AC Circuits and Electromagnetic Waves

The first part of this chapter deals with circuits in which the currents and voltages vary sinusoidally with time. The second part deals with the propagation of sinusoidally varying electric and magnetic fields through space. Alternating Current (AC) Circuits We consider circuits consisting of combinations of resistors, capacitors, and inductors in which the currents and voltages are sinusoidal. Assume the voltage source is given by
v = Vmax sin( 2 f t ) ,

Vmax is the peak voltage and f is the frequency of oscillation. Resistor circuit f the A! voltage source is connected across a resistor, then the current also varies sinusoidally and is in phase with the voltage.
i= v = I max sin( 2 f t ), R V I max = max . R

v %t& ' #ma"sin%2ft&

iR
ma"

#ma"

vR

The power dissipated in the resistor is given by

P =i 2 R

(ince i varies sinusoidally with time, then the power also varies with time. The average power dissipated is
Pavg = i 2
avg

The average of sin2 %2ft& is ). (o,

2 Pavg = $ I max R 2

We can write the average power as

2 Pavg = I rms R,

where
I I rms = max = +.*+* I max . 2

Irms is called the ,root-mean-square. current. t is obtained by first squaring the current, then finding the average %mean& of the square, and then taking the square root of this average. t is the effective heating value %or /! value& of the time-varying current. The rms voltage is defined in a similar way 0
V Vrms = max = +.*+* Vmax 2

The rms current and rms voltage are related by

Vrms = I rms R

1"ample2 The line voltage in a house is nominally $2+ volts rms. What is the ma"imum %peak& voltage3
Vmax = 2 Vmax = 2 ( $2+V ) =$*+V

The peak-to-peak voltage is the difference between the ma"imum positive and ma"imum negative voltages and is 45+ #. !apacitor circuit

f a sinusoidal voltage source is connected across a capacitor, then the charge on the capacitor and the current to the capacitor also vary sinusoidally with time. The voltage and charge are related by v = q/C, so the charge and voltage are in phase. 6owever, the charge lags the current by 7+o, so it is found that the voltage lags the !rrent "# $%o.

v %t& ' #ma"sin%2ft&

i!
ma"

#ma"

v!

The current-voltage relationship for a capacitor is given by

Vrms = I rms & C ,

where
&C = $ 2 f C

&C is called the apa itive rea tan e and has units of ohms. t is the quantity that limits the current to the capacitor, similar to resistance. 6owever, unlike resistance power cannot be dissipated in a capacitor. This is because the current and voltage are 7+o out of phase. This is analogous to pushing on a moving ob8ect. 9o work will be done by the force if it is applied perpendicular to the displacement. 9ote that the capacitive reactance decreases with increasing frequency and capacitance. 1"ample2 A +.+2 : capacitor is connected to a ;+-# rms A! voltage source which oscillates at $+ k6<. What is the rms current to the capacitor3 4

$ $ = = *7= 2 f C 2 ( $x$+ 5 )* )( +.+2 x$+ = ( ) V ;+V I rms = rms = = +.+=4 ' &C *7= &C =

nductor circuit The voltage across an inductor depends on the time rate of change of the current and is given by
v = + i t

This means that in an A! circuit, the voltage is sinusoidal and leads the current by 7+o.

v %t& ' #ma"sin%2ft&

>

i>
ma"

#ma"

v>

The current-voltage relationship for an inductor is given by

Vrms = I rms & + ,

where
& + = 2 f +

is called the in,! tive rea tan e.

As with the capacitor, no power can be dissipated in an ideal inductor %one with no resistance&. 9ote that the inductive reactance increases with increasing f and +. (eries >!R circuit !onsider an A! circuit containing a resistor, capacitor, and inductor in series. All have the same current %which is true for any series circuit&. As previously described, the voltage across the resistor is in phase with the current, the voltage across the capacitor lags the current by 7+o, and the voltage across the inductor leads the current by 7+o. This means that the voltages across the inductor and capacitor are $?+o out of phase. That is, they subtract. The resulting voltage across the inductor and capacitor combination either leads or lags the voltage across the resistor, depending on whether V+ is greater than or less than VC.

R v %t& ' #ma"sin%2ft& >

!onsequently, the rms voltage across the inductor-capacitor combination is

V+C ,rms = I rms - & + & C -

(ince the voltage across the >! combination is 7+o out of phase with the voltage across the resistor, then the total rms voltage must be obtained using the @ythagorean theorem 0
Vrms = I rms R 2 + ( & + & C )2

The impe,an e of the circuit is defined as

. = R 2 + ( & + & C )2

(o we can write
Vrms = I rms . .

. has units of ohms and is a measure of the resistance of the circuit to the flow of current.

The total current and the power dissipated in a series R>! circuit depend on the phase shift between the total current and the total voltage. This phase shift depends on the ratio of the out-of-phase to the in-phase voltage. Thus,
V I ( & &C ) tan = +C = rms + , VR I rms R

Ar,
tan = & + &C R

f &+ = &C, then the total phase shift is <ero and we get ma"imum current and ma"imum power dissipated in the resistor. %9o power is dissipated in the inductor and the capacitor.& Resonance in a series >!R circuit The total current in the >!R circuit is given by
I rms = Vrms R + ( & + & C )2
2

(ince &+ and &C depend on frequency, then Irms depends on frequency. There is a particular frequency for which &+ = &C, at which Irms has its ma"imum value. At this resonance frequency the voltages across the inductor and capacitor e"actly cancel, and all the voltage drop is across the resistor. A plot of the current as a function of frequency would look something like the following.

rms

+, rms

' #rmsBR

f+ ' $B>!

The resonance frequency, f%, is given by

& + = &C 2 f + + = $ 2 f + C

Ar,
f+ = $ 2 +C

1"ample2 !onsider an R>! circuit for which R ' $+ , > ' +.2 m6, ! ' ; : and the applied voltage is #rms ' 2; #3 What is the resonance frequency3
f+ = $ 2 ( +.2 x$+
4

) )( ; x$+ = ( )

= ;,+44 )* = ;.+44 k)*

What would be the current in the circuit if f ' 4 k6<3

& + = 2f+ = 2 ( 4 x$+4 )( +.2 x$+ 4 ) = 4.** &C = $ $ = = $+.= 4 2fC 2 ( 4x$+ )( ; x$+ = )

. = R 2 + ( & + & C )2 = ( $+ )2 + ( 4.** $+.= )2 = $2.$ V 2;V I rms = rms = = 2.+= ' . $2.$

What is the power dissipation in the circuit3

2 Pavg = I rms R =( 2.+= )2 ( $+ ) = 52.=/

Transformers2 A transformer consists of two coils which are closely coupled so that the flu" generated by one coil %the primary& passes mostly through the other coil %the secondary&. The flu"

coupling can be made nearly complete if the coils are wound around an easily magneti<able core such as iron.

#$

9$

92

According to :araday.s law, the primary voltage is given by V$ = 0$ 1 t

and the secondary voltage is given by V2 = 0 2 Thus, we have

V2 = 02 V$ 0$

1 t

The secondary voltage can thus be larger or smaller than the primary voltage, depending on the turns ratio. f we assume that the power delivered into the primary is the same as the power delivered to the load by the secondary,
P $ = P2 I$V$ = I 2V2

then we find that

I2 = 0$ I$ 02

That is, a transformer which steps up the voltage must step down the current, and vice versa. 1"ample2

A transformer has 2+ primary turns and $++ secondary turns. f the primary voltage is $2 #, what is the secondary voltage3
V2 = 02 $++ V$ = ( $2V ) = =+V 0$ 2+

f the load resistor on the secondary is ;+ , then

V =+V I2 = 2 = = $ .2 ' R ;+

The current in the primary is then

I$ = 02 $++ I2 = ( $.2 ' ) = = ' 0$ 2+

Electromagnetic Waves 1lectromagnetic waves consist of oscillating electric and magnetic fields that propagate through space at the speed of light. These waves can be produced by applying an oscillating potential to an antenna. The antenna could consist of a rod connected to each side of an A! voltage source. The voltage source would generate a sinusoidally varying current and a sinusoidally varying charge distribution in each rod. As a consequence, the rods would generate magnetic and electric fields which would be perpendicular to each other and would radiate from the rods. At distances far away from the antenna, the configuration of the electromagnetic wave would look something like that given in the figure to the right.

:or a fi"ed frequency, both E and B vary sinusoidally in time and are in phase. Coth E and B are perpendicular to the direction of travel of the wave %c&, and they are perpendicular to each other. The relative orientations of E, B, and c are given by a right hand rule %as, for e"ample, y, <, and " for a !artesian coordinate system&.

t can be shown that the spee, of the electromagnetic waves is given by

= $ . + +

Dsing the accepted values of + ' 5 " $+-* TmBA and + ' ?.?; " $+-$2 !2B%9m2&, this equation gives c ' 4 " $+? mBs, which is the speed of light. This is to be e"pected since visible light is a part of the electromagnetic spectrum. t can also be shown that the ratio of the magnitudes of 1 and C are always fi"ed and given by
2 = 1

1lectromagnetic waves carry energy. (pecifically, the intensit# of the wave, which is power transmitted per unit area, is given by
I= 2max 1max 2+

Dsing the relationship between 1 and C and the e"pression for c, the intensity can also be written as
I=
2 2 max 2 = 1max 2+ 2 +

1lectromagnetic waves also carry momentum, even though they don.t have mass. f a surface A completely absorbs an amount of electromagnetic energy 3 = I' t in a time t, the momentum absorbed by the surface is
p = 3

%complete absorption&

f a surface completely reflects the radiation, then the momentum transferred to the surface is
p = 23

%complete reflection&

Thus, when electromagnetic radiation strikes a surface it imparts a force to the surface %since force is rate of change of momentum&. 1"ample2

$+

The intensity of sunlight incident upon the earth is about $,5++ WBm2. What are the ma"imum values of the electric and magnetic fields associated with the radiation3 (olution2
I=
2 2max 2 +

2 max = 2 + I = 2( 5x$+ * )( 4 x$+? )( $5++ ) = $,+2* V / m 1max = 2 max = $+2* 4 x$+

?

= 4.5 x$+ = 4

6ow much solar power is incident upon the earth3 (olution2 The effective area of the earth seen by the sun is that of a circle with the earth.s radius. (o,
Po5er = P = I' = I R 2 =( $5++/ / m 2 )( =.4? x$+ = m )2 =$.*7 x$+$* /

f all the sun.s radiation is absorbed by the earth, then what is the force imparted by this radiation on the earth3 (olution2 The power absorbed is the energy absorbed per second. This can be used to find the momentum absorbed per second, which is the force.
p = (= 3

p 3 / t P $.*7 x$+$* / = = = = =.+ x$+? 0 t 4 x$+? m / s

Although this is a large force, it has an imperceptible effect due to the large mass of earth.

$$