Kenneth Li

Euro Hist
12-21-07
Ch. 26, pg 719-730
Period 6th

I. Europe and North America 1815-1850: Political Reform Economic Advance. And
Social Unrest
A. Introduction
1) Decades after Congress of Vienna ushered political and social departures.
i) Legitimate monarchies, landed aristocracies, and established churches
constituted major pillars of conservation.
2) Throughout 18th century institutions clashed.
i) Retained their former arrogance but not their former privileges.
3) Conservatives regarded themselves standing permanently on defensive
against forces of liberalism, nationalism, and popular sovereignty.
i) In Europe, modest base for industrialization that existed in 1815 began
to expand as people from countryside crowded into cities, seeking
work in newly built factories.
4) Developments in United States were quieter but no less momentous.
i) Dispute over slavery in United States coincided with first conflicts over
industrial labor in Europe.
II. The Challenges of Nationalism and Liberalism
A. The Emergence of Nationalism
1) Nationalism proved to be single most powerful European political ideology
of 19th and early 20th centuries.
i) During 20th century peoples who were once subject to European colonial
rule used the force and ideals of nationalism to establish their own
independence from Europe.
2) Nationalism is based on relatively modern concept that nation is composed
of people who are joined together by bonds of common language,
customs, etc.
i) Say they should share governments.
B. Opposition to the Vienna Settlement
1) Nationalists naturally protested multinational states.
i) Also objected to peoples of same ethnic group dwelling in political units
ii) Nationalists challenged both domestic and international order of Vienna
settlement.
C. Creating Nations
1) Nationalists created nations in 19th century.
i) Frequently, historians who chronicled a people’s past or writers and
literary scholars who established national literature by collecting
and publishing earlier writings in people’s language.
2) Language used in schools and government offices always a point of
contention for nationalists.
 i) Parts of Scandinavia and eastern Europe nationalists attempted to
resurrect from earlier times what they regarded as purer versions of
national language.
ii) Process of establishing national languages led to far more linguistic
uniformity within European nations.
iii) Growth of uniform language helped to persuade people who had not
thought themselves as constituting a nation that they were a nation.
D. Meaning of Nationhood
1) Nationalists used variety of arguments and metaphors to express what they
meant by nationhood.
i) Some argued that gathering Italians into unified Italy can promote
economic and administrative efficiency.
ii) Other nationalists claimed a place for their nations in divine order of
things.
2) Significant difficulty for nationalism was determining which ethnic groups
could be considered nations.
i) Throughout century, many smaller ethnic groups claimed to fulfill these
criteria but couldn’t effectively achieve independence or
recognition.
3) Such was situation in Europe.
i) Similar situation where by the middle statements very much resembling
those of nationalist leaders in Europe.
ii) One can view defeat of Confederate States of America.
E. Regions of Nationalistic Pressure in Europe
1) During 19th century, nationalists challenged political status quo in 6 major
areas of Europe.
i) “Irish Problem” would haunt British politics for the next two centuries.
ii) Italian nationalists sought to unify peninsula and drive out Austrians.
iii) Dominant governments often thought they needed only to repress
activity or ride it out until stability returned.
F. Early-Nineteenth-Century Political Liberalism
1) In present day United States, word liberal carries meanings and
connotations that have little or nothing to do with its significance.
i) European conservatives of last century saw liberals as more radical than
they actually were.
ii) The term liberal as used in present-day American political rhetoric has
virtually no relationship to its 19th century counterpart.
G. Politics
1) European liberals derived their political ideas from Enlightenment and so-
called principles of 1789 as embodied in the French Declaration.
i) Sought to limit arbitrary power of government against persons and
property of individual rights.
ii) Most important, free government required state or crown ministers be
responsible.
2) Such responsible government existed none in major European countries.
 i) Liberals were often academics, members of learned professions, and
people involved in rapidly expanding commercial and
manufacturing sectors.
3) European liberals wanted broader political participation.
i) Liberals transformed the 18th century concept of aristocratic liberty into
new concept of privilege based on wealth and property.
ii) First half of 19th century political liberals generally didn’t support
liberal political principles provided women with strong arguments.
H. Economics
1) Economic goals of liberals also furthered separation from working class.
i) Thus favored removal of international tariffs as well as internal barriers.
2) European economic liberals opposed old paternalistic legislation that
established wages and labor practices.
i) Liberals contended that this would lead to more goods and services for
everyone at lower prices.
3) Economic goals of European liberals found many followers outside Europe
among groups who favored the expansion of free trade.
I. Relationship of Nationalism and Liberalism
1) Nationalism wasn’t necessarily or logically linked to liberalism.
i) Behind concept of people joined naturally together by bonds of common
language.
ii) Efficient government and administration required by commerce and
industry would mean replacing small German and Italian states
with larger political units.
2) Nationalist groups in one country gain sympathy of liberals in other nation.
III. Efforts to Liberalize Early-Nineteenth-Century European Political Structures
A. Russia: The Decembrist Revolt of 1825 and the Autocracy of Nicholas I
1) Process of driving Napoleon’s army across Europe, and then occupying
defeated France.
i) Under these conditions, groups within officer corps formed secret
societies.
2) Other events intervened.
i) In late November 1825 Tsar Alexander I suddenly died.
ii) Alexander had no heir.
iii) A plot by junior officers to rally troops under their command.
3) Immediate result of revolt was crushing of liberalism as even moderate
political influence.
i) Russia under Nicholas became policeman of Europe.
B. Revolution in France (1830)
1) In 1824, Louis XVIII died.
i) Succeeded by brother, Charles X.
2) Charles had Chamber of Deputies in 1824 and 1825.
i) Middle-class bondholders resented the measure of lowering interest
rates.
ii) Charles supported Roman Catholic church with law punishing sacrilege
 3) Results of elections of 1827 compelled Charles to appoint a less
conservative ministry.
i) Liberals wanted genuinely constitutional regime, had remained
unsatisfied.
4) In 1830, Charles X called for new elections, where liberals won.
i) Under euphoria of foreign diversion, Charles X issued Four Ordinances.
ii) Restricted freedom of press, dissolved recently elected Chamber of
Deputies, and called for new elections.
5) Liberal newspapers immediately called on nation to reject monarch’s
actions.
i) King called out troops; over 1,800 people died during ensuing battles.
ii) The liberals in Chamber of Deputies named a new ministry composed
of constitutional monarchists.
iii) Under what became known as July Monarchy, Louis Philippe was
called king of French rather than France.
iv) Catholicism was recognized only as religion of majority of the people,
not official religion.
6) Revolution of 1830 proved quite conservative.
i) Money became path to power and influence.
ii) There was much corruption.
C. The Great Reform Bill in Britain (1832)
1) Passage of Great Reform Bill, which became law in 1832, was result of
events different from those in Continent.
2) English determination to maintain union with Ireland caused first step in
reform process.
i) After Act of Union in 1800 between England and Ireland, only
Protestant Irishmen could be elected to represent overwhelmingly
Catholic Ireland.
3) Under leadership of Daniel O’Connell, Irish nationalists organized Catholic
Association to agitate Catholic emancipation.
i) If they were not seated, civil war might erupt.
ii) This measure, together with repeal in 1828 of restrictions against
Protestants nonconformists.
4) Catholic emancipation was liberal measure that was passed for conservative
purpose of preserving order.
i) This measure alienated many of Wellington’s Anglican Tory supporters.
ii) Even some Tories believed that parliamentary reform was necessary
because they had concluded that Catholic emancipation could have
been passed only by corrupt House of Commons.
5) Whig ministry soon presented House of Commons with major reform bill.
i) Had 2 goals.
ii) First was to replace “rotten” boroughs with representatives for
previously unrepresented manufacturing districts and cities.
iii) Second was to increase number of voters in England and Wales.
iv) William IV agreed to create enough new peers to give third reform bill.
 6) Great Reform Bill expanded size of English electorate, but wasn’t
democratic measure.
i) Electorate was increased by over 200,000 persons.
ii) New urban boroughs gave growing cities a voice in House of Commons
IV. Testing the New American Republic
A. Toward Sectional Conflict
1) While nations of Western Europe moved very slowly toward embracing
political liberalism, United States of America was continuing its bold
republican political experiment.
2) Constitutional Convention of 1788 had debated sectional difference relating
to what proportion of slave population would be counted toward
representation
i) Constitution also forbade any federal attempt to prevent importation of
slaves before 1808.
3) Westward movement meant that slavery couldn’t be permanently ignored.
i) Ordinance of 1787, passed by Congress under Articles of Confederation.
ii) Stretched from Appalachians to Mississippi northward.
B. Northern Economic Development
1) Family farms, free labor, commerce, and early industrialization in textiles.
i) Farms were relatively small and worked by families.
ii) Political spokesmen for North tended to favor tariffs to protect their
young industries from cheaper foreign competition.