inotherwords,howcanweensurethattheuniversalwillofthelawwill becomerealwithinsubjects,thatitwilldetermineeachsingularwillintheabsenceofanyspontaneityontheirpart?AsHegel explains,ifsuchapointofdepartureistakenforgranted,"onenesswiththegeneralwillconsequentlycannotbeunderstoodand positedasinnerabsolutemajesty,butassomethingtobeproducedbyanexternalrelation,orbyconstraint."48 Thiswayofposingtheproblempreventsonefromeversolvingit.Inthisformofthought,webeginbypresupposing"the oppositionbetweentheindividualwillandthegeneralwill"49aprimordialoppositionthatconstraintisthenchargedwith overcoming,butwhichitwillneverbeabletodo,preciselybecausetheconceptofconstraintisbasedonthisopposition betweenthetwotermsthatarepresentedasexternaltooneanother.Inthiswaywearriveat"asystem[...]whichaimstounite boththeconceptandthesubjectofethicallife,despitetheirseparation(althoughbecauseofthelatter,theirunionisonlyformal andexternal)theresultantrelationiscalledconstraint."50 Consequently,thedeclaredplanofrestoringtrustandrealizingtheequivalentofanethicallifepurelybymeansofthepolice cannothelpbutfail:"Sincethisexternalityofonenessistherebytotallyfixedandpositedassomethingabsolutewhichhasbeing initself,theinnerdimension,thereconstructionofthelostloyaltyandfaith,theonenessofuniversalandindividualfreedom,and ethicallifeingeneralarerenderedimpossible."51Whenweactonlynegativelythroughconstraint,wenolongerhavean authenticallymorallife.Actionisnolongerborninaspontaneousandconcretewayfromthelivingunityofmoralitybutfroma simplemechanicaldiscipline. Hegelrevealstherootofthisrelation,whichforhimreachesallthewaytotheveryconceptionofthephilosophicalsubject.It ispreciselybecauseonebeginswithascissionattheheartofthesubjectbetweenanemptylawandanempirical consciousnessthattheirunitycanconsequentlyonlybeconceivedofinacontradictorymode.Whenpresentedinthisway,the relationcarrieswithinititsownfailure:beingfoundeduponanoriginaryscission,theunitysoughtherewillneverberealizedasa trueunity.HegeldirectsthesamecriticalmotifinafundamentalwayagainsttheKantianconceptionofthesubject,ofwhich Fichteislargelyaninheritor:asubjectcleavedbytheunresolvableoppositionbetweenapuredeterminationofthelawandan empiricalmatterthatmustbedeterminedbythislaw.Adisciplinaryschemaofsubjectivityinwhichtheimperativetodetermine theempiricalsubjectthroughthepureformofthemorallawisdeployedonthebasisofanoriginaryscissionbetweenbeingand dutythatcannothelpbutgiverisetoanindefinitedeferralofthecontradiction.ThisistheHegeliancriticismofthepostulateof theimmortalityofthesoulinKant:acompletepositivedeterminationofmotivesofactionbytheformofthelawbeingpresented asanimpossibletaskowingtotheheterogeneityofthegiventerms,itbecomesnecessarytopostulatealimitlesstimeinwhich, inanasymptoticalmanner,thesubjectdrawsclosertowithouteveractuallyattainingperfectmorality,sanctity 52.Inreality, thisconceptiononlyevertranslatesintoanindefinitedeferraloftheinitialcontraction.ThisistheimagethatHegeldenounces underthenameofthe"badinfinity."53Asweshallsee,HegelfindsanentirelysimilarlogicoperativeintheFichteanconception ofthelawofconstraintwhich,inordertoexternallyrealizeaunitypresentedfromtheoutsetasimpossible,givesitselfthe horizonofanindefiniteextensionofmeasuresofcontrol,inaschemainwhichthepoliceappearsasaninstrumentofrealization ofthelaw,theindefiniteapplicationoftheidealformtotheempiricalreal. IfFichtedefinesthepoliceasapoweroflimitation,thisisnotonlyinthisfirstsenseofanexternalandnegativerelation proceedingbymechanicalconstraint,butmoreover,aswehaveseen,inthesenseofapoweroflimitationoverthepossible. However,thedefinitionbeingpresentedinsuchaway,problemsemerge,specifically,problemsofdelimitation.Insucharegime ofpreventativeinterdiction,wheredoespolicepowerstop?Thisamountstothequestionofwhat,ineyesofpolice,wouldnot appearasthepossibleconditionofacrime.ThisistheobjectionthatHegelopposestotheFichtianconceptionofpolicelaw:
ThisNeedState[...]mustnotonlyforbidtheactualcommissionofoffensesunderthreatofpunishment,butitmustobviatethepossibilityof offenses.Andtothisenditmustprohibit"actionswhich,thoughtheywillhurtnooneandseementirelyindifferent,willyetmakethe harmingofotherseasier,andtheirprotectionorthediscoveryoftheguiltymoredifficult.Now[...]thereissimplynoactionatallfromwhich theStatecouldnotwithabstractconsistencycalculatesomepossibledamagetoothers.Anditisthisendlesspossibilitywhichthe preventiveintellectanditscoerciveauthority,thepolice,havetodealwith.SointhisIdealofaStatethereisnodoingorstirringthatisnot boundtobesubjecttosomelaw,subjecttodirectsupervision.54

Inthislogicofpreventingcrimebyramifyingitspossibleconditions,indifferentinthemselves,controlcaninprincipleextend itselftoeverything,forthereisnouseoffreedomthatisnotalsotheconditionofapossibleinfraction.Possibilitybeinginfinite,a powerthattakesitasitsobjecttendsatthesametimetobecomeinfinite.

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Moreover,everyconditionofpossibilityhasitsownconditionsofpossibility,whichbringsaboutamovementofindefinite regressionintheseriesofconditions.ThisisthemeaningofthejokeaboutthevizierIselectedastheepigraphforthissection: insuchalogic,inordertoprohibitthepossibilityofcounterfeitbills,itiseventuallynecessarytoprohibitwritingitself.The exampleisofcourseintendedasajoke,butitillustratesbywayofabsurditythetendencyofpreventativelimitationtoextend itselfinalimitlessway.55AsIhavealreadyunderlined,thisisallthemoretruesinceeachcontrolmeasureitselfdependsforits partontheefficacyofothermeasuresofcontrol,andsince,notcontenttoregressivelyfollowtheseriesofpossibleoffenses, securitarianpowermustalsoceaselesslyguaranteetheeffectivityofitsowncontrolmeasuresbymeansofaseriesof clampdownsontheaxisofconditionsofsecuritization. Moreover,inmovingbackwardthroughtheconditionsofanoffence,theproblemisnolongerthatwedirectlyprohibitcertain factsthatinthemselvesharmnoone,butthatoneprohibitsalltheotheractsforwhichthesefactsserveasconditionsof possibilityaswell.Theobviousproblemhereisthattheconditionsofcrimearealsotheconditionsofpossibilityforotherthings, otheractivities.Toconcealyourfaceinpubliccancertainlybetheconditionforatheft,butitisalsotheconditionforacarnival. Thepreventativelogicisincapableofmakingthedistinction.Itsreachistoolargeanditsinterdiction,byimpossibilizingthe conditionsofpossibilityofanoffence,atthesametimesuppresstheconditionsofotherfreedoms.Asthesayinggoes,the policethrowthebabyoutwiththebathwater.Itisaproblemofanenglobinglimitationrelatedtothevirtualcharacterofthe object:inanattempttolimitonepossibleuse,wealsolimitalltheothers.Yetbydoingso,whatfindsitselflimited,concretely blocked,istheentirearrayofrealfreedoms. ThecriticismisnotthatFichte'ssystemproceedstoanabstractlimitationoffreedom,theonepriortothesocialcontract, negativelydefinedasanabsenceofdetermination.Allisnotpermitted,andonecan'tdowhateveronelikesinsocietyHegel understandsthis.WhathecriticizesFichte'ssystemforisthatthelimitationoffreedomhereextendsand,whatismore,inan unlimitedexpansionisticmodeto"truefreedom",whichistosay,thatwhichisdefinedby"thepossibilityofsuspendingitself andenteringintootherconnections."56Asopposedtotheabstractandnegativenotionoffreedom,truefreedomimpliesthe concretecapacitytoextricateitselffromitselfandtoreconfigureitsconditions.Yetforreasonsalreadyindicated,thisis preciselythefreedomthatfindsitselfcompromisedbytheproliferatinglogicofsecurityapparatuses,insofarastheyproceedby thefixationofcustoms,bythepolicelikefossilizationofpossibilities.Asaresultofthisgeneralizedlimitation,"truefreedom,the possibilityofsuspendingadeterminateconnection,isnullified."57ForHegel,thisamountstotheinstallationofasupremely tyrannicalregime. ForalthoughtheFichtianphilosophypresentsindividualsasprimordialandabsoluteatoms,atthesametimeitmakesthem theobjectsofanegativeforce,ofpurelyexternalrelations.Themomenttheirfreedomispresenteditfindsitselfinneedbeing limitedbyauniversalfreedomwhich,inordertoberealized(andindividualfreedomalongwithit),mustrestrictindividualfreedom tothepointofabsolutelyconstrainingit.Theparadoxisthereforethat,inordertorealizefreedomwemustceaselesslylimitit. Theresultisthatinsuchaschema,inwhichtheprincipaldeterminationoftheStateisthat"thefreedomofindividualsmustbe limitedbymeansofthefreedomofthewhole[...]theconfinementbecomescloserandthebondsmorestringentastimegoes.58 Consequently,fromtheearlytextsofhisyouththroughthelateseminarsofhismaturethought,Hegelconstantlyand repeatedlyusestheexampleofFichte'spassportsasanillustrationofapoliceStateregimeora"GalleyState."Hence,in1818 Wannenmann,astudentattendinghiscourseonnaturalrightandthescienceoftheStatewritesthefollowinginhisnotebook: "Fichte'sstateiscenteredonthepolice,towhomitseekstoaccordparticularlywidescope,buthisstateisastatebasedon need.AccordingtoFichte,nopersonscangooutwithouthavingtheiridentitypaperswiththem,andhedeemsthisvery importantsoastopreventcrimes.Butsuchastatebecomesaworldofgalleyslaves."59 Schlegelexpressedasimilaridea,althoughinadifferentregister,inhisHistoryofLiterature:"inanabsolutelyperfectpolice regime(when[...]eventravelers'passportswouldbeprovidedwithaexhaustivebiographyandafaithfulpicture)anovelwould simplybecomeimpossible,forthennothingcouldeverhappeninreallifethatwouldprovideplausiblematerialforit."60The argumentisperhapsfalseandinanyeventunverifiablebutitisbeautiful.Itconsistsinsayingthat,initsabsoluteform,police controlwouldmakefictionimpossible.Bycompletelyorderingsociallife,withoutgapsorplay,thepoliciarizationoftheworld woulddesiccatetheverymaterialsofthenovelisticimagination.Butmorefundamentallystill,insucharegime,wheredeviance, disobedienceandflightwouldhavebeenliterallymadeimpossible,itistheverypossibilityoflivinganovelisticlifethatwould disappear,andwithitallthatopposesitselftotheordinaryandorderedreproductionofthereal.Itisfreedomitself,defined preciselybyagestureoffictionaldeviationfromitsownconditionsthatwouldthereforefinditselferadicatedfromtheworld.The police,understoodinthiswayastheeradicationofthenovelesque,appearsasmortiferouspowermortiferous,butalso ridiculous,sincesuchataskwillprovetobeimpossibleandthisisthemeaningoftheHegelianlaughterhere,theferocious ironythatheopposestotheFichtianpassportsandpettymechanismsofabsoluteconstraint. Tosummarizethispoint,ifthepolicelimitationtendstobecomeunlimitedthisisessentiallyduetothenatureofitsobject, namely,thepossibleitself.Whencealsomycentralthesis:itisparadoxicallytherestrictiveredefinitionofthepoliceasa preventativesecuritarianpoweraredefinitionthatpresentsitselfneverthelessasademarcationofitsprerogativesfromtheold, highlyextensiveconceptofthepoliceasguarantorofwellbeingthatendsupendowingsecuritarianpowerwithadynamismof limitlessexpansion.Certainly,incontrastwiththewelfareState,thesecurityStatedoesnotclaimtotakeunderitsprotection everyaspectoflife,everyparticleofactivityofthesocialtotalitycertainlyitsclaimswillhenceforthappeartobemuchmore modest,centeringontheimperativeofsecurity.However,inreality,thenegativeandpreventativeredefinitionofpoliceaction engagesadynamismofinfiniteexpansionofsecuritarianpower.Tounderstandthisparadoxiscrucialtoday,foritallowsusto grasptheconceptuallinkbetweenacertainpoliticalliberalismtendinginthedirectionofalimitationoftheaimsoftheStateand theconcomitantproliferationofsecuritarianpolitics. Attherootofthistendencytowardunlimitedlimitationwefindaprecisecontradiction,whichstemsfromtheveryrootofthe conceptofpolicenorms.Marxexplainedthisconceptinanextremelyclearway,andindirectcontinuitywiththeHegelian

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criticism:"Apreventivelaw,therefore,haswithinitnomeasure,norationalrule,forarationalrulecanonlyresultfromthenature ofathing,inthisinstanceoffreedom.Itiswithoutmeasure,forifpreventionoffreedomistobeeffective,itmustbeasall embracingasitsobject,i.e.,unlimited.Apreventivelawisthereforethecontradictionofanunlimitedlimitation."61Itisa fundamentalcontradiction,forhereitoperatesbetweentheformofthelaw(thelimitation)anditsobject(theunlimited).Evenif theconceptofpreventativelawisunsound,weigheddownbyafundamentalcontraction,thatdoesn'tpreventitfromgrounding (andevenasaresultofitscontradictorycharacter)thetendencytowardaninfiniteextensionofsecuritarianpower.But,inhis text,Marximmediatelynotessomethingelsewithregardtothisdynamism:"andtheboundarywhereitceasesisfixednotby necessity,butbythefortuitousnessofarbitrariness,asthecensorshipdailydemonstratesadoculos."62 Asaresult,theunlimitedlimitationandthisisthethirdmomentofthisdialecticinfactfindsitslimits.Herewefindthe wholedifferencebetweenatendencyandaneffectivity.Ifpolicelogictendsideallytowardanunlimitedcontrol,inrealityit alwaysencounterscontingencies,unforeseencircumstances,whichalwaystripsupitswilltocontrol.Theunlimitedlimititself thereforefindsalimit,notbyreasonofaninternalprinciple,butduetoanexternalchancewhichitselfendsupnevertheless appearingasnecessaryinsofarasafinitepowercannotlimitaninfiniteobject,andbecauseinthistask,itsholdwillalwaysbe punctuatedbycracks.Therewillalwaysbeconditionsthatescapeitandthatitcannotforesee.Ifpreventativepoliceisanimated byatendencytowardinfiniteexpansion,thistendencyisnolessnecessarilyhaltedatacertainpointbythecontingencyofwhat escapesit. Securitarianpoweristhereforeaffectedbyasupplementarycontradiction.Ithaspromisedanabsolutesecuritization,thetotal masteryoverthepossible,butinfactitalwaysstumblesoverfrictionsthathaltitmidstride.Theunlimitedlimitthusendsby findingitslimits. Yetinacertainway,thislastlimitationisalsothesecretofitssuccess.Whenthisfailureannouncesitself,itcanalwaysturn ittoitsadvantage:ifIfailed,itisbecauseIstilldonothaveenoughpower.IfIfailed,itisbecausetherewerestilllimitsplaced onmypoweroflimitation.Andasforthesehindrances,whichexplainmypastfailures,youmustnowreleasemefromthemso thatIcanmanifestmypowerinallitsperfection.Thestructuralfailureofsecuritarianpowerisalwaysthefuelforitsliberticidal extension,inalogicofrenewedescalation.Thatitsclaimstoimpossibilizationironicallybethemselvesimpossibleisa contradictionthatitturnstoitsbenefitinordertoincreaseinanunlimitedwayitswilltocontrol,validatedandfedbyitsrepeated failures,likethebathendlesslyfilledbytheDanaides.Theresultisthatthemomentweallowthepostulateoftheprincipleof securitytofoundStateauthority,thelatterbeginstofunctionlikethediscursivematrixofalimitlesspower.Thisisthe fundamentallessonofthisdialecticofsecuritarianpowerthatIwishedtosketchouthereinrelationtoHegel. Bywayofconclusion,oneofthemajorinterestsoftheHegeliancriticismofFichteperhapsresidesasaresultaboveallinhis style.Howdowemountacritiqueofpower?Afirst,classicanddominantformofcritiqueproceedsbyposingquestionsof foundationandlegitimacy.ThisistheKantianconceptionofcritiqueparexcellence:tofixthelimitsofapowerbybeginningfrom anexaminationofitslegitimatefoundation.Buttherealsoexistsanother,moreminoritariancriticaltradition,withaverydifferent technique,whichIthinkwecanfindtracesofinHegel'scommentaryonFichte'ssystemofpassports.Acritiquethatdoesnot beginfromaninterrogationofthelegitimatefoundationsofpower,butfromananalysisofitsprocedures,itstechniques,inorder toexaminethemintheirdetail,theirmethodoffunctioning,seekingouttheirdysfunction,theircontradictionsortheir breakdowns.Thissecondapproachmobilizeswhatonecouldcallatechnicalcritiqueofpower[critiquetechniciennedepouvoir]. Facedwithsecuritarianpower,theprincipalvirtueofthisregisterofcritiqueliesinitsnonparanoidattitude.Foritsfundamental operationconsistsinbringingtheemphaticclaimsofpowerdowntothefalliblerealityofitsactualmeansitsapproachisironic. Becausethecriticisatechnician[technicienne],sheknowsthateverysystemisplaguedbyitsfrictionsoritsbugs.Because shehaslearnedtoobservetheofficialdocumentswiththeeyesofaforger,sheknowsthatoneshouldnevertakeattheirword thegreatdiscoursesthatpowerpromulgatesaboutitself. Yetofcourse,thefactthatsecuritarianpowercanneverentirelykeepitspromisesoftotalmasterydoesnotmeanthatits measureshavenoeffects,orthatwecancontentourselveswithopposingtothemanironiclaughter.Fichte'splanbelongswithin alongcumulativehistoryoftechnologiesofpolicecontrol,alongprocessthathasquiteconcretelyreconfiguredtheconditionsof existingfreedom.Topointouttheimpossiblecharacterofaprojectoftotalmasteryovertherealortheinevitablelimitsthatthe logicofunlimitedlimitationencountersinfinedoesnotimplythatweshouldoverlooktherealliberticidaltendenciesofthistype ofpower. Thisisinsubstancewhatthe86yearoldforgerAdolfoKaminskyrecentlysaid,attheendofalonglifespentforgingfalse papers,firstinthe1940'swhenhehelpedJewsescapefromNazipersecution,theninthe1950'swhenhehelpedthe independentistAlgeriansoftheFLNagainstthecolonialFrenchState,andsubsequentlyhereandthere,comingtotheaidof thosewhoopposedthedictatorshipsthatplaguedSpain,orPortugalorGreece:
Evenifthetechniqueshaveprogressivelydeveloped,forgerieswillalwaysexist.[...]Apriori,everythingisalwayspossible.Wemustnot forgetthatwhateveronepersonhasmade,someoneelsecanalwaysremakeit.[...]However,today,withallthedigitaltechnologies, electronicchips,biometrics,geneticfingerprintsandcardfiling,Ithinkthereisnohopeforpeoplewhoneedidentitypapersinorderto survive.Therearestilllittlesolutionsleft,suchascopycats,takingovertheidentityofsomeoneelse,butit'salltoofragile.Today,the Jews,Algerians,Greeks,SouthAmericansetc.,thatIhelpedwouldbedoomed,becauseforgedpaperscannolongerbemade"from scratch",asIdidduringthattime.[...]It'snolongerthesameworld.63 GrgoireChamayou GrgoireChamayouisaresearcherinphilosophywiththeCentrenationaldelarecherchescientifique(CNRS)atthecolenormalesuprieuredeLyon. HeistheauthorofLescorpsvils:ExprimentersurlestreshumainsauxXVIIIeetXIXesicles (LaDcouverte,2008),Leschassesl'homme(La Fabrique,2010),andThoriedudrone(LaFabrique,2013).Grgoirecanbereachedatgregoire.chamayou@free.fr KieranAarons KieranAaronsisadoctoralcandidateinPhilosophyatDePaulUniversity,inChicago.HeisthetranslatorofFranoisZourabichvili'sDeleuze:APhilosophy oftheEvent(Edinburgh,2012).HeiscurrentlyonaresearchfellowshipatHumboldtUniversittinBerlin,Germany,whereheiscompletingadissertation

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ontherelationshipbetweenconceptsofprivateproperty,emergency,andlifeinWesternpoliticalthought.Kierancanbereachedat kieranaarons@gmail.com

Notes
1.JohannGottliebFichte,GrundlagedesNaturrechtsnachPrincipienderWissenschaftslehre,JenaundLeipzig,1796und1797.InGesamtausgabeder BayerischenAkademiederWissenschaften,Band4:Werke17971798Hrsg.vonReinhardLauthundHansGliwitzkyunterMitwirkungvonRichard Schottky .1970,87.EnglishpublicationasFoundationsofNaturalRight,trans.M.Baur(NewYork:CambridgeUniversityPress,2000),p.257[translation modified]. 2.Idem. 3.Miggnger,Bettler,unvergeleiteteJuden,Zigeuner,undandreunbekannteoderverdchtigePersonen,welchesichdurchobrigkeitlichePasse undglaubwrdigeZeugnissenichtausweisenknnen,muerimDorfenichtdulden,sonderndieselben,alslandstreichersofortinVerhaftnehmen,und andieBehrdeabliefern."AllgemeinesLandrechtfrdiePreussischenStaaten,3.Bd.,Berlin,1794,p.332. 4.Giventhedatethetextwaswritten,itisclearthatFichtewasinspiredbythemeasurestakeninFrancebytheRevolutionaryAssemblywhich,after havingabolishedtheAncienRegime'ssystemofpassports,reintroducedandradicalizeditin1792,makingitobligatoryforalltravelers.Cf.Vincent Denis,Unehistoiredel'identit:France,17151815,(Seyssel:ChampVallon,2008),242. 5.PhilipE.Agre,"TheArchitectureofIdentity:EmbeddingPrivacyinMarketInstitutionsInformation",CommunicationandSociety ,2(1),1999,125,4. PhilipAgre,aprofessorofinformationstudiesattheUniversityofCaliforniainLosAngelesandaspecialistinquestionsofdigitalidentity,mysteriously disappearedforseveralmonthsin2009:http://www.npr.org/blogs/alltechconsidered/2010/01/missing_internet_pioneer_phil.htmlAccessedJanuary27, 2013. 6."Thehumanshapeisnecessarilysacredtothehumanbeing."Fichte,Gesamtausgabe,III,384Foundations ,79. 7.Asacontemporaryconfirmation,wemayrefertothiscolumnrecentlypublishedbythephilosopherMichelSerresinLibration:"Why,inthemajorityof theculturesoftheworld,andwhateverthestylesofclothing,dothehandsandfaceenjoytheprivilegeofremainingnude?Becausetheyguarantee publicsecurityandtheidentityofprivatepersonsinpublic."Asecuritythatallowsthemto"livetogether".Thephilosopherconcludes:"Thefaceisthe foundationofcivilsociety".MichelSerres,"Sansvisage,pasdecontratsocial",Libration,19/03/2010.Itwasn'tlongbeforesuchaphilosophicalprinciple founditsempiricaltranslationinFrenchsociety,intheformofadecreebytheministeroftheinteriorprohibitingthewearingofmasks,balaclavasorany otheraccoutermentintendedtopreventtheidentificationofpeopleduringprotests.BeneaththemaskofaLevinasweoccasionallyfindthefaceofa Bertillon. 8.Cf.Fichte,Gesamtausgabe,IV,84Foundations,258259.Onthepassportasa"meansoftracking",cf.GrardNoiriel,Surveillerlesdplacements ouidentifierlespersonnes?Contributionl'histoiredupasseportenFrancedelaIelaIIIeRpublique,Genses ,30,1998,p77100,84sq. 9.AccordingtotheInternationalOrganizationforStandardization'sdefinitioninpublicationENISO8402(1994). 10.jederfalscheWechsel,[...]kommtdirzurRechnung.DieZeitisteinstrengerBuchhalter,einwahresContinuumderDinge,dasnichtsbersieht, dasniebelget"JohannGottfriedvonHerder,DaseigeneSchicksal(1795),inSammtlicheWerke,Bd.7,(Tbingen:Cotta'schenBuchhandlung,1807), 8. 11.DerWechselbriefisteineSchriftwodurchsichderHandelsmannentwederzuBezahlungeinerdarinbestimmtenSummeverbindlichmachtoder einemandernfremdenKaufmannemitdemerinVerbindungsteht,denAuftraggiebt,dieSummeandenVorzeigerderselbenzueinerbestimmtenZeit, auszubezahlen",JakobChristophPeter,VollstndigetheoretischeundpraktischeAnleitungzurHandelswissenschaft,I,Heidelberg,1789,120. 12.JakobChristophPeter,125. 13.WechselbriefeberhauptsindPapiere,welcheuntergewissenUmstndendieStelledesbaarenGeldesvertreten",JohannC.Sinapius,Ueber WechselbriefenachihrerVerschiedenheit,Matthiessen,HamburgundLeipzig,1781,2. 14.JakobChristophPeter,Opcit.,130. 15.DerKreditalso,oderdasVertrauen,welcheseinerindenandernsetzt,istdasMittel,wodurcheinemsolchenWechselzetteleineGltigkeit beygelegetwird",E.L.Tropponegro,VersucheinerallgemeinenEinleitungindieWechselwissenschaft,(Mnchen:Strobel,1779),12. 16.Fichte,Gesamtausgabe,I,4,89Foundations ,258259. 17.FalscheWechselsindsolche,woraufdieUnterschriftdesjenigen,vondemmanausdemWechselBezahlungfordert,falschist[...]Verflschte Wechselsindsolche,worindieSummeoderdieVerfallzeit,oderdieIndossamenteverflschtworden",JohannChristianSchedel,Handbuchder kaufmnnischenJurisprudenzoderBeytrgezurKenntnisseinheimischer,wieauchauswrtigerHandlungsrechte,GesetzeundGebruche,dieden Kaufmanninteressieren,(Leipzig:Schladebach,1793),299. 18.Fichte,Gesamtausgabe,I,4,89FoundationsofNaturalRight,259. 19.Cf.CarloGinzburg,"Clues:RootsofanEvidentialParadigm."inClues,Myths,andtheHistoricalMethod,(Baltimore:JohnsHopkins,1989),96125. 20.Onthispoint,whereGinzburghypothesizesa"cynegeticoriginoftheevidentialparadigm"(ibid.),Iwouldinsteadsuggestthehypothesisofa pastoraloriginoftraceabilityapparatuses:techniquesofmanagingtroops,ofindividuallyfollowingtheheadsoflivestock,whichmayhenceforthbe marked,registered,recorded.Asopposedtothehunter,theproblemforthepastorisnottoimagine,beginningfromfragmentarytraces,thetraitsofan unknownanimalbody,butonthecontrarytoreducethecomplextraitsofaknownanimaltotheschemaofaneasilylocatabledescription[signalement]. 21."Theexaminationalsointroducesindividualityintothefieldofdocumentation.Theexaminationleavesbehinditawholemeticulousarchiveconstituted intermsofbodiesanddays.Theexaminationthatplacesindividualsinafieldofsurveillancealsosituatestheminanetworkofwritingitengagesthemin awholemassofdocumentsthatcaptureandfixthem.Theproceduresofexaminationwereaccompaniedatthesametimebyasystemofintense registrationandofdocumentaryaccumulation.A'powerofwriting'wasconstitutedasanessentialpartinthemechanismsofdiscipline."MichelFoucault, Surveilleretpunir ,(Paris:Gallimard,1975),191.EnglishtranslationasDisciplineandPunish,trans.A.Sheridan,(NewYork:VintageBooks,1995),189. 22.Cf.RichardClarke,"InformationTechnologyandDataveillance",CommunicationsoftheACM,Volume31,Issue5,May1988,498512. 23.Foucault,Surveilleretpunir ,173DisciplineandPunish,170. 24.Fichte,Gesamtausgabe,I,4,91Foundations ,261. 25.Fichte,Gesamtausgabe,I,4,92Foundations ,262. 26.Fichte,Gesamtausgabe,I,3,426Foundations ,125126.(Translationmodified) 27.Fichte,Gesamtausgabe,I,3,425Foundations ,125.(Translationmodified)

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28.Fichte,Gesamtausgabe,I,3,427Foundations ,127. 29.Fichte,Gesamtausgabe,I,4,86Foundations ,256. 30.Fichte's"securityapparatuses"mustberigorouslydistinguishedfromwhatFoucaultunderstandsbythisterm:instruments,elaboratedwithinthe frameworkofasocialarithmeticandaneconomicrationality,whichproceedthroughaprobabilityestimate,throughthedefinitionofamathematicalriskor throughthedefinitionofthresholdsoftolerablevariations.TheseformanensembleoftechniquesthatFoucault,undertheheadingofsecurity apparatuses,placesattherootofagovernmentalitythathasemancipateditselffromthebinarylogicofthelaw.Tothecontrary,withFichteweremain withinasovereignconceptionofsecurity,onewhichseekstoabsolutely"enforce"thelawandlegalprohibitionsinthemodeofapreventative anticipation.Weremaininabinarythoughtoftheprohibition,withthesupplementaryideaoffoldingtherealtothelaw,throughthetotalpolicemastery overpossibility:arationalityofabsoluteimpossibilizationofpotentialdangersratherthantheprobabilisticmanagementofrisks. 31.Fichte,Gesamtausgabe,I,4,86Foundations ,256. 32.Foradetailedhistoryofthisprocess,Cf.PeterPreu,PolizeibegriffundStaatszwecklehre.DieEntwicklungdesPolizeibegriffsdurchdieRechtsund Staatswissenschaftendes18.Jahrhunderts ,(Gttingen:Schwartz,1983)NaokoMatsumoto,DerPolizeibegriffimUmbruch.Staatszwecklehreund GewaltenteilungspraxisinderReichsundRheinbundpublizistik ,(FrankfurtamMain:Klostermann,1999)MichaelStolleis,Geschichtedesffentlichen RechtsinDeutschland,Bd.l:16001800,(Mnchen:Beck,1988). 33.Easupremaepotestatispars,quaexerceturcuraavertendimalafuturainstatureipublicaeinternoincommunemetuenda,diciturIVSPOLITIAE (...)Promouendaesalutiscuraproprienonestpolitiae,nisiquatenuseamenteagitur,uttantolautiorsitstatusistimalo,quodmetuebatur,direde oppositus.,IoannisStephaniPtteri,InstitutionesiurispubliciGermanici,Vandenhoeck,Goettingae,1782,353. 34.DiePolizeywissenschaftenthltdieGrundstzedieinnereSicherheitdesStaateszugrnden,undhandzuhaben",JosephvonSonnenfels, GrundstzederPolizey:HandlungundFinanzwissenchaft,(Wien:Kurzbck,I,1777),(3rdedition),29. 35.DielterndeutschenSchriftsteller,(...)habenmitderPolizeyeinensehrschwankendenBegriffverbunden.DieWissenschaft,wiedasinnere,und ussereWesendesStaateszuallgemeinerGlckseligkeitinguterVerfassungundOrdnungzuerhalten.Dieswre,nachderLagederWorte,vielmehr eineErklrungderStaateswissenschaft.HerrvonJusti(GrundfestezurGlckseligkeitderStaaten4)giebtihreinenbestimmteren,abernochsehr ausgebreitetenVerstanderschreibt:sieseydieWissenschaft,dieinnereVerfassungdesStaatesdergestalteinzurichten,dadieWohlfahrtder einzelnenFamilienmitdemallgemeinemBestenineinergenauenVerbindungundZusammenhangstehe.",Ibid.,29. 36.denGradderSicherheitzuerhhen",Ibid.,30. 37.indieAnwendungjedeszweckmigenunderlaubtenMittelsdieHindernisseundGefahrenderSicherheitundWohlfahrtderStaatsbrger abzuwenden,oder,inderSorgfaltderhchstenGewaltknftigegemeinschdlicheUebelimInnerndesStaateszuverhtenundabzuwenden",Johann FriedrichEusebiusLotz,UeberdenBegriffderPolizeiunddenUmfangderStaatspolizeigewalt,(Hildburghausen:Hanisch,1807),20. 38.KnftigeUebelendlichsindnurGegenstandderPolicey,weilihrHauptzweckAbwendung,Verhtungist.VergangeneUebel,insofernsieeiner rechtlichenBeurtheilungunterworfensind,gehrenvordieJustiz",GntherHeinrichvonBerg,HandbuchdesTeutschenPoliceyrechts ,I,(Hannover: Hahn,1802)(2ndedition.)13. 39.Bergcontinues:"Whataboutpresentevils?Whenpoliceseektorepressanevilthathasalreadybegunmanifestingitself,thatistosay,apresent evil,thisissothatitdoesnotcontinuetopersist.Whatisthis,ifnotavoidinganeviltocome?Thepolicecannolongerpreventpresentevils,butitcan worktopreventtheirprogressandtheirconsequences,andbydoingsoitcaresaboutthefuture."AberwobleibendiegegenwartigenUebel"?Ein Uebel,dasschonangefangenhat,sichzuussern,alsoeingegenwrtigesUebel,suchtdiePoliceyzuunterdrcken,damitesnichtweiterumsich greife.Undwasistdieweiter,alsAbwendungeinesknftigenUebels?GegenwrtigeUebelkanndiePoliceynichtmehrverhten,abersiekannihrem FortgangeundihrenFolgenentgegenarbeitenundebendadurchsorgtsiefrdieZukunft.",Ibid.,14. 40.mussdieDahermudiePolizeybesorgtseyn,dieFolgsamkeitaufdieUnmglichkeitderWidersetzungzugrnden.,Sonnenfels,Opcit.,31. 41.unentdecktundunbestraftzubleiben",Ibid.,35. 42.IcherinneremicheinesGrosveziers,der,umdasSchreibenfalscherWechselzuverhten,einVerbotschreibenzulerneninVorschlagbrachte", ChristianFriedrichSintenis,HalloderZweite,(Leipzig:Fleischer,1797),90. 43.Gesamtausgabe,I,4,90,Foundations ,259260[translationmodified] 44.GeorgWilhelmFriedrichHegel,DifferenzdesFichte'schenundSchelling'schenSystemsderPhilosophieinHegel'sPhilosophischeAbhandlungen,I, (Berlin:DunckerundHumblot,1832)G.W.F.Hegel,TheDifferenceBetweenFichte'sandSchelling'sSystemofPhilosophy ,trans.H.S.Harrisand WalterCerf,(Albany:SUNYPress,1977). 45.Hegel,Differenz ,Opcit,240Difference.,Opcit.,147148. 46.Dahabenz.B.schonlngstgebteunderfahrungsreicheMnnersichMhegegeben,zuerfinden,wiediePolizeiineinerStadtambesten organisirt,dieVerflschungvonWechselnoderStaatspapierengehindert(...).NunkommtHr.Fichte,unddeducirtihnenaprioridieganzeEinrichtung derPolizei,haarklein,bisausdiePflichtenderThorschreiberherunter",FriedrichWilhelmJosephvonSchelling,DarstellungdeswahrenVerhltnisses derNaturphilosophiezuderverbessertenFichteschenLehre(1806),inSmmtlicheWerke,VII,(StuttgartundAusburg:Cotta,1860),105. 47.GeorgWilhelmFriedrichHegel,GrundlinienderPhilosophiedesRechts ,(Hamburg:Meiner,1955),15Elementsofthephilosophyofright,trans.A. WoodandH.Nisbet,(Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,1991),21.WeshouldnotethatthereferencetoPlatohereisambiguous.Theexampleof thenursescomesfromtheLaws .Theproblemisoneofdeterminingwhatdegreeofdetailoneoughttoregulate:shouldoneprescribeindetailthewayin whichnursesoughttorocknewbornbabiesintheirarms?ForPlatotheanswerisno,andtheprincipalreasonforthisistactical:whenoneseeksto regulatesuchobjects,oneexposesoneselftotheriskofthefailureofthelaw:"Thegreatlaughterwe'dincur,inadditiontotheunwillingnesstoobeyon thepartofthenurses'womanlyaswellasslavishdispositions",Plato,TheLaws ,VII,790atrans.T.Pangle,(Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress, 1988),177.Thesolutionconsistsinleavingthiskindofprescriptiontothemasters,whowillattempttointegrateitwithintheexistingcustomsbymeans oforalrecommendationsratherthanmandatoryobligations.Hegeltransposestheargument:justasthelawshouldnotmakepronunciationsabout details,philosophyshouldnotissuecontingentprescriptions.Itistruethat,bydoingso,philosopherswouldencounterthesamedangersasthePlatonic lawmakers:impotenceandridicule.AndthisispreciselythecontentofhiscriticismofFichte.InHegel'sironyinthefaceofthepredictablefailuresof policemeasuresthereisanechoofthenurses'laughter. 48.GeorgWilhelmFriedrichHegel,berdiewissenschaftlichenBehandlungsartendesNaturrechts(1802) ,inJenaerkritischeSchriften,(Hamburg: Meiner,1983),124GeorgWilhelmFriedrichHegel,OntheScientificWaysofTreatingNaturalLaw,in:Politicalwritings ,trans.L.DickeyandH.Nisbet, (Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,1999),132(translationmodified) 49.Hegel,berdiewissenschaftlichen,OpCit.125OntheScientificWays ,Opcit.,132. 50.Hegel,berdiewissenschaftlichen,OpCit.124OntheScientificWays ,Opcit.,132(translationmodified)

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Project MUSE - Theory & Event - Fichte's Passport - A Philosophy of the Police

52.OnthisideaseeKant,KritikderpraktischenVernunft,AKV,122. 53.Cf.EnzyklopdiederphilosophischenWissenschaftenimGrundrisse(1827),60,Meiner,Hamburg,1968,73. 54.Hegel,Differenz ,OpCit,239Difference.,OpCit.,146147. 55.Cf.Voltaire:parcequeleshommespeuventabuserdel'criture,fautilleureninterdirel'usage?J'aimeraisautantqu'onvousrendtmuetpour vousempcherdefairedemauvaisarguments.Onvoledanslesrues,fautilpourceladfendred'ymarcher?Voltaire,L'A,B,C(1768),inDialogues etanecdotesphilosophiques ,(Paris:Garnier,1955),302. 56.Hegel,Differenz ,OpCit,238Difference.,OpCit.,145. 57.Idem. 58.GeorgWilhelmFriedrichHegel,VorlesungenberdieGeschichtederPhilosophie,(Berlin:DritterTeil,DunckerundHumblot,1844),577Georg WilhelmFriedrichHegel,Lecturesonthehistoryofphilosophy,Volume3,LecturesontheHistoryofPhilosophy ,(HumanitiesPress,1955),504. 59.GeorgWilhelmFriedrichHegel,VorlesungenberNaturrechtundStaatswissenschaft(Heidelberg181718) ,Meiner,Hamburg,1983,163.Georg WilhelmFriedrichHegel,LecturesonNaturalRightandPoliticalScience:theFirstPhilosophyofRight:Heidelberg,18171818,(Berkeley:Universityof CaliforniaPress,1995),212. 60.dabeieinerdurchausvollkommenenPolizei,(wenn(...)selbstderPaderReisendenmiteinerausfhrlichenBiographieundeinemtreuen Portraitgemldeversehenseinwird)einRomanschlechtwegunmglichseinwrde,weilalsdanngarnichtsimwirklichenLebenvorkommenknnte,was dazuirgendVeranlassung,odereinenwahrscheinlichenStoffdarbietenwrde."FriedrichvonSchlegel,GeschichtederaltenundneuenLiteratur(1812) inSmmtlicheWerke,I,Klang,Wien,1846,77. 61.KarlMarx,DebattenberPrefreiheitundPublikationderLandstndischenVerhandlungen,inKarlMarx,FriedrichEngels,Werke,I,DietzVerlag, Berlin,1988,59.KarlMarx,FrederickEngels,"OnFreedomofthePress,ProceedingsoftheSixthRhineProvinceAssembly"(1842),inCollected Works ,Volume1,(London:Lawrence&Wishart,1975),163. 62.Idem. 63.GillesLucas,EntretienavecSarahetAdlfoKaminsky,Lavraievied'unfaussaire,CQFD,n72,dcembre2009. Copyright2013GrgoireChamayouandKieranAaronsandTheJohnsHopkinsUniversityPress

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