Two Factor Theory: Herzberg

Herzberg's two-factor theory states that certain factors cause job satisfaction, and a separate set of factors cause dissatisfaction.
Herzberg's Two-Factor Theory

According to Herzberg, understanding what causes employee satisfaction and dissatisfaction is important for management.
KEY POINTS

The factors that motivate people can change over their lifetime, but "respect for me as a person" is one of the top motivating factors at any stage of life. Satisfaction and dissatisfaction are not on a continuum with one increasing as the other diminishes, but are independent phenomena. To ensure a satisfied and productive workforce, managers must give attention to both sets of job factors.
TERMS

satisfaction

A fulfillment of a need or desire.

motivation

Willingness of action especially in behavior

hygiene

Those conditions and practices that promote and preserve health.

two-factor theory

a framework that says there are certain factors in the workplace that cause job satisfaction, while a separate set of factors cause dissatisfaction
hygiene factors

things that that do not give positive satisfaction, though dissatisfaction results from their absence Frederick Herzberg's two-factor theory, also known as the motivation-hygiene theory or intrinsic/extrinsic motivation, concludes that while there are certain factors in the workplace that cause job satisfaction, a separate set of factors can cause dissatisfaction. The factors that motivate people can change over their lifetime, but "respect for me as a person" is one of the top motivating factors at any stage of life. Figure 1 According to Herzberg, intrinsic motivators such as challenging work, recognition, and responsibility produce employee satisfaction, while extrinsic hygiene factors, including status, job security, salary, and fringe benefits if absent produce dissatisfaction. Herzberg's theory appears to parallel Maslow's needs hierarchy. Individuals look for the gratification of higher-level psychological needs having to do with achievement, recognition,

responsibility, advancement, and the nature of the work itself. However, Herzberg added a new dimension to this theory, including factors that cause dissatisfaction as well, such as company policies, supervision, technical problems, salary, interpersonal relations on the job, and working conditions. This two-factor model of motivation is based on the notion that the presence of one set of job characteristics or incentives leads to worker satisfaction, while another and separate set of job characteristics lead to dissatisfaction. Thus, satisfaction and dissatisfaction are not on a continuum with one increasing as the other diminishes, but are independent phenomena. If management wishes to increase satisfaction on the job, it should be concerned with the nature of the work itself the opportunities it presents employees for gaining status, assuming responsibility, and achieving self-realization. If, on the other hand, management wishes to reduce dissatisfaction, then it must focus on the job environment policies, procedures, supervision, and working conditions. To ensure a satisfied and productive workforce, managers must give attention to both sets of job factors.

Equity Theory
Equity theory explains the relational satisfaction in terms of fair/unfair distributions of resources within interpersonal relationships.
Employees seek to be treated fairly for their work.
KEY POINTS

Equity theory proposes that individuals who perceive themselves as either under-rewarded or over-rewarded will experience distress, and that this distress leads to efforts to restore equity within the relationship. If an employee feels underpaid then it will result in the employee feeling hostile towards the organization and perhaps their co-workers, which may result in the employee not performing well at work anymore. When individuals find themselves participating in inequitable relationships, they become distressed.
TERMS

equitable

Marked by or having equity.

equity theory

an attempt to explain relational satisfaction in terms of perceptions of fair or unfair distributions of resources within interpersonal relationships
Full text

Equity theory is a theory that attempts to explain relational satisfaction in terms of perceptions of fair/unfair distributions of resources within interpersonal relationships. Considered to be one of the justice theories, equity theory was first developed in 1963 by John Stacey Adams. He was a workplace and behavioral psychologist, who asserted that employees seek to maintain equity between the inputs that they bring to a job and the outcomes that they receive from it against the perceived inputs and outcomes of others. The belief is that people value fair treatment which causes them to be motivated to keep the fairness maintained within the

relationships of their co-workers and the organization. The structure of equity in the workplace is based on the ratio of inputs to outcomes. Inputs are the contributions made by the employee for the organization Figure 1. Equity theory proposes that individuals who perceive themselves as either under-rewarded or over-rewarded will experience distress, and that this distress leads to efforts to restore equity within the relationship. It focuses on determining whether the distribution of resources is fair to both relational partners. Equity is measured by comparing the ratios of contributions and benefits of each person within the relationship. Partners do not have to receive equal benefits (such as receiving the same amount of love, care, and financial security) or make equal contributions (such as investing the same amount of effort, time, and financial resources), as long as the ratio between these benefits and contributions is similar. Much like other prevalent theories of motivation, such as Maslows hierarchy of needs, equity theory acknowledges that subtle and variable individual factors affect each persons assessment and perception of their relationship with their relational partners. According to Adams, anger is induced by underpayment inequity and guilt is induced with overpayment equity. Payment whether hourly wage or salary, is the main concern and therefore the cause of equity or inequity in most cases. In any position, an employee wants to feel that their contributions and workperformance are being rewarded with their pay. If an employee feels underpaid then it will result in the employee feeling hostile towards the organization and perhaps their co-workers, which may result in the employee not performing well at work anymore. It is the subtle variables that also play an important role in the feeling of equity. Just the idea of recognition for the job performance and the mere act of thanking the employee will cause a feeling of satisfaction and therefore help the employee feel worthwhile and have better outcomes. When individuals find themselves participating in inequitable relationships, they become distressed. The more inequitable the relationship, the more distress individuals feel. According to equity theory, both the person who gets "too much" and the person who gets "too little" feel distressed. The person who gets too much may feel guilt or shame. The person who gets too little may feel angry or humiliated.

Goal-Setting Theory
Goal setting involves establishing specific, measurable, achievable, realistic, and time-targeted (S.M.A.R.T) goals.
In business, goal setting encourages participants to put in substantial effort.
KEY POINTS

Work on goal-setting suggests that it is an effective tool for making progress by ensuring that participants in a group with a common goal are clearly aware of what is expected from them. On a personal level, setting goals helps people work towards their own objectives(most commonly based on financial or career-based goals). In business, goal setting encourages participants to put in substantial effort.
TERMS

goal

A result that one is attempting to achieve.

motivation

Willingness of action especially in behavior

productivity

The rate at which goods or services are produced by a standard population of workers.
goal displacement

the effective abandonment of the pursuit of one achievement by pursuing another

Hierarchy of Needs

Employees are often motivated by their needs

Goal Setting Theory

Goal setting involves establishing specific, measurable, achievable, realistic and timetargeted (S.M.A.R.T ) goals. Work on the theory of goal-setting suggests that it is an effective tool for making progress by ensuring that participants in a group with a common goal are clearly aware of what is expected from them. On a personal level, setting goals helps people work towards their own objectivesmost commonly with financial or career-based goals. Figure 1 Goals that are difficult to achieve and specific tend to increase performance more than goals that are not. A goal can become more specific through quantification or enumeration (such as by stating "... increase productivity by 50%") or by defining certain tasks that must be completed.
Goals in Business (Motivation)

In business, goal setting encourages participants to put in substantial effort (Figure 2). Also, because every member has defined expectations for their role, little room is left for inadequate effort to go unnoticed. Managers cannot constantly drive motivation, or keep track of an employees work on a continuous basis. Goals are therefore an important tool for managers, because goals have the ability to function as a self-regulatory mechanism that gives an employee a certain amount of guidance. Shalley, Locke, and Latham have distilled four mechanisms through which goal setting can affect individual performance: 1. Goals focus attention toward goal-relevant activities and away from goal-irrelevant activities. 2. Goals serve as an energizer. Higher goals induce greater effort, while low goals induce lesser effort. 3. Goals affect persistence. 4. Goals activate cognitive knowledge and strategies that help employees cope with the situation at hand. Locke et al. examined the behavioral effects of goal-setting, concluding that 90% of laboratory and field studies involving specific and challenging goals led to higher performance than those involving easy or no goals. While some managers believe it is sufficient to urge employees to "do their best," Locke and Latham have a contradicting view

on this. The authors state that people who are told to do their best do not do their best. This instruction useless in eliciting specific behavior. To elicit some specific form of behavior from another person, it is important that this person has a clear view of what is expected. A goal is therefore of vital importance because it helps an individual focusing his or her efforts in a specified direction. However, when goals are established at a management level and thereafter solely laid down, employee motivation regarding these goals is rather suppressed. To increase motivation, employees not only must be allowed to participate in the goal setting process, but the goals must also be challenging.

ERG Theory: Alderfer

Alderfer, expanding on Maslow's hierarchy of needs, created the ERG theory, outlining three core needs: existence, relatedness, and growth.
Child Hunger and Infection

Hunger is one of the basic needs of a human, or on the ERG, a need of existence.
KEY POINTS

This theory posits that there are three groups of core needsexistence, relatedness, and growthhence the label: ERG theory. The existence group is concerned with providing our basic material existence requirements. The second group of needs are those of relatedness, the desire we have for maintaining important interpersonal relationships. These social and status desires require interaction with others if they are to be satisfied, and they align with Maslow's social need and the external component of Maslow's esteem classification.
TERMS

existence

The state of being, existing, or occurring; beinghood.

Full text

Clayton Paul Alderfer (born September 1, 1940 in Sellersville, Pennsylvania) is an American psychologist who further developed Maslow's hierarchy of needs by categorizing the hierarchy into his ERG theory (Existence, Relatedness and Growth). This theory posits that there are three groups of core needs (existence, relatedness, and growth), hence the label, ERG theory. The existence group is concerned with providing our basic material existence requirements. They include the items that Maslow considered to be physiological and safety needs (Figure 1). The second group of needs is those of relatedness, the desire we have for maintaining important interpersonal relationships. These social and status desires require interaction with others if they are to be satisfied, and they align with Maslow's social need and the external component of Maslow's esteem classification. Finally, Alderfer isolates growth needs, an intrinsic desire for personal development. These include the intrinsic component from Maslow's esteem category and the characteristics included under self-actualization. Alderfer categorized the lower order needs (physiological and safety) into the existence category. He fit Maslow's interpersonal love and esteem needs into the relatedness category. The growth category contains the self-actualization and self-esteem needs. Alderfer also proposed a regression theory to go along with the ERG theory. He said that when needs in a higher category are not met, then individuals redouble the efforts invested in a lower category need. For example, if self-actualization or self-esteem is not met then individuals, will invest more effort in the relatedness category in the hopes of achieving the higher need they lack.

Acquired Needs Theory: McClelland

McClelland proposes that those in top management positions should have a high need for power and a low need for affiliation.
David McClelland

Psychologist David McClelland created Need Theory, a motivational model that attempts to explain how the needs for achievement, power, and affiliation affect the actions of people from a managerial context.
KEY POINTS

McClelland's Need Theory, created by psychologist David McClelland, is a motivational model that attempts to explain how the needs for achievement, power, and affiliation affect the actions of people from a managerial context. People who are achievement-motivated typically prefer to master a task or situation. This motivational need stems from a person's desire to influence, teach, or encourage others.

TERMS

achievement

The act of achieving or performing; an obtaining by exertion; successful performance; accomplishment; as, the achievement of his/her object.
feedback

Critical assessment on information produced,

zero-sum

Of any system where all gains are offset by exactly equal losses.
need

something required McClelland's Need Theory, created by psychologist David McClelland, is a motivational model that attempts to explain how the needs for achievement, power, and affiliation affect the actions of people from a managerial context. It is often taught in classes concerning management or organizational behavior (Figure 1). People who are achievement-motivated typically prefer to master a task or situation. They prefer working on tasks of moderate difficulty, in which the results are based on their effort rather than on luck, and to receive feedback on their work. Those who desire affiliation, however, prefer to spend time creating and maintaining social relationships, enjoy being a part of groups and have a desire to feel loved and accepted. People in this group may not make effective managers because they may worry too much about how others will feel about them. In his theory, people are not placed into categories but rather have degrees of these needs:

No one is only in 'one group' of these needs. The balance of needs brings out a profile. Needs do not explain competencies in any area. One can have high needs in one area and still be effective in an area where these needs are not necessarily fulfilled. This motivational need stems from a person's desire to influence, teach, or encourage others. People in this category enjoy work and place a high value on discipline. The downside to this motivational type is that group goals can become zero-sum in nature. For one person to win, another must lose. However, this can be positively applied to help accomplish group goals and to help others in the group feel competent about their work. McClelland proposes that those in top management positions should have a high need for power and a low need for affiliation. He also believes that although individuals with a need for achievement can make good managers, they are not suited to being in top management positions.

Expectancy Theory
Expectancy theory is about mental processes regarding choices and behaviors.
Managers and Leaders

Expectancy theory helps managers understand how individuals make decisions regarding various behavioral alternatives.

KEY POINTS

Expectancy theory proposes that a person will decide to act in a certain way because they are motivated to select a behavior over other behaviors due to what they expect the result to be. The individual makes choices based on estimates of how well the expected results of a given behavior are going to match up with or eventually lead to the desired results. Expectancy theory explains the behavioral process of why individuals are motivated to choose one behavioral option over another. It also explains how they make decisions to achieve the outcome that they perceive as most valuable.
TERMS

expectancy

Expectation or anticipation; the state of expecting something.

expectancy theory

a framework that says a person will decide to behave or act in a certain way because they are motivated to select a specific behavior over other behaviors due to what they expect the result of that selected behavior will be
instrumentality

the quality or condition of serving a purpose, being useful

valence

a one-dimensional value assigned to an object, situation, or state, that can usually be positive or nega
stock option

a contract which gives the owner the right, but not the obligation, to buy or sell an underlying asset or instrument at a specified strike price on or before a specified date
Introduction

Expectancy theory is about the mental processes involved in making choices. Inorganizational behavior, expectancy theory embraces how motivation was defined by Victor Vroom. Vroom proposed that a person decides to behave in a certain way because they select a behavior over other behaviors due to the expected result of the selected behavior. For example, a person will be willing to work harder if they think it will get them a reward that is worth the extra effort. In essence, the motivation of behavior selection is determined by the desirability of the reward. However, at the core of the theory is the cognitive process of how an individual processes the different motivational elements. Processing is done before making the ultimate choice. The reward, therefore, is not the sole determining factor in making the decision of how to behave because the person has to predict whether or not they will actually earn and receive the reward.
Vroom's Expectancy Theory

In 1964, Vroom defined motivation as a process, controlled by the individual, that governed choices among alternative forms of voluntary activities. An example is how individuals make choices based on estimates of how well the expected results of a given behavior are going to match up with or eventually lead to the desired results. Motivation is a product of an individuals expectancy that a certain effort will lead to the intended performance, the instrumentality of this performance to achieving a certain result, and the desirability of the result (known as valence) for the individual. Expectancy theory explains the behavioral process of why individuals choose one behavioral option over another. It also explains how they make decisions to achieve the result they desire. Vroom introduces three variables within his expectancy theory: valence (V), expectancy (E), and instrumentality (I). These three elements also have clearly defined relationships: effortperformance expectancy (E>P expectancy), performance-outcome expectancy (P>O expectancy). The three components of expectancy theory (Expectancy, Instrumentality, and Valence) fit together in this fashion:

1. Expectancy: Effort Performance (EP) 2. Instrumentality: Performance Outcome (PO) 3. Valence - V(R) Expectancy: Effort Performance (EP) Expectancy is the belief that one's effort (E) will result in attainment of desired performance (P) goals. Usually, this is based on an individual's past experience, self-confidence (self efficacy), and the perceived difficulty of the performance standard or goal. Factors associated with the individual's expectancy perception are self efficacy, goal difficulty, and control. Self efficacy is the persons belief about their ability to successfully perform a particular behavior. Goal difficulty involves how goals or performance expectations that are set too high are most likely to lead to low expectancy. Control is one's perceived control over performance. In order for expectancy to be high, individuals must expect to have some control over the outcome. Instrumentality: Performance Outcome (PO) Instrumentality is the belief that a person will receive a reward if the performance expectation is met. This reward may come in the form of a pay increase, promotion, recognition, or sense of accomplishment. Instrumentality is low when the reward is the same for all possible levels of performance. Valence - V(R) Valence is the value the individual places on the rewards (R) based on their needs, goals, values, and sources of motivation. Factors associated with the individual's valence for outcomes are values, needs, goals, preferences, sources of motivation, and the strength of an individuals preference for a particular outcome. Expectancy theory can help managers understand how individuals are motivated to make decisions regarding various behavioral alternatives. In order to enhance the connection between performance and outcomes, managers should use systems that tie rewards very closely to performance. Managers also need to ensure that the rewards provided are deserved and wanted by the recipients. In order to improve the connection between effort and performance, managers should engage in training to improve employee capabilities and help employees believe that added effort will in fact lead to better performance (Figure 1).

Hierarchy of Needs: Maslow

Maslow's hierarchy of needs is a model for the various needs of humanity, with important implications for behavior in the workplace.
SmartNotes

1.

fig. 1 Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs

Maslow's hierarchy of needs is often portrayed in the shape of a pyramid, with the largest and most fundamental needs at the bottom, and the need for self-actualization at the top.
KEY POINTS

Maslow's hierarchy of needs is a theory in psychology, proposed in the 1943 paper "A Theory of Human Motivation," by Abraham Maslow. Maslow's hierarchy of needs is often portrayed in the shape of a pyramid, with the largest and most fundamental needs at the bottom, and the need for self-actualization at the top. The most fundamental and basic four layers of the pyramid contain what Maslow called deficiency needs: esteem, friendship and love, security, and physical needs. Maslow's hierarchy of needs intersects with needs and motivation in organizations; managers can respond, for example, by providing a safe working environment and a sense of value and belonging. Maslow also coined the term "metamotivation" to describe the motivation of people who go beyond the scope of the basic needs and strive for constant betterment.
TERMS

hierarchy

An arrangement of items in which the items are represented as being "above," "below," or "at the same level as" one another.
esteem

To regard someone with respect.

motivation

Willingness of action especially in behavior

Full text Introduction

Maslow's hierarchy of needs is a theory in psychology proposed by Abraham Maslow in his 1943 paper "A Theory of Human Motivation." Maslow subsequently extended the idea to include observations about people's innate curiosity and not just what motivates them. His theories parallel many other theories of psychology which focus on describing stages in human development. Maslow uses the terms Physiological, Safety, Love and Belonging, Esteem, and Self-Actualization to describe the general stages that human motivations move through. Maslow studied what he called exemplary people, such as Albert Einstein, Jane Addams, Eleanor Roosevelt, and Frederick Douglass. Maslow's hierarchy of needs is often portrayed in the shape of a pyramid, with the largest and most fundamental levels of needs at the bottom. While Maslow never used a pyramid to represent the levels, a pyramid has become the de facto way to represent the hierarchy (Figure 1).
Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs

The most fundamental and basic four layers of the pyramid contain what Maslow called "deficiency needs," including esteem, friendship and love, security, and physical needs. With the exception of the most fundamental (physiological) needs, if these deficiency needs are not met, the body gives no physical indication, but the individual feels anxious and tense, including in their work environments. Maslow's theory suggests that the most basic level of needs must be met before an individual will strongly desire (or be motivated by) secondary or higher level needs. Maslow also coined the term "metamotivation" to describe the motivation of people who go beyond the scope of the basic needs and strive for constant betterment. Physiological needs. For the most part, physiological needs are obvious they are the literal requirements for human survival. If these requirements are not met, the human body simply cannot continue to function. Physiological needs are the most dominant of all the other needs. Therefore, the human that lacks food, love, esteem, or safety would consider the greatest of those needs to be food. Safety needs. With one's physical needs relatively satisfied, the individual's safety needs take precedence and dominate behavior. In the absence of physical safety war, natural disaster, or childhood abuse, for example people re-experience those stressful situations. This is more likely to be found in children because they have a greater need to feel safe. However, safety can also affect workplace dynamics. For example, an unsafe work environment can put an employee at risk and also impair his or her motivation. Love and belonging. After physiological and safety needs are fulfilled, the third layer of human needs are interpersonal and involve feelings of belongingness. The need is especially strong in childhood and can override the need for safety, as witnessed in children who cling to abusive parents. Deficiencies such as hospitalization, neglect, or ostracization can impact an individual's ability to form and maintain emotionally significant relationships. Esteem. All humans have a need to be respected and to respect themselves. Esteem is the normal human desire to be accepted and valued by others. People need to engage themselves in activities, either professional or personal, to gain recognition and a sense of contribution. Imbalances at this level can result in low self-esteem or an inferiority complex. Esteem needs can intersect with motivation in the workplace. Self-actualization. What a man can be, he must be. This forms the basis of the perceived need for self-actualization. This level of need pertains to what a person's full potential is, and then the need to realize that potential. Maslow describes this desire as the desire to become

everything that one is capable of becoming. This is a broad definition of the need for selfactualization, but when applied to individuals the need is specific. For example, one individual may have the strong desire to become an ideal parent, another to become a professional athlete, and another an artist. Self-actualization can also be pursued through one's work; thus, the desire for self-actualization can intersect with motivation in the workplace.

maslow's hierarchy of needs Abraham Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs motivational model Abraham Maslow developed the Hierarchy of Needs model in 1940-50s USA, and the Hierarchy of Needs theory remains valid today for understanding human motivation, management training, and personal development. Indeed, Maslow's ideas surrounding the Hierarchy of Needs concerning the responsibility of employers to provide a workplace environment that encourages and enables employees to fulfill their own unique potential (self-actualization) are today more relevant than ever. Abraham Maslow's book Motivation and Personality, published in 1954 (second edition 1970) introduced the Hierarchy of Needs, and Maslow extended his ideas in other work, notably his later book Toward A Psychology Of Being, a significant and relevant commentary, which has been revised in recent times by Richard Lowry, who is in his own right a leading academic in the field of motivational psychology. Abraham Maslow was born in New York in 1908 and died in 1970, although various publications appear in Maslow's name in later years. Maslow's PhD in psychology in 1934 at the University of Wisconsin formed the basis of his motivational research, initially studying rhesus monkeys. Maslow later moved to New York's Brooklyn College. The Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs five-stage model below (structure and terminology - not the precise pyramid diagram itself) is clearly and directly attributable to Maslow; later versions of the theory with added motivational stages are not so clearly attributable to Maslow. These extended models have instead been inferred by others from Maslow's work. Specifically Maslow refers to the needs Cognitive, Aesthetic and Transcendence (subsequently shown as distinct needs levels in some interpretations of his theory) as additional aspects of motivation, but not as distinct levels in the Hierarchy of Needs. Where Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs is shown with more than five levels these models have been extended through interpretation of Maslow's work by other people. These augmented models and diagrams are shown as the adapted seven and eight-stage Hierarchy of Needs pyramid diagrams and models below. There have been very many interpretations of Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs in the form of pyramid diagrams. The diagrams on this page are my own interpretations and are not offered as Maslow's original work. Interestingly in Maslow's book Motivation and Personality, which first introduced the Hierarchy of Needs, there is not a pyramid to be seen. Free Hierarchy of Needs diagrams in pdf and doc formats similar to the image below are available from this page.

(N.B. The word Actualization/Actualisation can be spelt either way. Z is preferred in American English. S is preferred in UK English. Both forms are used in this page to enable keyword searching for either spelling via search engines.)

maslow's hierarchy of needs Each of us is motivated by needs. Our most basic needs are inborn, having evolved over tens of thousands of years. Abraham Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs helps to explain how these needs motivate us all. Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs states that we must satisfy each need in turn, starting with the first, which deals with the most obvious needs for survival itself. Only when the lower order needs of physical and emotional well-being are satisfied are we concerned with the higher order needs of influence and personal development. Conversely, if the things that satisfy our lower order needs are swept away, we are no longer concerned about the maintenance of our higher order needs. Maslow's original Hierarchy of Needs model was developed between 1943-1954, and first widely published in Motivation and Personality in 1954. At this time the Hierarchy of Needs model comprised five needs. This original version remains for most people the definitive Hierarchy of Needs.

maslow's hierarchy of needs 1. Biological and Physiological needs - air, food, drink, shelter, warmth, sex, sleep, etc. 2. Safety needs - protection from elements, security, order, law, limits, stability, etc.

3. Belongingness and Love needs - work group, family, affection, relationships, etc. 4. Esteem needs - self-esteem, achievement, managerial responsibility, etc. mastery, independence, status, dominance, prestige,

5. Self-Actualization needs - realising personal potential, self-fulfillment, seeking personal growth and peak experiences. This is the definitive and original Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs. While Maslow referred to various additional aspects of motivation, he expressed the Hierarchy of Needs in these five clear stages. Here is a quick simple self-test based on the original Maslow's 5-level Hierarchy of Needs. It's not a scientific or validated instrument - merely a quick indicator, which can be used for self-awareness, discussion, etc. 1970s adapted hierarchy of needs model, including cognitive and aesthetic needs 1. Biological and Physiological needs - air, food, drink, shelter, warmth, sex, sleep, etc. 2. Safety needs - protection from elements, security, order, law, limits, stability, etc. 3. Belongingness and Love needs - work group, family, affection, relationships, etc. 4. Esteem needs - self-esteem, achievement, mastery, independence, status, dominance, prestige, managerial responsibility, etc. 5. Cognitive needs - knowledge, meaning, etc. 6. Aesthetic needs - appreciation and search for beauty, balance, form, etc. 7. Self-Actualization needs - realising personal potential, self-fulfillment, seeking personal growth and peak experiences. N.B. Although Maslow referred to additional aspects of motivation, 'Cognitive' and 'Aesthetic', he did not include them as levels or stages within his own expression of the Hierarchy of Needs.

1990s adapted hierarchy of needs including transcendence needs 1. Biological and Physiological needs - air, food, drink, shelter, warmth, sex, sleep, etc. 2. Safety needs - protection from elements, security, order, law, limits, stability, etc. 3. Belongingness and Love needs - work group, family, affection, relationships, etc. 4. Esteem needs - self-esteem, achievement, mastery, independence, status, dominance, prestige, managerial responsibility, etc. 5. Cognitive needs - knowledge, meaning, etc. 6. Aesthetic needs - appreciation and search for beauty, balance, form, etc. 7. Self-Actualization needs - realising personal potential, self-fulfillment, seeking personal growth and peak experiences. 8. Transcendence needs - helping others to achieve self actualization.

N.B. Although Maslow referred to additional aspects of motivation, 'Cognitive', 'Aesthetic', and 'Transcendence', he did not include any of these as additional stages in the Hierarchy of Needs. Here is a quick self-test based on the extended 8-level Hierarchy of Needs. Like the 5-level Hierarchy of Needs self-test it is not a scientific or validated instrument - merely a quick indicator for helping self-awareness, discussion, etc.

what hierarchy of needs model is most valid? Abraham Maslow created the original five level Hierarchy of Needs model, and for many this remains entirely adequate for its purpose. The seven and eight level 'hierarchy of needs' models are later adaptations by others, based on Maslow's work. Arguably, the original five-level model includes the later additional sixth, seventh and eighth ('Cognitive', 'Aesthetic', and 'Transcendence') levels within the original 'Self-Actualization' level 5, since each one of the 'new' motivators concerns an area of self-development and self-fulfilment that is rooted in self-actualization 'growth', and is distinctly different to any of the previous 1-4 level 'deficiency' motivators. For many people, self-actualizing commonly involves each and every one of the newly added drivers. As such, the original five-level Hierarchy of Needs model remains a definitive classical representation of human motivation; and the later adaptations perhaps serve best to illustrate aspects of self-actualization.

Maslow said that needs must be satisfied in the given order. Aims and drive always shift to next higher order needs. Levels 1 to 4 are deficiency motivators; level 5, and by implication 6 to 8, are growth motivators and relatively rarely found. The thwarting of needs is usually a cause of stress, and is particularly so at level 4. Examples in use: You can't motivate someone to achieve their sales target (level 4) when they're having problems with their marriage (level 3). You can't expect someone to work as a team member (level 3) when they're having their house re-possessed (level 2).

maslow's self-actualizing characteristics

keen sense of reality - aware of real situations - objective judgement, rather than subjective see problems in terms of challenges and situations requiring solutions, rather than see problems as personal complaints or excuses need for privacy and comfortable being alone reliant on own experiences and judgement - independent - not reliant on culture and environment to form opinions and views not susceptible to social pressures - non-conformist democratic, fair and non-discriminating - embracing and enjoying all cultures, races and individual styles socially compassionate - possessing humanity accepting others as they are and not trying to change people comfortable with oneself - despite any unconventional tendencies a few close intimate friends rather than many surface relationships sense of humour directed at oneself or the human condition, rather than at the expense of others

spontaneous and natural - true to oneself, rather than being how others want excited and interested in everything, even ordinary things creative, inventive and original seek peak experiences that leave a lasting impression

maslow's hierarchy of needs in advertising To help with training of Maslow's theory look for Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs motivators in advertising. This is a great basis for Maslow and motivation training exercises: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Biological and Physiological needs - wife/child-abuse help-lines, social security benefits, Samaritans, roadside recovery. Safety needs - home security products (alarms, etc), house an contents insurance, life assurance, schools. Belongingness and Love needs - dating and match-making services, chat-lines, clubs and membership societies, Macdonalds, 'family' themes like the old style Oxo stock cube ads. Esteem needs - cosmetics, fast cars, home improvements, furniture, fashion clothes, drinks, lifestyle products and services. Self-Actualization needs - Open University, and that's about it; little else in mainstream media because only 2% of population are self-actualizers, so they don't constitute a very big part of the mainstream market.

You can view and download free Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs diagrams, and two free Hierarchy of Needs self-tests, based on the original Maslow's five-stage model and later adapted eight-stage model, ideal for training, presentations and project work, at thebusinessballs free online resources section. Free diagrams include:

Pyramid diagram based on Maslow's original five-level Hierarchy of Needs (1954). Adapted seven-level Hierarchy of Needs diagram (which seems to have first appeared in the 1970s - after Maslow's death). Adapted eight-level Hierarchy of Needs diagram (appearing later, seemingly 1990s).

interpreting behaviour according to maslow's hierarchy of needs Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs is an excellent model for understanding human motivation, but it is a broad concept. If you are puzzled as to how to relate given behaviour to the Hierarchy it could be that your definition of the behaviour needs refining. For example, 'where does 'doing things for fun' fit into the model? The answer is that it can't until you define 'doing things for fun' more accurately. You'd need to define more precisely each given situation where a person is 'doing things for fun' in order to analyse motivation according to Maslow's Hierarchy, since the 'fun' activity motive can potentially be part any of the five original Maslow needs. Understanding whether striving to achieve a particular need or aim is 'fun' can provide a helpful basis for identifying a Maslow driver within a given behaviour, and thereby to assess where a particular behaviour fits into the model:

Biological - health, fitness, energising mind and body, etc. Safety - order and structure needs met for example by some heavily organised, structural activity Belongingness - team sport, club 'family' and relationships Esteem - competition, achievement, recognition Self-Actualization drivers - challenge, new experiences, love of art, nature, etc.

However in order to relate a particular 'doing it for fun' behaviour the Hierarchy of Needs we need to consider what makes it 'fun' (i.e., rewarding) for the person. If a behaviour is 'for fun', then consider what makes it 'fun' for the person - is the 'fun' rooted in 'belongingness', or is it from 'recognition', i.e., 'esteem'. Or is the fun at a deeper level, from the sense of self-fulfilment, i.e., 'self-actualization'. Apply this approach to any behaviour that doesn't immediately fit the model, and it will help you to see where it does fit. Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs will be a blunt instrument if used as such. The way you use the Hierarchy of Needs determines the subtlety and sophistication of the model. For example: the common broad-brush interpretation of Maslow's famous theory suggests that that once a need is satisfied the person moves onto the next, and to an extent this is entirely correct. However an overly rigid application of this interpretation will produce a rigid analysis, and people and motivation are more complex. So while it is broadly true that people move up (or down) the hierarchy, depending what's happening to them in their lives, it is also true that most people's motivational 'set' at any time comprises elements of all of the motivational drivers. For example, self-actualizers (level 5 - original model) are mainly focused on self-actualizing but are still motivated to eat (level 1) and socialise (level 3). Similarly, homeless folk whose main focus is feeding themselves (level 1) andfinding shelter for the night (level 2) can also be, albeit to a lesser extent, still concerned with social relationships (level 3), how their friends perceive them (level 4), and even the meaning of life (level 5 - original model). Like any simple model, Maslow's theory not a fully responsive system - it's a guide which requires some interpretation and thought, given which, it remains extremely useful and applicable for understanding, explaining and handling many human behaviour situations.

maslow's hierarchy of needs and helping others There are certainly some behaviours that are quite tricky to relate to Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs. For example: Normally, we would consider that selflessly helping others, as a form of personal growth motivation, would be found as part of self-actualisation, or perhaps even 'transcendence' (if you subscribe to the extended hierarchy). So how can we explain the examples of people who seem to be far short of self-actualising, and yet are still able to help others in a meaningful and unselfish sense? Interestingly this concept seems to be used increasingly as an effective way to help people deal with depression, low self-esteem, poor life circumstances, etc., and it almost turns the essential Maslow model on its head: that is, by helping others, a person helps themselves to improve and develop too. The principle has also been applied quite recently to developing disaffected school-children, whom, as part of their own development, have been encouraged and enabled to 'teach' other younger children (which can arguably be interpreted as their acting at a self-actualising level - selflessly helping others). The disaffected children, theoretically striving to belong and be accepted (level 3 - belongingness) were actually remarkably good at helping other children, despite their own negative feelings and issues. Under certain circumstances, a person striving to satisfy their needs at level 3 - belongingness, seems able to self-actualise - level 5 (and perhaps beyond, into 'transcendence') by selflessly helping others, and at the same time begins to satisfy their own needs for belongingness and self-esteem. Such examples demonstrate the need for careful interpretation and application of the Maslow model. The Hierarchy of Needs is not a catch-all, but it does remain a wonderfully useful framework for analysing and trying to understand the subtleties - as well as the broader aspects - of human behaviour and growth.

self-actualisation, employees and organisations Maslow's work and ideas extend far beyond the Hierarchy of Needs. Maslow's concept of self-actualisation relates directly to the present day challenges and opportunities for employers and organisations - to provide real meaning, purpose and true personal development for their employees. For life - not just for work. Maslow saw these issues fifty years ago: the fact that employees have a basic human need and a right to strive for self-actualisation, just as much as the corporate directors and owners do. Increasingly, the successful organisations and employers will be those who genuinely care about, understand, encourage and enable their people's personal growth towards self-actualisation - way beyond traditional work-related training and development, and of course way beyond old-style X-Theory management autocracy, which still forms the basis of much organised employment today. The best modern employers and organisations are beginning to learn at last: that sustainable success is built on a serious and compassionate commitment to helping people identify, pursue and reach their own personal unique potential. When people grow as people, they automatically become more effective and valuable as employees. In fact virtually all personal growth, whether in a hobby, a special talent or interest, or a new experience, produces new skills, attributes, behaviours and wisdom that is directly transferable to any sort of job role. The best modern employers recognise this and as such offer development support to their staff in any direction whatsoever that the person seeks to grow and become more fulfilled.

maslow's modern relevance When you read Maslow's work, and particularly when you hear him speak about it, the relevance of his thinking to our modern world of work and management is astounding. The term 'Maslow's Hammer' is a simple quick example. Also called 'The Law of the Instrument', the expression refers metaphorically to a person having just one 'tool' (approach or method available or known/learnt) and so then treating every situation the same. Other writers have made similar observations, but 'Maslow's Hammer' is the most widely referenced comment on the subject. Maslow's quote is from his 1966 book The Psychology of Science - A Reconnaissance: "I suppose it is tempting, if the only tool you have is a hammer, to treat everything as if it were a nail.." ('Maslow's Hammer' - Abraham Maslow, 1966) Maslow's explanations and interpretations of the human condition remain fundamentally helpful in understanding and addressing all sorts of social and behavioural questions - forty or fifty years after his death. You will particularly see great significance of his ideas in relation to modern challenges for work such as in the Psychological Contract andleadership ethics, and even extending to globalization and society. Maslow is obviously most famous for his Hierarchy of Needs theory, rightly so, because it is a wonderfully simple and elegant model for understanding so many aspects of human motivation, especially in the workplace. The simplicity of the model however tends to limit appreciation of Maslow's vision and humanity, which still today are remarkably penetrating and sensitive.