Chapter 1: What Is Human Geography?

Chapter Summary Human geography is one of the worlds oldest academic disciplines, having developed as an area of knowledge as early as the preclassical period. This chapter covers the history of geography with sections describing the preclassical and classical periods; the fifth to fifteenth centuries; European exploration; the occurrence of the formal definition of geography; and key shifts in geographic thinking, institutionali ation, and geography over the past century. !ome of the earliest techni"ues in mapping were developed by #reek scholars. These scholars defined the concept; created the word $geography; and developed the first concepts of scale relating different locations of as cosmography %heavens and earth&, chorography %places smaller than earth&, and topography %local areas&. The #reeks also established the two ma'or traditions in geography, writing for the purpose of description, and the use of mathematical techni"ues for mapping, such as the grid system of latitude and longitude. However, between the fifth and fifteenth centuries #reek knowledge was mostly lost in Europe. (nstead, teleology, the belief that #od designed the earth for humans, became the dominant form of knowledge. Europeans moved towards symbolic T)* maps which had little accuracy or factual basis. +eanwhile, ma'or geographic advances took place in ,hina and the (slamic world. -ue to ,onfucianism, ,hinese geography differed from other geographic thought in that it viewed the individual as part of nature, and this was represented through integrated descriptions of humans and landscapes. +apping was a government activity done by ,hinese civil servants. (t is speculated that ,hinese explorers discovered .orth /merica in 0120, 34 years before European explorers. (n the same timeframe, the (slamic world was in the midst of geographic expansion, and its geographers contributed considerably to geographic knowledge. The circumference of the earth was recalculated, atlases were made, and they also corrected errors of the #reeks thereby improving cartographic techni"ues. /s of the fifteenth century, Europeans began to engage in exploration and improve mapping5one key innovation was that +ercator found a techni"ue to pro'ect a sphere onto a flat surface, improving maps for sea travel. (n the seventeenth century, 6arenius provided a formali ed definition of geography. This definition focused mainly on its use of descriptive and mathematical techni"ues and provided a text which situated geography within a system of knowledge. /round the same time, pressures from outside geography formed7 in particular, "uestions of population and productivity arose with respect to food supply %+althus&. Therefore, during the nineteenth century, a shift in thinking occurred regarding the relationships between humans and their environment, as lead by the thinking of Humboldt, 8itter, 8at el, and 6idal. #eography was institutionali ed as a discipline in 0931 when the first department of geography was opened in :russia. #eography was soon institutionali ed in ;rance, <ritain and the =nited !tates, and then in ,anada and /ustralia. Early forms of geographic thought include physical geography as cause, known as $environmental determinism, as well as the study of human interactions with their environment and the

study of the human landscape. <y 0>4?, geography was an established discipline with departments in many universities. <etween 0>4? and 0>34, the study of spatial analysis, which employs "uantitative techni"ues, was added to the study of human geography. ,ontemporary geography has seen a marked separation between human and physical geography. Human geography continues to take the approaches of landscape, regional, and spatial analysis. @andscape geography increasingly incorporates the study of cultural aspects, including landscape symbols and the human experience. 8egional geography has increased its awareness of the connectedness of the world %globali ation&, and has incorporated +arxism to examine the unevenness of development. +eanwhile, spatial geography has continued its approach of spatial analysis with "uantitative techni"ues. #eography has increasingly taken into account ma'or issues such as security and food, as well as, in particular, energy security and social ine"uities as they are studied through the distribution of population and resources. Learning Objectives <y reading ,hapter 0, you should be able to7 1. Have a broad understanding of how geographic thought developed formally and informally from the preclassical period to the present. . (dentify the ma'or contributions to geography from the #reek, ,hinese, (slamic and European civili ations. !. (dentify the main tools, methods, and techni"ues that geographers use to gather and frame knowledge. ". -istinguish geography from other disciplines in the social sciences, such as history. #. =nderstand the differences between human and physical geography. $. (dentify the different schools of thought and the ma'or thinkers in geography since the time geography was institutionali ed as a discipline to the present. This could include how schools of thought developed differently in different countries, the different approaches taken to the study of geography, and the variety of sub'ect matter studied. Short %ns&er 'uestions 1. Ahat are the core tools and methods that geographers have used to contextuali e knowledge throughout the history of the disciplineB /nswer7 #eographers rely on description and the gathering of facts. ;ollowing the #reek tradition in the classical period, geographers follow the literary tradition using written description as well as the mathematical tradition in the form of maps. . How did the descriptions by early ,hinese geographers differ from those of early European geographers and whyB

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/nswer7 ,hinese geographers integrated descriptions of people and physical landscapes, whereas early European geographers typically described physical and human landscapes separately. This difference is due to the ,hinese understanding of ,onfucianism which views the individual as part of nature, and the European following of ,hristianity, which views the individual as separate from nature. Ahat are some of the key differences between when and how ,hinese and European civili ations made, diffused, and used mapsB /nswer7 The first map makers in ,hina were civil servants, and maps were used to assert the states ownership rights over land. :rinting technology was used in the reproduction of maps in ,hina as early as 00CC. +aps in ,hina were also used for exploration, and it is thought that ,hina $discovered .orth /merica in 0120, 34 years prior to ,olumbus. Europeans did not adopt printing technology for a more rapid diffusion of maps until 0132. Europeans also used maps for exploration, and $discovered .orth /merican in 01>2. (t was not until the 0944s that governments took responsibility for map making and keeping, in the form of the establishment of geographical societies. Ahat is the difference between $environmental determinism and $possibilismB /nswer7 Environmental determinism is the understanding that the physical landscape is a core factor affecting the development of human activities, such as human cultures and landscapes. +eanwhile, possibilism is the perspective that human activity is determined by the choices people make, and these choices affect the physical landscape they live in. :ossibilism is the perspective of the landscape school of thought in geography. Ahat are some of the new components that have been incorporated into contemporary geography perspectives and sub'ects of analysisB /nswer7 !ince the 0>34s there has been an increasing integration of a global perspective into human geography. This includes the integration of human connectedness, and includes the increasing recognition of interconnected economies and environmental issues. There has also been an increased emphasis on the study of applied issues, which include food and energy security, population growth, and the distribution of wealth and ine"uities.

(esearch 'uestions 1. -escribe the different traditions of geography as they arose from different civili ations of the world, namely, #reece, ,hina, the (slamic world, and Europe. *utline some of the ma'or differences and similarities. . Ahat has been the relationship of the development of scientific knowledge and scientific and mathematical instruments to the development of geographic thought, tools and techni"uesB !. Ahat is the importance of the teachings of (mmanuel Dant, /lexander von Humboldt, ,arl 8itter, and :aul 6idal to the development of geographic

thoughtB How are their teachings and writings incorporated into contemporary geographical methods and sub'ects of analysisB ". How did institutionali ation of geography as an academic discipline change the organi ation of the knowledge held by geographers and their subse"uent studiesB #. -escribe the contemporary geography approaches of regional studies and spatial analysis. Ahat are the core differences in these approaches and sub'ects of studyB -escribe any similarities between them.

Lin)s o* Interest The ,anadian /ssociation of #eographers http7EEwww.cag)acg.ca The /ssociation of /merican #eographers http7EEwww.aag.orgE The (nternational ,artographic /ssociation http7EEwww.icahistcarto.orgE +ap !ocieties around the world http7EEcartography.geo.uu.nlEmapsocEindexname.htmlF, The /tlas of ,anada http7EEatlas.nrcan.gc.caEsiteEenglishEindex.html The .ational /tlas of the =nited !tates of /merica http7EEwww.nationalatlas.govEnatlasE.atlasstart.asp