ISLAM, a major world religion, founded in Arabia and based on the teachings of Muhammad, who is called the Prophet.

The Arabic word islam literally means "to surrender," but as a religious term in the Koran, it means "to surrender to the will or law of God." ne who practices !slam is a Muslim. According to the Koran, !slam is the primordial and uni"ersal religion, and e"en nature itself is Muslim, because it automatically obeys the laws God has ingrained in it. #or human beings, who possess free will, practicing !slam does not in"ol"e automatically obeying but rather freely accepting God$s commandments. A Muslim is a follower of the re"elation %the Koran& brought by Muhammad and thus is a member of the !slamic community. 'ecause the name Muslim is gi"en in the Koran itself to the followers of Muhammad %Koran (()*+&, Muslims resent being called Muhammadans, which implies a personal cult of Muhammad, forbidden in !slam. They also object to the spelling Moslem as a distortion of Muslim. Although e,act statistics are not a"ailable, the Muslim world population is estimated at more than - billion. !slam has flourished in di"erse climatic, cultural, and ethnic regions. !t has begun to grow rapidly in the ../. The major groups comprising the world community of !slam include the Arabs %0orth Africa and the Middle 1ast&2 sub3/aharan Africans %from /enegal to /omalia&2 Tur4s and Tur4ic peoples %Tur4ey and 5entral Asia&2 !ranians2 Afghans2 the !ndo3Muslims %Pa4istan, !ndia, and 'angladesh&2 /outheast Asians %Malaysia, !ndonesia, and the Philippines&2 and a small percentage of 5hinese. !n 1urope, !slam is the second largest religion after 5hristianity. !/6AM!5 7 5T8!01 The two fundamental sources of !slamic doctrine and practice are the Koran and the /unna, or the e,emplary conduct of the Prophet Muhammad. The Koran Muslims regard the Koran as the speech of God to Muhammad, mediated by Gabriel, the angel of re"elation2 they belie"e that God himself, not Muhammad, is the author and therefore that the Koran is infallible. The document called the Koran is the collection of the passages re"ealed to Muhammad during the appro,imately (( years of his prophetic life %9-:;<(&. !t is di"ided into --= chapters of une>ual length, the shortest containing only < short "erses, the longest containing <:9 long "erses. 'oth !slamic and non3!slamic scholars agree on the essential integrity of the te,t of the Koran throughout its history. The /unna The second substanti"e source of !slam, the /unna, or e,ample of the Prophet, is 4nown through ?adith, the body of traditions based on what the Prophet said or did regarding "arious issues. .nli4e the Koran, which was memori@edAeither in whole or in partAby many followers of Muhammad during their lifetime and which was compiled in written form >uite early, the transmission of ?adith was largely "erbal, and the present authoritati"e collections date from the Bth century.

.nli4e the Koran, ?adith is not considered infallible. !n the early !slamic period, whether or not the Prophet himself was infallible %apart from the re"elations in the Koran& was a point of contro"ersy. 6ater, howe"er, the consensus of the !slamic community was that both he and the earlier prophets were infallible. 'ecause ?adith was mainly transmitted orally, howe"er, it was conceded that error could enter into the human transmission. ?adith, therefore, is a source secondary to the Koran, although it is almost e>ually fundamental for most Muslims. 8ecent research, not yet accepted by the large body of Muslims, has demonstrated that much of ?adith was not deri"ed from the Prophet but represents the opinions of the early generations of Muslims, opinions that were subse>uently attributed to the Prophet. !n some cases a genuine statement of the Prophet was preser"ed, but additions to it were later made by Muslims who wanted to ad"ance certain theological or legal opinions. God Monotheism is central to !slamAa belief in only one God, unitary and omnipotent. 'elief in a plurality of gods or in the e,tension of God$s di"inity to any person is emphatically rejected. God created nature through a primordial act of mercy2 otherwise there would be pure nothingness. God pro"ided each element of his creation with its own proper nature, or laws go"erning its conduct, so that it follows a characteristic pattern. The result is a well3ordered, harmonious whole, a cosmos in which e"erything has its proper place and limitations. 0o gaps, dislocations, or ruptures, therefore, are found in nature. God presides o"er and go"erns the uni"erse, which, with its orderly functioning, is the primary sign and proof of God and his unity. Ciolations of the natural order in the form of miracles occurred in the past, but although the Koran accepts the miracles of earlier prophets %0oah, Abraham, Moses, Desus, and others&, it declares them outdated2 Muhammad$s miracle is the Koran, the li4e of which no human can produce. According to !slam, God has four fundamental functions with respect to the uni"erse and to humanity in particular) creation, sustenance, guidance, and judgment. God, who created the uni"erse out of sheer mercy, is bound to sustain it as well. All nature has been made subser"ient to humanity, which may e,ploit it and benefit from it. The ultimate purpose of humanity, howe"er, is to be in the "ser"ice of God," that is, to worship him alone and to construct an ethical social order free from "corruptions." 1thics The Koran declares that "reforming the earth" is the ideal of human endea"or. The basic criticism of humanity in the Koran is that it is too proud and too petty, narrow3minded, and selfish. "Man is by nature timid," says the Koran. "Ehen e"il befalls him, he panics, but when good things come to him he pre"ents them from reaching others." This pettiness causes indi"iduals to become so submerged in nature that they lose sight of its 5reatorAonly when nature fails them do they, in their utter frustration, turn to God. 'ecause of their shortsightedness, people fear that charity and sacrificing for others will result in their own impo"erishment. This, howe"er, is /atan$s influence, for God promises prosperity in return for generosity to the poor. The Koran insists, therefore, that indi"iduals transcend their pettiness and enlarge themsel"es. 'y doing so, they will de"elop the inner moral >uality that the Koran calls ta>wa %usually translated "fear of God," but actually meaning "to guard against danger"&. 'y this

>uality humans can discern right from wrong and, abo"e all, can e"aluate their own actions properly, escaping self3deception, a danger to which they are always e,posed. ften people thin4 they ha"e done something conse>uential, but the deed has no importance in the long run. The real worth of a person$s deeds can be judged only through ta>wa, and an indi"idual$s aim should be the ultimate benefit of humanity, not the immediate pleasures or ambitions of the self. Prophets 'ecause of humanity$s moral wea4ness, God has sent prophets to teach both indi"iduals and nations correct moral and spiritual beha"ior. After creation and sustenance, God$s mercy is consummated in these acts of di"ine guidance. Although right and wrong are inscribed in the human heart, the inability or refusal of many people to decipher that inscription has made prophetic guidance necessary. This guidance is uni"ersal2 no one on earth has been left without it. Adam was the first prophet2 after his e,pulsion from the Garden of 1den, God forga"e him his lapse %for this reason !slam does not accept the doctrine of original sin&. The messages of all prophets emanate from the same di"ine source, which in the Koran is called "The Preser"ed Tablets," "The ?idden 'oo4," or "The Mother of All 7i"ine 'oo4s." 8eligions are, therefore, basically one, e"en though their institutionali@ed forms may differ. Prophets are one indi"isible unity, and one must belie"e in all of them, for to accept some and reject others amounts to a denial of the di"ine truth. All prophets are human2 they ha"e no share in di"inity, but they are the most perfect e,emplars for humanity. /ome prophets are superior to others, howe"er, particularly in steadfastness under trial. Thus, the Koran describes Muhammad as the "/eal of all Prophets." #rom this arises the !slamic belief that prophethood was consummated and finished with him and that the Koran is the final and most nearly perfect re"elation of God, consummating and superseding all earlier ones. The 7ay of Dudgment The di"ine acti"ities of creation, sustenance, and guidance end with the final act of judgment. n the 7ay of Dudgment, all humanity will be gathered, and indi"iduals will be judged solely according to their deeds. The "successful ones" will go to the Garden %hea"en&, and the "losers," or the e"il, will go to hell, although God is merciful and will forgi"e those who deser"e forgi"eness. 'esides the 6ast Dudgment, which will be on indi"iduals, the Koran recogni@es another 4ind of di"ine judgment, which is meted out in history to nations, peoples, and communities. 0ations, li4e indi"iduals, may be corrupted by wealth, power, and pride, and, unless they reform, these nations are punished by being destroyed or subjugated by more "irtuous nations. P8A5T!51/ A07 !0/T!T.T! 0/ #i"e duties, 4nown as the "pillars of !slam," are regarded as cardinal in !slam and as central to the life of the !slamic community. Profession of #aith !n accordance with !slam$s absolute commitment to monotheism, the first duty is the profession of faith %the /hahadah&) "There is no God but Allah and Muhammad is his Prophet." This profession must be made publicly by e"ery Muslim at least once in his or her lifetime "by the

tongue and with full assent from the heart"2 it defines the membership of an indi"idual in the !slamic community. Prayer The second duty is that of fi"e daily prayers. The first prayer is offered before sunrise, the second in the "ery early afternoon, the third in the late afternoon, the fourth immediately after sunset, and the fifth before retiring and before midnight. !n prayers, Muslims face the Kaaba, a small, cube3shaped structure in the courtyard of al3?aram %the "in"iolate place"&, the great mos>ue of Mecca. A single unit of prayer consists of a standing posture, then a genuflection followed by two prostrations, and finally a sitting posture. !n each of these postures prescribed prayers and portions of the Koran are recited. All fi"e prayers in !slam are congregational and are to be offered in a mos>ue, but they may be offered indi"idually if, for some reason, a person cannot be present with a congregation. !ndi"idual, de"otional prayers are not obligatory, but Muslims are encouraged to offer them after midnight2 they are called tahajjud %"night3"igil"&. !n the Middle 1ast and !ndonesia, women also join the congregational prayers, although they pray in a separate room or hall. !n the !ndian subcontinent, Muslim women pray at home. 'efore praying, the worshiper must ma4e ablutions. 'efore e"ery congregational prayer, a formal public call to prayer is made from a minaret of the mos>ue by the mue@@in %from a@an, "call to prayer"&. !n recent times the call has been made o"er a microphone so that those at some distance can hear it. /pecial early afternoon prayers are offered on #ridays in congregational mos>ues. These are preceded by a sermon from the pulpit by the imam, also called the Khatib. n the two annual religious festi"al days called !ds %one immediately after the end of the fasting month of 8amadan and the other immediately after the pilgrimage to Mecca&, there are special prayers followed by sermons in the morning. These prayers are not held in mos>ues but in a wide space outside set apart for this purpose. Almsgi"ing The third cardinal duty of a Muslim is to pay @a4at. This was originally the ta, le"ied by Muhammad %and later by Muslim states& on the wealthy members of the community, primarily to help the poor. !t was also used for winning con"erts to !slam2 for the ransom of war capti"es2 for the relief of people in chronic debt2 for jihad %the struggle for the cause of !slam, or holy war&, which, according to the Koran commentators, includes health and education2 and for facilitating tra"el and communications. nly when @a4at has been paid is the rest of a Muslim$s property considered purified and legitimate. !n most Muslim states @a4at is no longer collected by the go"ernment and instead has become a "oluntary charity, but it is still recogni@ed as an essential duty by all Muslims. !n a number of countries strong demands ha"e been made to reinstate it as a ta,, but this would entail a complete re"ision of its rates and structure to conform with the needs of a modern state. #asting The fourth duty is the fast of the month of 8amadan. 'ecause the !slamic calendar is lunar, !slamic festi"als are not confined to any one season. 1"en during hot summers, most Muslims meticulously obser"e fasting. 7uring the fasting month, one must refrain from eating, drin4ing, smo4ing, and se,ual intercourse from dawn until sunset. Throughout the month one must abstain

from all sinful thoughts and actions. Those who can afford it must also feed at least one poor person. !f one is sic4 or on a journey that causes hardship, one need not fast but must compensate by fasting on subse>uent days. Pilgrimage The fifth duty is the pilgrimage to the Kaaba at Mecca. 1"ery adult Muslim who is physically and economically able to do so must ma4e this pilgrimage at least once in his or her lifetime. ?eld during the first ten days of the last month of the lunar year, the rite re>uires that the pilgrims enter into a state of purity in which they wear only a seamless white garment, abstain from shedding blood and cutting either hair or nails, and a"oid all forms of "ulgarity. The main constituents of this lengthy rite are se"en circumambulations of the Kaaba, wal4ing fast between two mounds near the sanctuary se"en times, marching three miles to Mina, then proceeding si, miles to Arafat, staying the afternoon and listening to a sermon there, then marching bac4 to Mecca, offering a sacrifice in a memory of Abraham$s attempted sacrifice of his son, and once again circumambulating the Kaaba. 7uring recent years, air tra"el has allowed Muslims from all parts of the world to perform the pilgrimage. !n -B** the reported number was close to ( million. Through the centuries, the Kaaba has played an important role as a meeting place of !slamic scholars for the e,change and diffusion of ideas. #or the past two decades, the pilgrimage has also been used to promote political solidarity in the Muslim world. 'esides these fi"e basic institutions, other important laws of !slam include the prohibition of alcohol consumption and of eating the flesh of swine. 'esides the Kaaba, the central shrine of !slam, the most important centers of !slamic life are the mos>ue, where daily prayers are offered, and the cathedral mos>ue, where #riday ser"ices are held. !/6AM A07 / 5!1TF The !slamic "iew of society is theocratic in the sense that the goal of all Muslims is "God$s rule on earth." This does not, howe"er, imply clerical rule, although religious authorities ha"e had considerable political influence in some Muslim societies. !slamic social philosophy is based on the belief that all spheres of lifeAspiritual, social, political, and economicAform an indi"isible unity that must be thoroughly imbued with !slamic "alues. This ideal informs such concepts as "!slamic law" and the "!slamic state" and accounts for !slam$s strong emphasis on social life and social duties. 1"en the cardinal religious duties prescribed in the fi"e pillars of !slam ha"e clear social implications. The 5ommunity of the #aithful The basis of !slamic society is the community of the faithful, which is consolidated by the performance of the fi"e pillars of !slam. !ts mission is to "command good and prohibit e"il" and thus to reform the earth. The community must be moderate, howe"er, and a"oid all e,tremes. 7uring the Middle Ages, !slamic religious authorities began to claim a degree of infallibility for the community, but the 1uropean colonial domination of Muslim countries led to speculation that the community must ha"e erred and was being punished. !n the (:th century, !slamic thin4ers ha"e conse>uently offered "arious diagnoses of Muslim society and proposals for reform.

1ducation The !slamic uni"ersity system contributed to the great cultural de"elopments of !slam. The uni"ersities were founded as institutions of religious learning, where the ulama %religious scholars&, >adis %judges&, muftis %interpreters of the law&, and other high religious officials were trained. These officials formed an important political class, especially in Tur4ey and !ndia, where they had much influence o"er state policies. !n many (:th3century Muslim countries, howe"er, the ulama ha"e lost much of their former influence, especially among Eestern3educated Muslims who do not wish a strictly religious code of go"ernment2 in Tur4ey the ulama ha"e been stripped of legal power altogether. !n the Bth century the caliph al3Mamun %*+9;+<<& founded an academy at 'aghdad for the study of secular subjects and for the translation of Gree4 philosophical and scientific te,ts. !n the -:th century, at 5airo, the #atimid caliphs also established an academy for secular learning, al3A@har, still the most important center for !slamic learning. 8ulers and wealthy patrons usually made funds a"ailable for indi"idual scholars. Medie"al !slamic scholars made important contributions to the fields of philosophy, medicine, astronomy, mathematics, and the natural sciences2 between the Bth and -<th centuries the !slamic community was the most producti"e ci"ili@ation in the world. Among other famous !slamic uni"ersities, the 0i@amiya, founded %-:9*& at 'aghdad by the !ranian statesman 0i@am al3Mul4 %-:-+;B(&, taught law, theology, and !slamic tradition and had on its staff the famous philosopher al3Gha@ali2 the Mustansiriya, founded %-(<=& at 'aghdad, taught religious law and other subjects. !slamic 6aw !slamic law, called the /haria, spells out the moral goals of the community. !n !slamic society, therefore, the term law has a wider significance than it does in the modern secular Eest, because !slamic law includes both legal and moral imperati"es. #or the same reason, not all !slamic law can be stated as formal legal rules or enforced by the courts. Much of it depends on conscience alone. The four sources !slamic law is based on four sources, or "roots of law." The first two are the documentary sources, the Koran and the /unna, or ?adith. The third source is called ijtihad %"responsible indi"idual opinion"&. !t has been used when an issue is not co"ered by passages in the Koran or /unna2 a jurist may then resol"e the issue by using analogical reasoning %>iyas&. /uch reasoning was first employed when !slamic theologians and jurists in con>uered countries were confronted with the need to integrate local customs and laws with the Koran and /unna. 6ater, !slamic authorities considered this original thin4ing a threat to the Koran and /unna and laid down strict rules limiting its use. 'ecause of the profound changes in the Muslim world community during the last few decades, howe"er, a renewed emphasis has been placed on the inno"ati"e thin4ing of ijtihad. The fourth source is the consensus %ijma& of the community, which is reached by gradually discarding some opinions and accepting others. 'ecause !slam has no official dogmatic authority, this is an informal process that often re>uires a long period of time. /chools of law

#i"e schools of law de"eloped in !slam, four /unnite and one /hiite. The four /unnite schools emerged in the first two centuries of !slam) the /hafi$i, the ?anafi, the Mali4i, and the ?anbali. All use systematic reasoning to deal with areas of law not co"ered by the Koran or /unna. They differ primarily in their emphasis on te,tual authority or analogical reasoning, but each school recogni@es the conclusions of the others as being perfectly legitimate and within the framewor4 of orthodo, !slam. 1ach school tends to predominate in certain areas) the ?anafi in the !ndian subcontinent, 5entral Asia, Tur4ey, and to some e,tent in 1gypt, Dordan, /yria, !ra>, and Palestine2 the Mali4i in 0orth Africa2 the /hafi$i in /outheast Asia2 and the ?anbali in /audi Arabia. The /hiite school %called the Dafari& pre"ails in !ran. Dihad The term jihad, usually translated "holy war," designates the struggle toward the !slamic goal of "reforming the earth," which may include the use of armed force if necessary. The prescribed purpose of jihad, howe"er, is not territorial e,pansion or the forcible con"ersion of people to !slam, but the assumption of political power in order to implement the principles of !slam through public institutions. The concept of jihad was ne"ertheless used by some medie"al Muslim rulers to justify wars moti"ated by purely political ambitions. According to classical !slamic law, the world was di"ided into three @ones) the ?ouse of !slam, where Muslims are ascendant2 the ?ouse of Peace, those powers with whom Muslims ha"e peace agreements2 and the ?ouse of Ear, the rest of the world. Gradually, howe"er, jihad came to be interpreted more in defensi"e than in offensi"e terms. !n the (:th century the concept of jihad inspired Muslims in their struggle against Eestern colonialism. The #amily The early !slamic community aimed at strengthening the family at the e,pense of old tribal loyalties, although it was not able to suppress the latter. The Koran stresses filial piety and "lo"e and mercy" between husband and wife. Men and women are declared e>ual, "e,cept that men are a degree higher" because they are charged with the household e,penditure. /e,ual fidelity is sternly demanded, and pro"en adultery is punishable by -:: lashes. The Koran ad"ocates measures that were intended to impro"e the condition of women. The infanticide of girls, formerly pre"alent among certain tribes, is forbidden2 daughters are gi"en a share of inheritances, although only half of that allotted to boys. The Koran repeatedly emphasi@es the 4ind treatment of women and grants to wi"es the right of di"orce in case of maltreatment. The Koran appro"es polygamy, allowing as many as four wi"es, but also states, "if you fear you cannot do justice among co3wi"es, then marry only one wife." The abuse of polygamy and of the husband$s right in traditional !slam to repudiate his wife, e"en when her conduct is faultless, has recently led to the enactment of reformed family laws in most Muslim countries. ?!/T 8F !n Muhammad$s time %c. G*:;9<(&, the Arabian Peninsula was inhabited by nomadic 'edouins engaged in herding and brigandage, and by city3dwelling Arabs engaged in trade. The religion of the Arabs was polytheistic and idolatrous. 0onetheless, an old tradition of monotheism, or at least a belief in a supreme deity, e,isted. Dewish and 5hristian communities probably contributed to a growing recepti"ity to monotheistic doctrines, although neither Dudaism nor 5hristianity

pro"ed attracti"e to the Arabs. A number of monotheistic preachers preceded Muhammad but had little success. Muhammad Muhammad began his ministry at the age of =:, when, he claimed, the archangel Gabriel appeared to him in a "ision. Muhammad confided to his family and close friends the substance of this and succeeding "isions. After four years he had con"erted some =: persons to his "iews, and he then began to preach openly in his nati"e city of Mecca. 8idiculed by the Meccans, he went in 9(( to Medina. !t is from this e"ent, the ?egira that the !slamic calendar is dated. At Medina, Muhammad soon held both temporal and spiritual authority, ha"ing been recogni@ed as a lawgi"er and prophet. Arab and Dewish opposition to him in Medina was crushed, and war was underta4en against Mecca. !ncreasingly, Arab tribes declared their allegiance to him, and Mecca surrendered in 9<:. At his death in 9<( Muhammad was the leader of an Arab state growing rapidly in power. Muhammad$s central teachings were the goodness, omnipotence, and unity of God and the need for generosity and justice in human relations. !mportant elements from Dudaism and 5hristianity were incorporated into the emergent religion, but it was rooted in the pre3!slamic Arabic tradition2 such central institutions as the pilgrimage and the Kaaba shrine were absorbed, in modified form, from Arabic paganism. Muhammad, in reforming the pre3!slamic Arabic tradition, also confirmed it. The 5lassical Period 7uring the first centuries of !slam %*th;-:th cent.&, its law and theology, the basic orthodo, !slamic disciplines, were de"eloped. Theology is ne,t in importance to law in !slam, although it is not as essential as 5hristian theology has been to 5hristianity. Theological speculation began soon after Muhammad$s death. The first major dispute was pro"o4ed by the assassination of the third caliph, .thman ibn Affan %G*GH;9G9&, and subse>uent political struggles. The >uestion was whether a Muslim remains a Muslim after committing gra"e sins. A fanatical group called the Kharijites maintained that the commission of serious sins, without due repentance, e,cludes e"en an obser"ant Muslim %who continues to subscribe to the articles of faith& from the !slamic community. Good wor4s, therefore, and not just faith, are essential to !slam. The Kharijites came to regard almost all Muslim political authorities as impious, and after numerous rebellions, they were finally suppressed. A more moderate faction of Kharijites, called ibadis, sur"i"ed, howe"er, and still e,ists in 0orth and 1ast Africa, /yria, and man. The Muta@ilites The translation of Gree4 philosophical wor4s into Arabic in the +th and Bth centuries resulted in the emergence of the first major !slamic theological school, called the Muta@ilites, who stressed reason and rigorous logic. The >uestion of the importance of good wor4s persisted, and the Muta@ilites maintained that a person who committed a gra"e sin without repenting was neither a Muslim nor a non3Muslim but occupied a middle ground. Their fundamental emphasis, howe"er, was on the absolute unity and justice of God. They declared God to be pure 1ssence without attributes, because attributes would imply multiplicity. 7i"ine justice re>uires human free will, because if the indi"idual is not free to choose between good and e"il, reward and punishment become absurd. God, because he is perfectly just, cannot withhold reward from the good or punishment from the e"il. As rationalists, the Muta@ilites maintained that human reason is competent to distinguish between good and e"il, although it may be supplemented by re"elation.

The theology of the Muta@ilites was established as a state creed by the caliph al3Mamun, but by the -:th century a reaction had set in, led by the philosopher al3Ashari %+*<;B<GH& and his followers. They denied the freedom of the human will, regarding the concept as incompatible with God$s absolute power and will. They also denied that natural human reason can lead to a 4nowledge of good and e"il. Moral truths are established by God and can be 4nown only through re"elation. The "iews of al3Ashari and his school gradually became dominant in /unnite, or orthodo,, !slam, and they still pre"ail among most conser"ati"e Muslims. The tendency of the /unnites, howe"er, has been to tolerate and accommodate minor differences of opinion and to emphasi@e the consensus of the community in matters of doctrine. Medie"al Philosophy The Muta@ilites were probably the first Muslims to borrow Gree4 philosophical methods in e,pounding their "iews. /ome of their opponents used the same methods, and the debate initiated the !slamic philosophical mo"ement, which relied hea"ily on the Arabic translation and study of Gree4 philosophical and scientific wor4s, encouraged by the caliph al3Mamun. The first important !slamic philosopher was the Bth3century Arab al3Kindi, who tried to bring the concepts of Gree4 philosophy into line with the re"ealed truths of !slam, which he still considered superior to philosophical reasoning. As were subse>uent !slamic philosophers of this period, he was primarily influenced by the wor4s of Aristotle and by 0eoplatonism, which he synthesi@ed into a single philosophical system. !n the -:th century, the Tur4 al3#arabi was the first !slamic philosopher to subordinate re"elation and religious law to philosophy. Al3#arabi argued that philosophical truth is the same throughout the world and that the many different e,isting religions are symbolic e,pressions of an ideal uni"ersal religion. !n the --th century, the Persian !slamic philosopher and physician A"icenna achie"ed the most systematic integration of Gree4 rationalism and !slamic thought, but it was at the e,pense of se"eral orthodo, articles of faith, such as the belief in personal immortality and in the creation of the world. ?e also contended that religion is merely philosophy in a metaphorical form that ma4es it palatable to the masses, who are unable to grasp philosophical truths in rational formulations. These "iews led to attac4s on A"icenna and on philosophy in general by more orthodo, !slamic thin4ers, notably the theologian al3Gha@ali, whose boo4 7estruction of the Philosophers had much to do with the e"entual decline of rationalist philosophical speculation in the !slamic community. A"erroIs, the -(th;century /panish3Arab philosopher and physician, defended Aristotelian and 0eoplatonic "iews against al3Gha@ali and became the most significant !slamic philosopher in Eestern intellectual history through his influence on the /cholastics. /ufism The mystical mo"ement called /ufism originated in the +th century, when small circles of pious Muslims, reacting against the growing worldliness of the !slamic community, began to emphasi@e the inner life of the spirit and moral purification. 7uring the Bth century /ufism de"eloped into a mystical doctrine, with direct communion or e"en ecstatic union with God as its ideal. This aspiration to mystical union with God "iolated the orthodo, !slamic commitment to monotheism, and in B(( al3?allaj %c. +G+;B((&, who was accused of ha"ing asserted his identity with God, was e,ecuted in 'aghdad. Prominent /ufis subse>uently attempted to achie"e a synthesis between moderate /ufism and orthodo,y, and in the --th century al3Gha@ali largely succeeded in bringing /ufism within the orthodo, framewor4.

!n the -(th century /ufism ceased to be the pursuit of an educated elite and de"eloped into a comple, popular mo"ement. The /ufi emphasis on intuiti"e 4nowledge and the lo"e of God increased the appeal of !slam to the masses and largely made possible its e,tension beyond the Middle 1ast into Africa and 1ast Asia. /ufi brotherhoods multiplied rapidly from the Atlantic to !ndonesia2 some spanned the entire !slamic world2 others were regional or local. The tremendous success of these fraternities was due primarily to the abilities and humanitarianism of their founders and leaders, who not only ministered to the spiritual needs of their followers but also helped the poor of all faiths and fre>uently ser"ed as intermediaries between the people and the go"ernment. The /hiites The /hiites are the only sur"i"ing major sectarian mo"ement in !slam. They emerged out of a dispute o"er political succession to Muhammad, the /hiites claiming that rule o"er the community is a di"ine right of the Prophet$s descendants through his daughter #atima and her husband Ali. The /hiites belie"e in a series of -( infallible leaders beginning with !man Ali and are thus also 4nown as the "Twel"ers." The -(th and last imam disappeared in ++:, and /hiites await his return, at which time the world will be filled with justice. .ntil that time e"en the best ruler is only half legitimate. The /hiites, in contrast to the orthodo, /unnites, emphasi@e esoteric 4nowledge rather than the consensus of the community. ther /ects /e"eral small sects ha"e de"eloped out of /hia !slam, the most important of which is the !smailis. The theological ideas of the !smailis are more radical than those of the /hiites and are largely deri"ed from Gnosticism and 0eoplatonism. !smailis are found mainly in !ndia and Pa4istan2 others ha"e recently emigrated from 1ast Africa to 5anada. An offshoot of !smailism is the 7ruse sect, which arose after the mysterious disappearance in 5airo of the !smaili #atimid caliph al3?a4im %B+G;-:(-&. Many 7ruses belie"e al3?a4im to ha"e been an incarnation of God. !n -+=- a young /hiite, Mir@a Ali Muhammad %c. -+-B;G:& of /hira@, in !ran, proclaimed himself the 'ab %"gateway" to God& and assumed a messianic role. ?is followers, called the 'abis, were se"erely persecuted by the /hiite clergy, and he was e,ecuted in -+G:. .nder the leadership of his disciple Mir@a ?oseyn Ali 0uri %-+-*;B(&, 4nown as 'ahaullah, the 'ahais %as the group came to be called& de"eloped a uni"ersalist pacifist doctrine, declared 'ahai to be a religion independent of !slam, and won many con"erts in the ../. !slam in the Modern Eorld The stagnation of !slamic culture after the medie"al period led to a reemphasis on original thin4ing %ijtihad& and to religious reform mo"ements. .nli4e the primarily doctrinal and philosophical mo"ements of the Middle Ages, the modern mo"ements were chiefly concerned with social and moral reform. The first such mo"ement was the Eahhabi, named after its founder, !bn Abd al3Eahhabi %-*:<;B(&, which emerged in Arabia in the -+th century and became a "ast re"i"alist mo"ement with offshoots throughout the Muslim world %see EA??A'!/&. The Eahhabi mo"ement aimed at re"i"ing !slam by purifying it of un3!slamic influences, particularly those that had compromised its original monotheism, and by stressing the responsibility of Muslims to thin4 independently rather than blindly accepting tradition. ther !slamic reformers ha"e been influenced by Eestern ideas. The most influential reformist of the -Bth century was the 1gyptian Muhammad Abduh %-+=B;-B:G&, who belie"ed that reason

and modern Eestern thought would confirm the truth of !slam rather than undermine it, and that !slamic doctrine could be reformulated in modern terms. /ir Muhammad !>bal is the most important modern philosopher to ha"e attempted the reinterpretation of !slamic doctrines. ther intellectuals in 1gypt, Tur4ey, and !ndia attempted to reconcile with the teachings of the Koran such ideas as those raised by constitutional democracy, science, and the emancipation of women. The Koran teaches the principle of "rule by consultation," which in modern times, they argued, can best be reali@ed by representati"e go"ernment rather than monarchy. They pointed out that the Koran encourages the study and e,ploitation of nature, but Muslims, after a few centuries of brilliant scientific wor4, had passed it on to 1urope and abandoned it. They argued that the Koran had gi"en women e>ual rights, but these had been usurped by men, who had grossly abused polygamy. Although the modernist ideas were based on plausible interpretations of the Koran, they were bitterly opposed by !slamic fundamentalists, especially after the -B<:s. The reaction against modernism has been gathering momentum since that time for se"eral reasons. The fundamentalists do not oppose modern education, science, and technology per se, but they accuse the modernists of being pur"eyors of Eestern morality. They belie"e that the emancipation of women, as concei"ed by the Eest, is responsible for the disintegration of the family and for permissi"e se,ual morality. /ome fundamentalists are suspicious of democracy because they do not trust the moral sense of the masses. Moreo"er, modernist leaders and officials in some Muslim countries ha"e failed to impro"e significantly the condition of the mostly poor and rapidly increasing populations of those countries. #inally, and perhaps most important, the bitter resentment Muslims feel toward Eestern colonialism has made many of them regard e"erything Eestern as e"il. 7uring the modern period !slam has continued to win new con"erts, especially among blac4 Africans and some blac4 Americans, to whom its fundamental egalitarianism appeals. !slam and ther 8eligions 5on"inced of the absolute truth of !slam, Muslims traditionally ha"e not sought dialogue with representati"es of other religions, although medie"al !slamic scholars wrote fairly objecti"e wor4s about them. 8ecently, howe"er, Muslims ha"e engaged in dialogues with representati"es of 5hristianity and Dudaism, recogni@ed in !slam as the two other "religions of the boo4" %based on re"elation&. 0onetheless, memories of Eestern colonialism ha"e generated suspicion and impeded ecumenical efforts. J 5opyright -BBB /imon K /chuster, !nc. and its licensors. K 8A0 K 8A0 %Arab. Luran, from >araa, "to read"&, also spelled Alcoran, sacred scripture of !slam. The name was applied by Muhammad to each indi"idual portion of the re"elations, which, according to Muslim beliefs, he recei"ed from Allah, or God, but the name was later used for the boo4 containing all the di"ine re"elations gi"en to Muhammad. Ehene"er Muhammad told of his re"elations, secretaries wrote them down, and his followers memori@ed them. The collection as it is now was compiled by his followers a few years after his death in 9<(. An authori@ed "ersion was produced in the early 9G:s by a group of Arabic scholars under .thman ibn Affan

%G*GH;9G9&. They attempted to destroy all other "ersions, but some sur"i"ed and are now accepted. The Koran is the earliest 4nown wor4 in Arabic prose2 it is di"ided into --= suras %chapters& of "arious lengths and contains the !slamic religious, social, ci"il, commercial, military, and legal codes. The chief doctrines laid down in the Koran are that only one God and one true religion e,ist2 all will undergo a final judgment, with the just being rewarded with eternal bliss and the sinners punished2 and when human4ind turned from truth, God sent prophets to lead the way bac4, the greatest of whom were Moses, Desus 5hrist, and Muhammad. Punishments and rewards are depicted with "i"id imagery and are e,emplified by stories, many of which also are found in the Dewish and 5hristian /criptures and Apocrypha. 6aws, directions, and admonitions to "irtue also parallel those of the Dewish writings. Accepted by Muslims as the miraculous utterance of the Almighty, the Koran is regarded as abo"e criticism and a wor4 not to be pro"ed but itself the standard of merit. The tone of the boo4 is authoritati"e and dogmatic throughout2 the second chapter opens, "This is the boo4 in which there is no doubt. . . . " 5opies of the Koran are treated by Muslims with great re"erence2 they are ne"er held below the girdle and are not touched without prior purification of the person. Te,ts from the Koran are characteristic decorations for banners, buildings, weapons, and other objects. 5ommentaries on the Koran are numerous2 the library in Tripoli, 6ebanon, reportedly contains (:,::: commentaries. ?A7!T?, the record of the Prophet Muhammad$s precepts, actions, and life, which constitute his /unna, or e,ample. !t is accepted as a chief source of !slamic belief and practice and is second in authority only to the Koran. The si, canonical /unnite collections of ?adith, which date from the Bth century, and the corresponding /hiite collections of the -:th and --th centuries delineate the "arious relationships among indi"iduals and between the indi"idual and God. They include pro"isions of law, discussions of theological matters, such as methods of fasting and prayer, and codes of personal, social, and commercial conduct. CALIPHATE The !mmediate /uccessors The .mayyad 5aliphs %99-;*G:& The Abbasid 5aliphs %*G:;-(G+& The Abbasids in 5airo %-(9-;-G-*& The #atimid 7ynasty and the .mayyads of /pain The ttomans and the Modern Period 5A6!P?AT1, office and realm of the caliph as supreme leader of the Muslim community and successor of the Prophet Muhammad. .nder Muhammad the Muslim state was a theocracy, with the /haria, the religious and moral principles of !slam, as the law of the land. Although both secular and religious leaders, the caliphs were not empowered to promulgate dogma, because it was considered that the re"elation of the faith had been completed by Muhammad. The /unnites %followers of the /unna, the body of !slamic custom or the Eay of the Prophet&, who constitute a majority of Muslims, generally consider the period of the first four caliphs the

golden age of !slam. ther sects, howe"er, as they were formed, came to regard this period and subse>uent caliphates differently, and as a result great hostility has fre>uently arisen between the /unnites and other Muslims, such as the /hiites, concerning the caliphate. 7uring the course of !slamic history the issue of the caliphate probably has created more dissension than any other article of faith. 'ased on the e,amples of the first four "rightly guided" caliphs and companions of the Prophet, the /unnites formulated the following re>uirements of the caliphate) the caliph should be an Arab of the Prophet Muhammad$s tribe, the Luraysh2 he should be elected and appro"ed by a council of elders representing the Muslim community2 and he should be responsible for enforcing di"ine law and spreading !slam by whate"er means necessary, including war. !n the history of the caliphate, howe"er, all these re>uirements were rarely met. The /hiites, in contrast, belie"ing that the Prophet himself had designated his son3in3law, Ali, as both his temporal and spiritual successor, accepted only Ali$s descendants %by #atima, Muhammad$s daughter& as legitimate caliphs. The !mmediate /uccessors Muhammad died in 9<(, lea"ing no instructions for the future go"ernment of the Muslim community. !slamic leaders met in Medina %now in /audi Arabia&, the capital of the Muslim world at that time, and elected Abu 'a4r, the Prophet$s father3in3law and closest associate, as caliph. Abu 'a4r too4 the title 4halifat 8asul Allah %Arab., "successor to the Messenger of God"&, from which the term caliph %Arab., 4halifah, "successor"& is deri"ed. .mar ! %G+-H;9==& became the second caliph in 9<=, designated by Abu 'a4r as his successor and accepted by all the important members of the Muslim community. .nder his leadership, the first great e,pansion of !slam outside of Arabia too4 place. 1gypt, /yria, !ra>, and the northern part of Mesopotamia became !slamic territories, and the armies of the Persian 1mpire were routed se"eral times. .mar added the title amir3al3muminin %Arab., "commander of the belie"ers"& to that of caliph. After .mar$s death in 9==, .thman ibn Affan %G*GH;9G9&, Muhammad$s son3in3law and one of his first con"erts, was appointed the third caliph by a panel of si, Meccan electors. Although an elderly man, he carried on .mar$s policy of territorial e,pansion. 1"entually, howe"er, .thman earned the enmity of many of his subjects, who felt he fa"ored the Meccan aristocracy in political and commercial affairs. .thman also antagoni@ed the !slamic preachers by issuing an official te,t of the Koran, with an accompanying order to destroy all other "ersions. 8ebellious Muslim troops from al3Kufah %!ra>& and 1gypt besieged .thman in Medina and assassinated him in 9G9. Ali, a cousin and son3in3law of Muhammad, was ac4nowledged as the fourth caliph by the Medinians and the rebellious Muslim troops. The go"ernor of /yria Muawiyah %9:(H;+:&, later Muawiyah ! %99-;+:& the first .mayyad caliph, refused to recogni@e Ali as caliph and called for "engeance for the death of .thman %who was Muawiyah$s 4insman&. !n 9G* the ri"al parties met at /iffin, near the site of the modern city of ar38a>>ah, /yria. There, after an inconclusi"e battle, they agreed to arbitrate the dispute. Ali found himself being considered as a mere candidate for the caliphate on e>ual grounds with Muawiyah. Angered by this indignity and with Ali for submitting to it, a group of his followers, later 4nown as the Kharijites, deserted and "owed to assassinate both Ali and Muawiyah. They succeeded in 4illing only Ali. Ali$s son, ?asan %c.

9(=H;*BH&, then claimed %99-& the still disputed caliphate but abdicated within a few months under pressure from Muawiyah$s supporters, who greatly outnumbered Ali$s followers, the /hiites. The .mayyad 5aliphs %99-;*G:& The .mayyad caliphs were descendants of aristocratic cara"an merchants, the .mayya, to which Muawiyah, the first .mayyad caliph, belonged. 7uring his reign, Muawiyah stabili@ed the Muslim community after Ali$s assassination. ?e mo"ed the capital of !slam from Medina to 7amascus, bringing the Muslim rulers into contact with the more ad"anced cultural and administrati"e traditions of the 'y@antine 1mpire. Muawiyah also dispensed with the practice of electing the caliph by designating his son Fa@id %d. 9+<& as heir apparent. The principle of election was ac4nowledged formally, howe"er, by ha"ing the council of elders pledge to support the designated heir. The practice of hereditary succession continued throughout the .mayyads and in subse>uent dynasties. Many Muslims, howe"er, later disappro"ed of it as a de"iation from the essential nature of !slam. Fa@id ! %r. 9+:;+<& succeeded his father but was faced immediately with two rebellions, each supporting a ri"al claimant to the caliphate. The Kufan /hiites recogni@ed Ali$s second son %and the Prophet$s grandson&, ?usayn %9(9H;+:&, as caliph. Greatly encouraged, ?usayn left Medina for al3Kufah, despite warnings that Fa@id$s troops had >uelled the Kufic uprising. n the plain of Karbala, in !ra>, he and his small escort were intercepted and slaughtered. This e"ent, more than any other, mar4s the true beginning of the /hiite schism. A second rebellion by Meccans was finally >uelled during the caliphate %9+G;*:G& of Abd al3Mali4 %9=9H;*:G&, Fa@id$s third successor. /hiite, Kharijite, and other groups of Muslims and non3Arabic con"erts %Arab. mawali& fre>uently re"olted against the .mayyads. The mawali accused the .mayyads of religious la,ity and of indifference to their demands for full brotherhood in the Muslim community. .mayyad caliphs, ne"ertheless, "astly enlarged the Muslim empire and created a bureaucracy capable of administering it. .nder the .mayyads, Muslim armies swept eastward to the borders of !ndia and 5hina, westward across 0orth Africa to the Atlantic cean, then northward through /pain and o"er the Pyrenees Mountains into #rance, where the #ran4ish infantry under the 5arolingian ruler 5harles Martel chec4ed them near Poitiers in *<(. The Abbasid 5aliphs %*G:;-(G+& The .mayyads were o"erthrown by a combination of /hiite, !ranian, and other Muslim and non3 Muslim groups dissatisfied with the .mayyad regime. The rebels were led by the Abbasid family, descendants of the Prophet$s uncle Abbas. #rom about *-+ the Abbasids had plotted to ta4e the caliphate, sending agents into "arious parts of the Muslim empire to spread propaganda against the .mayyads. 'y *=* they had secured enough support to organi@e a rebellion in northern !ran that led to the defeat of the .mayyad caliphate three years later. The Abbasids e,ecuted most of the .mayyad family, mo"ed the capital of the empire to 'aghdad, and assimilated much of the pomp and ceremony of the former Persian monarchy into their own courts.

'eginning in *G: with Abu al3Abbas %*(-H;G=&, the Abbasid caliphate lasted fi"e centuries2 it is the most durable and most famous !slamic dynasty. The Abbasids became patrons of learning and encouraged religious obser"ance. They were the first Muslim rulers to become leaders of an !slamic ci"ili@ation and protectors of the religion rather than merely an Arab aristocracy imposing an Arab ci"ili@ation on con>uered lands. .nder their caliphate 'aghdad replaced Medina as the center of theological acti"ity, industry and commerce de"eloped greatly, and the !slamic empire reached a pea4 of material and intellectual achie"ement. The +th3 and Bth3century caliphs ?arun ar38ashid and his son Abdullah al3Mamun %*+9;+<<& are especially renowned for their encouragement of intellectual pursuits and for the splendor of their courts. 7uring their reigns scholars were in"ited to the court to debate "arious topics, and translations were made from Gree4, Persian, and /yriac wor4s. 1mbassies also were e,changed with 5harlemagne, emperor of the Eest. !n the late Bth century, the Abbasid caliphs increasingly began to delegate administrati"e responsibility to ministers of state and other go"ernment officials and to lose control o"er their 'aghdad guards. As they gradually ga"e up personal political power, the caliphs placed more and more emphasis on their role as protectors of the faith. ne result of this change in emphasis was the increased persecution of heretics and non3Muslims. About the same time, se"eral successful re"olts in the eastern pro"inces led to the establishment of independent principalities, and independent caliphates were subse>uently established in 0orth Africa and in /pain. 1"entually, the power of the Abbasids barely e,tended outside 'aghdad, and by the middle of the -:th century, the Abbasid caliphs had "irtually no power, ser"ing merely as figureheads at the mercy of the military commanders. The final defeat of the Abbasid dynasty came from outside the Muslim world, when al3Mustasim %r. -(=(;G+& was put to death by the in"ading Mongols at the order of ?ulagu Khan %-(-*;9G&, the grandson of Genghis Khan. The Abbasids in 5airo %-(9-;-G-*& Ehen the Mongols sac4ed 'aghdad in -(G+, two members of the Abbasid family escaped to 1gypt, where they too4 refuge with 'aybars !, the Mamelu4e sultan. 1ach was named caliph, successi"ely, by the sultan2 but they were allowed to assume only religious duties, and the descendants of the second caliph remained politically powerless under the Mamelu4e sultans. The #atimid 7ynasty and the .mayyads of /pain 7uring the decline of Abbasid power, two ri"al caliphates were established, one in 0orth Africa and another in /pain. The first, ruled by the #atimid dynasty, was founded by .bayd Allah %c. +*<;B<=&, who proclaimed himself caliph in Tunisia in B:B. The #atimids were /hiites, claiming descent from #atima %thus the name #atimid&, Muhammad$s daughter, and her husband Ali, the fourth caliph. At the height of its power, in the latter half of the -:th century, the #atimid caliphate constituted a serious threat to the Abbasids in 'aghdad. The #atimids ruled most of northern Africa from 1gypt to present3day Algeria, as well as /icily and /yria. !n addition the #atimids claimed the allegiance of other /hiites, both within and outside their domain. They sent missionaries from their capital in 5airo to the rest of the Muslim world, proclaiming the #atimid caliphs to be infallible and sinless and the bearers of di"ine illumination handed down directly from Ali. Their dynasty was o"erthrown in --*- by /aladin, sultan of 1gypt.

The second ri"al caliphate was established by Abd3ar38ahman !!!, who proclaimed himself caliph in /pain in B(B. ?e was the descendant of an .mayyad prince who fled the Abbasid massacre of his family and settled %*GG& in /pain. The .mayyad dynasty of /pain, responsible for a brilliant period in /panish history, ruled from its capital in 5Mrdoba until -:<-, when the caliphate bro4e up into numerous petty states. The ttomans and the Modern Period #rom about the -<th century "arious monarchs throughout the Muslim world, particularly the ttoman sultans, assumed the title caliph indiscriminately without regard to the prescribed re>uirements of the caliphate. The title held little significance for the ttoman sultans until their empire began to decline. !n the -Bth century, with the ad"ent of 5hristian powers in the 0ear 1ast, the sultan began to emphasi@e his role as caliph in an effort to gain the support of Muslims li"ing outside his realm. The ttoman 1mpire collapsed during Eorld Ear ! %-B-=;-+&. After the war, Tur4ish nationalists deposed the sultan, and the caliphate was finally abolished %March -B(=& by the Tur4ish Grand 0ational Assembly. The abolition of the caliphate brought consternation to many sections of the Muslim world, and protests were directed against the action of the Tur4ish go"ernment. /ubse>uently, King ?usein ibn Ali %-+G9;-B<-& of al3?ija@ %?eja@, now part of /audi Arabia& laid claim to the title by "irtue of his direct descent from the Prophet and his control of the two holy cities, Mecca and Medina. ?is claim, howe"er, recei"ed little attention outside of Palestine, /yria, and parts of Arabia. The con>uest %-B(G& of al3?ija@ by Abdul A@i@ ibn /aud, ruler of 0ajd, Arabia, made ?usein$s claim e"en less significant. An international Muslim congress held in 5airo in -B(9 to choose an acceptable successor to the caliphate pro"ed aborti"e, resulting only in an appeal to the Muslims of the world to wor4 together to reestablish a caliphate. 1"er since Eorld Ear !!, howe"er, the preoccupation of Muslim nations has been with national independence and economic problems, and the restoration of the caliphate may now be regarded as irrele"ant. J 5opyright -BBB /imon K /chuster, !nc. and its licensors.