4 Oileld Review

MicrobesOileld Enemies or Allies?

Microbes have a long history in the oil and gas industry. New molecular analysis
methods, coupled with increased knowledge of microbe identity and chemistry, have
led to advances in combating microbiologically inuenced corrosion and reservoir
damage. Scientists are also using these advances to develop new methods for
microbiologically enhanced oil recovery and bioremediation.
Zdenko Augustinovic
DONG E&P
Hoersholm, Denmark
ystein Birketveit
M-I SWACO
Bergen, Norway
Kayli Clements
Mike Freeman
M-I SWACO
Houston, Texas, USA
Santosh Gopi
M-I SWACO
Accra, Ghana
Thomas Ishoey
Glori Energy, Inc.
Houston, Texas
Graham Jackson
Husky Energy Inc.
Calgary, Alberta, Canada
Gregory Kubala
Sugar Land, Texas
Jan Larsen
Maersk Oil
Copenhagen, Denmark
Brian W.G. Marcotte
Titan Oil Recovery, Inc.
Los Angeles, California, USA
Jan Scheie
M-I SWACO
Stavanger, Norway
Torben Lund Skovhus
Danish Technological Institute
Aarhus, Denmark

Egil Sunde
Statoil
Stavanger, Norway
Oileld Review Summer 2012: 24, no. 2.
Copyright 2012 Schlumberger.
For help in preparation of this article, thanks to Sonny Espey,
M-I SWACO, Houston; and Dietmar Schumacher,
Geo-Microbial Technologies Inc., Ochelata, Oklahoma, USA.
AERO is a registered trademark of Glori Energy, Inc.
We live in a natural world of extremes in size and
scale. Topographical extremes range from moun-
tains to deserts to ocean trenches. These extremes
include a place so small that we cannot directly
view it: the unseen world of microbes.
Microbes are the most abundant life form on
the planetno other life form approaches them
in terms of numbers, diversity or habitat.
Microbes were the rst link in the evolutionary
chain and are an essential part of the Earths
biota.
1
Microbes catalyze important transforma-
tions in the biosphere, produce key components
of the atmosphere and represent a large fraction
of the genetic diversity on this planet. The num-
ber of microbial cells on Earth has been esti-
mated at 4 to 6 10
30
cells, and this aggregate
mass contains 350 to 550 10
15
g of carbon.
Microbes are distributed everywhere, including
places that are hotter, colder, drier and deeper
than humans can tolerate. This wide distribution
suggests that oil exploration and production
operations must always contend with microbes.
Microbes have a long history in the oil eld.
Analysis of produced water from shallow reser-
voirs in the 1930s and 1940s showed abundant
populations.
2
Despite these ndings, scientists at
the time believed that temperature, pressure and
salinity in most reservoirs were too hostile for
microbes to thrive. Initiation of North Sea oil and
gas production in the 1960s, however, demon-
strated that early assumptions were incorrect.
Microbes in these reservoirs not only lived in
extreme conditions, they produced hydrogen sul-
de [H
2
S]. Souring, or increases in H
2
S, resulted
from injection of sulfate-rich seawater in North
Sea reservoirs and ultimately led to corrosion of
both surface and downhole equipment. Formation
plugging by biomass during waterood operations
was another early negative effect of microbes.
3
However, not all of the early production-
related experiences with microbes were nega-
tive. Some operators found that injection of
sugar-based materials that resident microbes
could use as food caused an increase in oil pro-
duction, although results were often temporary
and inconsistent.
4
In the past several decades,
much of the oileld research on microbes focused
on short-term strategies to either mitigate nega-
tive effects or enhance positive onesbut that
work was based on a partial understanding of
microbiological mechanisms.
The ability to control and harness microbes is
key to some of the major advances in microbial
oileld science. This progress has been aided
by new analytical methods that give a more
complete picture of microbe identity, quantity,
1. Whitman WB, Coleman DC and Wiebe WJ: Prokaryotes:
The Unseen Majority, Proceedings of the National
Academy of Sciences 95, no. 12 (June 9, 1998): 65786583.
2. Bass C and Lapin-Scott H: The Bad Guys and the Good
Guys in Petroleum Microbiology, Oileld Review 9, no. 1
(Spring 1997): 1725.
3. Chang CK: Water Quality Considerations in Malaysias
First Waterood, Journal of Petroleum Technology 37,
no. 9 (September 1985): 16891698.
4. Rassenfoss S: From Bacteria to Barrels: Microbiology
Having an Impact on Oil Fields, Journal of Petroleum
Technology 63, no. 11 (November 2011): 3238.
Summer 2012 55
positive characteristics. Case studies from Canada
and the US demonstrate how these techniques are
employed in production environments.
behavior and function. Advances include simple
chemicals added to injection water that provide
environmentally safe control of reservoir souring
and associated corrosion as well as new direc-
tions for microbiologically enhanced oil recovery
(MEOR). Other progress includes bioremediation
research that allows safe disposal of oileld solid
waste into ordinary soil.
This article focuses on microbes in the oil eld
and describes techniques for their analysis and for
controlling their negative effects and harnessing
6 Oileld Review
The Microbial World
Biological classication systems have evolved in
tandem with methods for microbe detection. In
the early 1800s, what was not a mineral or plant
was considered an animal. The discovery that
bacteria could be considered either plant or ani-
mal led to reformulations of the biological classi-
cation system for living organisms that continue
to the present era. Proposed more than 30 years
ago, todays accepted classication into three pri-
mary domains has its roots in molecular analysis
methods, including genome sequencing.
5
The
three domains are bacteria, archaea and eucarya
(left). Bacteria and archaeacollectively called
prokaryotesare the organisms that affect the
oil eld (below left).
Fossils of prokaryotic organisms that lived
3.5 billion years ago have been found in Western
Australia and South Africa; for 2 billion years
they were the only form of life on Earth. Larger
and more-complex eucaryotic cells did not
appear until much laterabout 1.5 to 2 billion
years ago. The archaea and bacteria that consti-
tute the prokaryotes differ from the cells in com-
plex eucaryotic organisms such as plants and
animals. Prokaryotic cells have no compartmen-
talized nucleus, and each cell is capable of inde-
pendent existence.
6
Unlike plants and animals,
prokaryotes are not typically thought of as organ-
isms able to interact with their environment, but
that view may be changing. Researchers have
shown that many bacteria have cell to cell com-
munication through signaling molecules called
autoinducers. This signaling is called quorum
sensing and allows the microbes to monitor and
respond to their surroundings.
7
Prokaryotes are found everywhere on Earth
and thrive in extreme habitats. From hot springs,
arid deserts and ocean depths to polar caps and
underground formations, these single-cell organ-
isms withstand conditions that humans cannot.
8

These microbes may remain dormant for thou-
sands of years but can reactivate rapidlyoften
in days or weeks. Their wide distribution in a vari-
ety of habitats and conditions means that
microbes are always present during E&P activi-
ties. Some microbes are indigenous to reservoirs,
while others may be introduced during drilling,
workover or waterood. These single-cell life
forms have an innate tendency to cling to rock
and metal surfaces and may assemble into
masses called biolms. Microbe-generated bio-
lms provide a safe harbor for growth and may
eventually lead to serious problems in both
equipment and reservoirs (next page).
>
Tree of life. Life on Earth is divided into three primary domainsbacteria (left, blue), archaea
(middle, pink) and eucarya (right, green). This classication encompasses the entire realm of living
organisms, from the proteobacteria that contain the digestive disease salmonella to the more familiar
plants and animals. Branch order and length are based on genetic sequencing.
Spirochetes
Bacteria Archaea Eucarya
Methanosarcina
Methanobacterium
Methanococcus
Thermococcus
Thermoproteus
Pyrodictium
Halophiles
Entamoeba
Slime
molds
Animals
Fungi
Plants
Ciliates
Flagellates
Trichomonads
Microsporidia
Diplomonads
Proteobacteria
Cyanobacteria
Planctomyces
Thermotoga
Aquifex
Gram-
positive
bacteria
Green
filamentous
Bacteroides
>
Bacteria. The bacterial cell is enclosed by a capsule, cell wall and plasma membrane. The interior of
the cell is lled with cytoplasm, a homogeneous, gel-like substance. The primary interior component is
the nucleoid, which contains the chromosome material. Plasmids, containing deoxyribonucleic acid
(DNA), and ribosomes, containing ribonucleic acid (RNA), are other essential interior components.
Although not all bacteria are motile, many use a whip-like agellum to move in aqueous media.
Bacteria and other prokaryotes range in size from 10
5
to 10
6
m.
Flagellum
Capsule Cell wall
Plasma
membrane
Cytoplasm
Ribosome
Plasmid
Nucleoid
Eukaryotes
Viruses
Small molecules
Atoms
Proteins
Prokaryotes
10
3
10
4
10
5
10
6
10
7
10
8
10
9
10
10
S
i
z
e
,

m
Summer 2012 7
New methods for enumeration and identi-
cation of bacteria and archaea have led scien-
tists to a better understanding of microbial
behavior and chemistry. Their efforts, in turn,
have led to more accurate identication of prob-
lems caused by microbes as well as better means
for their solution. Taken together, these meth-
ods give the operator tools to control microbes
in places where their effects are harmful and to
exploit their positive characteristics.
Enemy and Ally
Although microbes and humans have existed as
both enemy and ally for ages, the roles of
microbes in those relationships have been recog-
nized only in the recent past. In the ght against
infectious diseases, bacteria were identied
about 150 years ago as one of the culprits.
9
As
industrial allies, microbes played a key role in the
leaching of copper from mine drainage water,
a practice in the Mediterranean region about
1000 BCE, but their role in the process was
unknown until the 1950s.
10
The bulk of experience with microbes in oil
and gas exploration and production has occurred
in the past 75 years. One of the early encounters
with microbes in a production environment
occurred in the late 1950s during waterooding.
11

Microbes produce high molecular weight polysac-
charides that deposit on the sandface and other
formation surfaces as a biolm.
12
This biolm is
the glue that holds the microbes together. Given
the right conditions, the microbes will continue
to grow, divide and plug rock pores, thus decreas-
ing the effectiveness of water injection in displac-
ing oil. As a result, early water quality control
methods included membrane ltration and the
use of strong oxidizing agents as biocides.
13
Later
waterood control applications employed nonox-
idizing biocides.
Shortly after operators learned to manage
microbe plugging during waterooding, they
encountered another signicant problem
microbiologically inuenced corrosion (MIC)
corrosion caused by microbial action.
14
This type
5. Woese CR and Fox GE: Phylogenetic Structure of the
Prokaryotic Domain: The Primary Kingdoms,
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 74,
no. 11 (November 1, 1977): 50885090.
Woese CR, Kandler O and Wheelis ML: Towards a
Natural System of Organisms: Proposal for the Domains
Archaea, Bacteria and Eucarya, Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences 87, no. 12 (June 1, 1990):
45764579.
Todar K: Todars Online Textbook of Bacteriology,
http://www.textbookofbacteriology.net (accessed
May 24, 2012).
6. Although the bacteria and archaea that make up the
prokaryotes are similar in size and structure, their
genome structures and metabolism differ.
7. Taga ME and Bassler BL: Chemical Communication
Among Bacteria, Proceedings of the National Academy
of Sciences 100, supplement 2 (November 25, 2003):
1454914554.
>
Biolm formation. The growth of biolms is a stepwise process that begins with the transport of microbes to a metal or
rock surface (A). The microbes absorb organic molecules from their surroundings to form a lm (B) composed of
exopolymerssugarsthat allow the microbes to stay attached to the surface as well as to each other (C). As the biolm
expands (D), its size gives the interior microbes protection from biocides. Eventually, when the biolm grows to a certain
size, some microbes are released (E) to form new areas of growth.
Biofilm
Metal or rock surface
Microbes
A B C D E
8. Bass and Lapin-Scott, reference 2.
Danish scientists have discovered microbes living in
undisturbed sediments that are more than 86 million
years old. The microbes consume oxygen in quantities
too small to be directly measured. For more: Bhanoo SN:
Deep-Sea Microbes That Barely Breathe, The New
York Times (May 21, 2012), http://www.nytimes.
com/2012/05/22/science/deep-sea-microbes-that-barely-
breathe.html (accessed May 22, 2012).
9. Santer M: Joseph Lister: First Use of a Bacterium as a
Model Organism to Illustrate the Cause of Infectious
Disease of Humans, Notes & Records of the Royal
Society 64, no. 1 (March 2010): 5965.
10. Brierley CL: Microbial Mining, Scientic American 247,
no. 2 (1982): 4250.
11. Lee D, Lowe D and Grant P: Microbiology in the Oil
Patch: A Review, paper 96-109, presented at the Annual
Technical Meeting of The Petroleum Society, Calgary,
June 1012, 1996.
12. Polysaccharides are long carbohydrate molecules
composed of repeating units and are common sources
of energy for bacteria. For more: Todar, reference 5.
13. Mitchell RW and Bowyer PM: Water Injection
Methods, paper SPE 10028, presented at the SPE
International Petroleum Exhibition and Technical
Symposium, Beijing, March 1724, 1982.
14. The literature on microbes associated with oileld
environments uses numerous acronyms for microbe-
driven processes such as MIC or MEOR. It is not
uncommon to encounter both microbial and
microbiologically as the initial term in these acronyms,
depending on the referencethe terms are essentially
equivalent.
8 Oileld Review
of corrosion can occur anywhere in the produc-
tion environmentin downhole tubulars, in top-
side equipment and in pipelines. This type of
corrosion can cause ruptures that seriously
impede operations (above). Reports in the 1980s
showed that sulfate-reducing bacteria (SRB)
were the cause of MIC.
15
SRB typically live in an
anaerobic, aqueous environment and use organic
acids and hydrogen from decomposing biomass
as nutrients, oxidizing the nutrients while reduc-
ing the sulfate in the water to H
2
S. The role of
SRB in initiating MIC is complex and involves not
only biolms that trap corrosive microbial waste
products but also electrochemical reactions at
the metal surface. Early explanations pointed
toward an SRB produced enzyme that removes
cathodic hydrogen from steel, which causes rapid
pitting of the surface.
16
MIC is a common occurrence in the oil eld,
and to control it, operators usually treat injected
and produced water to mitigate microbial action.
Complete sterilization of the water is impossible,
and microbe control strategies have usually been
directed toward disinfectionthat is, reduction of
microbe numbers to acceptable levels by killing a
large portion of the population with a biocide.
>
Microbiologically inuenced corrosion (MIC). Operated by DONG E&P, the Siri platform (center) is located in the North Sea 220 km [137 mi] west of the
Danish coast and is anked by the smaller Cecilie (left) and Nini (right) satellite platforms. Five eldsSiri, Nini, Nini East, Cecilie and Stineproduce from
reservoirs 1,800 to 2,200 m [5,900 to 7,220 ft] below sea level. Seaoor lines between the three structures and wells carry oil and gas, gas for lift, and
injection water for pressure support. In 2007, a 25.4-cm [10-in.] water injection line ruptured (inset) 3 km [2 mi] from the Siri platform. Subsequent
investigation revealed that the MIC deposit at the rupture site was a mixture of iron sulde and other corrosion by-products plus microbes and polysaccharide
slime. These deposits allow sulfate-reducing prokaryotes (SRPs) and other troublesome microbes to grow protected from biocides. (Adapted with
permission from DONG E&P.)
Cecilie
Nini
Siri
Water injection
Stine
Water injection
Gas lift
Multiphase
Oil
Umbilical
1
3
k
m
9 km
32 km
Oil storage
15. Cord-Ruwisch R, Kleinitz W and Widdel F: Sulfate-
Reducing Bacteria and Their Activities in Oil
Production, Journal of Petroleum Technology 39, no. 1
(January 1987): 97106.
16. Lee et al, reference 11.
17. Campbell S, Duggleby A and Johnson A: Conventional
Application of Biocides May Lead to Bacterial Cell Injury
Rather Than Bacterial Kill Within a Biolm, paper
NACE 11234, presented at the NACE Corrosion Annual
Conference and Exposition, Houston, March 1317, 2011.
18. Maxwell S and Campbell S: Monitoring the Mitigation
of MIC Risk in Pipelines, paper NACE 06662, presented
at the NACE Corrosion Annual Conference and Exposition,
San Diego, California, USA, March 1216, 2006.
19. Eckert R and Skovhus TL: Using Molecular
Microbiological Methods to Investigate MIC in the Oil
and Gas Industry, Materials Performance 50, no. 8
(August 2011): 5054.
Summer 2012 9
If the biocide is a strong oxidizing agent such
as chlorine, it is added to the injection water con-
tinuously. Nonoxidizing biocides, typically used
in current operations, are added intermittently
(right). Each batch of biocide kills a portion of
the microbe population, but the survivors may
recover between doses. Recent research has
shown biocides may not be as effective as previ-
ously thoughtthey may only injure or inhibit
but not kill microbes.
17
Although biocides can be effective in combat-
ing MIC, there are reports of equipment failure in
spite of treatment, and examination of these inci-
dents revealed that the biocide application was
erratic and haphazard.
18
Until recently, unlike
with common corrosive agents, there were no
effective tools to predict and quantify the risk of
corrosion inuenced by microbes. The juncture
of genome-based test methods and the inadequa-
cies of biocides and their risks has led to a new
approach in managing MIC in production envi-
ronments. This approach uses molecular micro-
biological methods (MMMs) and represents a
fundamental change in assessing microbe
effects.
19
These methodsuorescence in situ
hybridization (FISH), quantitative polymerase
chain reaction (qPCR) and a microbe staining
technique using a uorescent stain known as
4,6-diamidino-2-phenylindole (DAPI)allow
scientists to gain a more complete understanding
of identities, quantities and behaviors of the
microbes involved in MIC.
To appreciate the signicance of these meth-
ods, it is important to understand how microbes
were handled in the laboratory prior to the intro-
duction of MMMs. Traditional microbiological
methods for identication and enumeration
relied on serial dilution and cultivation in nutri-
ent media for relatively long periodsoften up to
30 days. Even after these long periods, less than
10% of the viable microbes could be cultured. It is
no surprise that laboratory results based on tradi-
tional serial dilution and culturing methods did
not correlate well with eld results.
In contrast, results from application of FISH,
DAPI and qPCR techniques reveal nearly com-
plete identities and distribution of the microbes
of interest in oil production systems. These new
methods utilize a combination of microscopy,
analysis of cell genetic material and enzymatic
reactions to give a complete enumeration of
microbes present in the sample (right). In addi-
tion, the results are available in days rather than
weeks. These methods permit scientists to more
completely understand the chemistry of MIC on a
>
Biocide treatment. Offshore topside equipment is commonly treated with
biocides to prevent MIC and precipitation of iron sulde from produced
H
2
S. In the North Sea, engineers treated a reclaimed oil sump tank with
glutaraldehyde to obtain data showing how the biocide and H
2
S
concentrations changed with time. The sump tank efuent was analyzed
for residual glutaraldehyde and sulde as a marker for H
2
S. Data from the
study show expected results after biocide treatment. As the high
concentration of biocide kills troublesome microbes, the sulde
concentration drops sharply. At the highest concentration of biocide, the
sulde concentration reaches a minimum. Both trends reverse as the
biocide is ushed from the system. Biocide is reapplied when the sulde
returns to a threshold level.
1 2 3
Time, d
Sulfide
Biocide
S
u
l
f
i
d
e
,

p
p
m
B
i
o
c
i
d
e
,

p
p
m
0
0
200
400
600
800
1,000
1
5
4
3
2
Start Stop
Biocide
>
Molecular microbiological methods. These laboratory methods allow characterization and determination of
the relative proportions of microbes present in oil production systems. Traditional microbe culturing using serial
dilution produces the most probable number (MPN) of microbes, which may represent only a small fraction of
the total number actually present. In contrast, MMMs represent a trio of new methodsFISH, DAPI and
qPCRthat divide the microbe population into organisms that are active, inactive and dead. FISH analysis
involves staining and microscopy to examine living, or active, microbes. The uorescent stain, DAPI, binds to
DNA and quanties both active and inactive microbes. The qPCR method employs an enzymatic reaction that
gives additional information on all the microbial groups. When these methods are used together, scientists
obtain a complete enumeration and characterization of the microbes in a sample. (Adapted with permission
from DTI Oil & Gas, Danish Technological Institute.)
Dead
Active
Inactive
Microbe Characterization and Relative Proportions
MPN: most probable number
FISH: flourescence in situ
hybridization
DAPI: 4,6-diamidino-2-phenylindole
qPCR: quantitative polymerase
chain reaction
10 Oileld Review
metal surface. By using MMMs, scientists discov-
ered that corrosion involves not only SRB but also
other microbes that contribute to H
2
S and meth-
ane [CH
4
] production (above).
20
This complexity in MIC is illustrated by recent
laboratory work on topside equipment in the
Danish sector of the North Sea. In 2008, a pro-
duced water separator in the Halfdan eld
showed high corrosion rates in the carbon steel
water outlet piping. The pipe showed severe
metal pitting and scaling, and scientists deter-
mined that MIC was the cause (next page).
21
The
microbes responsible for corrosion problems at
Halfdan eld are not the only varieties that can
cause MIC in production systems. Acid-producing
bacteria (APB) are microbes that produce
organic acids under certain conditions. These
acids can cause the pH to drop enough to create
conditions favorable to corrosion on metal
surfaces such as those of submersible pumping
components.
22
Control of APB is typically accom-
plished by biocide disinfection that may aid in
control of SRB as well.
23
New Theories and Solutions
The H
2
S produced during MIC in the wellbore
and reservoir by sulfate-reducing prokaryotes
(SRPs) contributes to reservoir souring.
24
There
are new and effective ways to control souring, but
souring is not a new problem for producers. Some
reservoirs are sour as a result of high levels of H
2
S
that have been present over geologic time frames.
Many reservoirs are sour, however, as a conse-
quence of seawater injection for secondary recov-
ery.
25
The SRPs that live near the wellbore and in
the reservoir have simple needs for growththey
require sulfate, carbon and nutrients. Seawater
is rich in sulfate, and reservoir formation water
usually contains abundant short-chain fatty acids
that supply the carbon and other nutrients.
26
Add
a suitable temperature regime, inject seawater
and the end result is inevitablesouring.
Exactly how and to what extent souring
occurs have been recently challenged, and the
picture may not entail simple microbe growth
from water injector all the way to produced water
outlet.
27
New research relies on data that show
the amount of H
2
S produced is consistent with
production only in the immediate vicinity of the
wellbore but not throughout the formation.
Scientists have concluded that elevated levels of
heavy metals, water-soluble hydrocarbons and
microbe activity by-products inhibit microbe
growth in the reservoir. Another result of this
research is a model showing how H
2
S produced
in the vicinity of the wellbore moves through
the reservoir. Early theories relied on a simple
mixing-zone model that predicted rapid H
2
S
breakthrough. Data show the oppositeseveral
reservoir pore volumes must be displaced before
H
2
S breakthrough. This newer model assumes
that most of the H
2
S generation takes place in a
biolm near the injector and that the reservoir is
merely a zone for transport and adsorption.
Regardless of how it occurs, souring creates
many problems for the industry, including corro-
sion of pipelines and topside equipment, reser-
voir plugging from suldes, health risks from H
2
S
toxicity and increased rening costs.
28
The effects
of souring are serious enough that oileld pro-
ducers have investigated several ways to control
it. These include biocides, nanoltration to
remove sulfate and manipulation of injection
water salinity levels to inhibit microbe growth.
Because processes such as nanoltration have
high capital costs, biocides have usually been the
rst choice for controlling microbial growth to
prevent souring.
New methods employed for control of reser-
voir souring have helped scientists further under-
stand microbial identities and their chemistry
during secondary recovery. Although earlier inves-
tigations into souring focused almost exclusively
on SRB, seawater and reservoir formations con-
20. Larsen J, Rasmussen K, Pedersen H, Srensen K,
Lundgaard T and Skovhus TL: Consortia of MIC
Bacteria and Archaea Causing Pitting Corrosion in Top
Side Oil Production Facilities, paper NACE 10252,
presented at the NACE Corrosion Annual Conference and
Exposition, San Antonio, Texas, USA, March 1418, 2010.
21. Skovhus TL, Holmkvist L, Andersen K, Pedersen H and
Larsen J: MIC Risk Assessment of the Halfdan Oil
Export Spool, paper SPE 155080, presented at the
SPE International Conference and Exhibition on Oileld
Corrosion, Aberdeen, May 2829, 2012.
22. Adams DL: Microbiologically Inuenced Corrosion of
Electrical-Submersible-Pumping-System Components
Associated With Acid-Producing Bacteria and
Sulfate-Reducing Bacteria: Case Histories, paper
SPE 136756, presented at the SPE Latin American and
Caribbean Petroleum Engineering Conference, Lima,
Peru, December 13, 2010.
23. Bagchi D, Periera AP, Chu J, Smith JP and Scheie J:
Successful Mitigation of Microbiologically Inuenced
Corrosion in Waterood Pipelines and Process
Equipment, in Blackwood DJ (ed): Proceedings of
Corrosion Asia 2000. Singapore: Corrosion Association
Singapore (2000): 5565.
>
Corrosion reactions. A complex set of reactions
underlies the production of MIC on a metal
surface. These reactions are strongly inuenced
by sulfate-reducing prokaryotic and methanogenic
respiration (blue and red paths, top). This set of
reactions is best illustrated by listing the net
reactions for sulfate reduction and CH
4
production
(bottom). In the net sulfate reduction reaction, iron
[Fe], H
2
S and the sulfate ion [SO
4
2
] combine to
give FeS and water. In the net CH
4
production
reaction, Fe, H
2
S and carbon dioxide [CO
2
]
combine to give FeS, water and CH
4
. (Adapted
from Larsen et al, reference 20.)
FeS
Net reactions
H
2
S
CO
2
Methanogens
Metal
Water
Sulfate-
reducing
prokaryotes
SO
4
2

CH
4
H
2
Fe
2
+
H
+
Fe
0
S
2

4Fe
0
+ 3H
2
S + SO
4
2

+ 2H
+
4FeS + 4H
2
O


8uIIate reductioo
Methaoe production
4Fe
0
+ 4H
2
S + CO
2

4FeS +

2H
2
O + CH
4


24. Larsen J, Srenson K, Hjris K and Skovhus TL:
Signicance of Troublesome Sulfate-Reducing
Prokaryotes (SRP) in Oil Field Systems, paper
NACE 09389, presented at the NACE Corrosion Annual
Conference and Exposition, Atlanta, Georgia, USA,
March 2226, 2009.
25. Kuijvenhoven C, Bostock A, Chappell D, Noirot JC and
Khan A: Use of Nitrate to Mitigate Reservoir Souring in
Bonga Deepwater Development Offshore Nigeria,
paper SPE 92795, presented at the SPE International
Symposium on Oileld Chemistry, Houston,
February 24, 2005.
26. Bass and Lapin-Scott, reference 2.
27. Sunde E and Torsvik T: Microbial Control of Hydrogen
Sulde Production in Oil Reservoirs, in Ollivier B
and Magot M (eds): Petroleum Microbiology.
Washington, DC: ASM Press (2005): 201214.
28. Youssef N, Elshahed MS and McInerney MJ: Microbial
Processes in Oil Fields: Culprits, Problems, and
Opportunities, in Laskin AI, Sariaslani S and Gadd GM
(eds): Advances in Applied Microbiology, vol. 66.
Burlington, Vermont, USA: Elsevier (2009): 141251.
29. SRB use anaerobic respiration while NRB use anoxic
respiration.
30. Thorstenson T, Bdtker G, Lilleb B-LP, Torsvik T,
Sunde E and Beeder J: Biocide Replacement by
Nitrate in Sea Water Injection Systems, paper
NACE 02033, presented at the NACE Corrosion Annual
Conference and Exposition, Denver, April 711, 2002.
31. Rassenfoss, reference 4.
32. Zahner RL, Tapper SJ, Marcotte BWG and Govreau BR:
What Has Been Learned from a Hundred MEOR
Applications, paper SPE 145054, presented at the
SPE Enhanced Oil Recovery Conference, Kuala Lumpur,
July 1921, 2011.
33. Brisbane PG and Ladd JN: The Role of Microorganisms
in Petroleum Exploration, Annual Review of
Microbiology 19 (October 1965): 351364.
34. Tucker J and Hitzman D: Detailed Microbial Surveys
Help Improve Reservoir Characterization, Oil & Gas
Journal 92, no. 23 (June 6, 1994): 6568.
Summer 2012 11
tain several other species of microbes, including
nitrate-reducing bacteria (NRB). SRB and NRB
can live and thrive in the wellbore and formation,
provided they have a sufcient carbon source
such as short-chain fatty acids.
On the molecular level, SRB reduce the sul-
fate to sulde, and NRB reduce the nitrate to
nitrogen.
29
SRB and NRB compete for food, and
where it is limited, that competition is intense. In
the wellbore and reservoir, if oxygen is absent,
introduction of nitrate, via injection water, favors
NRB growth over SRB growth. Nitrate, in the
form of calcium nitrate [Ca(NO
3
)
2
], is added to
injection water to prevent souring.
30
This form of
nitrate may be used in place of biocide and has
minimal health and environmental impacts.
Although nitrate may not completely eliminate
the need for biocides, it can reduce the amount of
other chemicals needed.
31
Using their increased
knowledge of SRB and NRB microbe species and
chemistry, scientists have improved treatment
techniques for souringthe same is true for
microbiologically enhanced oil recovery.
Operators have employed MEOR for decades.
Much of the past work relied on trial and error
and produced mixed results. A more complete
understanding of microbe behavior and chemistry
is resulting in a resurgence of MEOR eld trials.
These trials have two common objectivesiden-
tify the indigenous microbes in the formation and
design formulas for nutrient injection to
stimulate their growth; that is, nd the helpful
microbes and feed them what they like.
Just as there are many types of indigenous
microbes, there are several mechanisms
microbes employ that may stimulate oil produc-
tion from mature wells. First, natural microbe
metabolic processes produce downhole gases
that may increase pressure and decrease oil vis-
cosity. Second, microbes produce surfactants
that decrease the surface tension between oil
and water. In addition, biomass and polymers
from microbes selectively plug oil-depleted areas
in the reservoir, diverting uids into oil-rich
zones. Successful MEOR projects typically
depend on a combination of these mechanisms
rather than any single one.
After reviewing MEOR eld trial results, sci-
entists have made important observations
regarding its application.
32
Although MEOR tech-
nology has been used in both oil-producing and
water injection wells, it probably has the best
chance of success in reservoirs with active water
injection programs for secondary recovery. Not
only does the water provide the energy to push oil
out, but it also distributes the nutrients through-
out the system. Data show that MEOR can
enhance recovery in reservoirs with a wide
range of oil densitiesfrom 16 to 41 degree API
gravity and with reservoir temperatures as high
as 93C [200F] and salinities as high as
142,000 parts per million (ppm) total dissolved
solids. It is also possible to apply MEOR to dual-
porosity reservoirs if the added nutrients are
able to penetrate the matrix and not bypass the
formation via high-permeability streaks. In
some cases, MEOR treatment may reduce reser-
voir souring in addition to stimulating produc-
tion. Scientists theorize that the added
nutrients stimulate microbes that outcompete
SRPs for food and thereby depress SRP growth.
These trials demonstrate that MEOR processes
can economically free up oil trapped in mature
elds. Although most work to date has been on
mature, noneconomic wells, there is potential
for application of MEOR at an earlier stage in
the life of a producing reservoir.
In addition to using microbes to stimulate pro-
duction and mitigate reservoir souring and corro-
sion, scientists are using them in exploration via
biomonitoring.
33
In one application of biomonitor-
ing, a grid of shallow soil samples was analyzed for
specic microbes.
34
Elevated amounts of the target
>
Halfdan corrosion. Visual examination of a cross section of the produced-
water separator pipe (top) revealed a 2- to 3-cm [0.8- to 1.2-in.] layer of
corrosion scale (middle). The scale had an orange outer layer and a black
inner layer adjacent to the metal (bottom). Scientists observed areas of
severe pitting corrosion at various points on the inner layer. Laboratory
studies, including examination by the new MMMs, showed that the outer
scale layer was composed of salts, iron oxides and decomposed biomass
primarily SRB and sulfate-reducing archaea (SRA). The inner scale layer
was composed of salts, iron suldes and decomposed biomass that had
high levels of methanogens. (Adapted from Skovhus et al, reference 21.)
Outer solids
Inner solids
Inner
surface
Water separator pipe
2 to 3 cm of corrosion scale
Pitting corrosion
Pipe metal
12 Oileld Review
microbes indicated microseepage of oil and
gas from underground formations (above).
Operators use this type of data to rank drilling
prospects, characterize heterogeneities and iden-
tify bypassed oil.
Controlling and Harnessing Microbes
Armed with these new insights on microbe
behavior and chemistry, producers are putting
this knowledge to work in the oil eld. Statoil is
using nitrate to control corrosion and H
2
S at its
Gullfaks platforms in the North Sea.
35
The Statoil Gullfaks eld is located 175 km
[109 mi] northwest of Bergen, Norway. Discovered
in 1979, this eld produces about 30,000 m
3
/d
[189,000 bbl/d] of oil from three large plat-
formsGullfaks A, B and C.
36
The platforms
started production in the late 1980s and cur-
rently use seawater injection for pressure sup-
port. The seawater intake depth for Gullfaks A
and B is 70 m [230 ft] below the surface; the
Gullfaks C intake depth is at 120 m [394 ft].
Injection water volumes vary from 30,000 m
3
/d
[189,000 bbl/d] to 70,000 m
3
/d [440,000 bbl/d];
the pressure downstream of the pumps is about
20 MPa [2,900 psi]. Injection water undergoes
vacuum deaeration to remove oxygen, and the
nal water temperature downstream of the
deaerator is 25C [77F].
Although Statoil employed stringent ltration
and biocides to control injected water quality at
Gullfaks, those approaches were not entirely
effective. In the early 1990s, Gullfaks A experi-
enced high H
2
S levels in produced gas and water.
The high H
2
S levels, coupled with laboratory data
that showed rapid increases in the Gullfaks SRB
population from 1994 to 1996, gave Statoil reason
to rethink the microbe control strategy.
37
A suc-
cessful application of nitrate added to injected
seawater at Statoils Veslefrikk platform in early
1999 provided engineers with the condence to
use it at Gullfaks.
38
>
Microbial surveys. Soil samples in Osage County, Oklahoma, USA, were analyzed to detect the
abundance of butane-utilizing microbes. More than 1,200 samples were analyzed from a grid
measuring 3.5 mi [5.6 km] by 7.5 mi [12.1 km] (left). The orange circles indicate samples with the
highest 30% of the microbe concentration; the size of the circle is proportional to concentration. The
smoothed data are contoured to provide a more informative picture of the microbe distribution (right).
The strongest microbial anomaly (purple) corresponds to structural data from a 3D seismic survey
covering the same grid area. Several years after the microbial survey was conducted, an operator
drilled and completed a producing oil well at the microseepage anomaly. (Adapted with permission
from Geo-Microbial Technologies Inc.)
0 km
Low
High
0 mi 1
1
Contoured Microbial Concentrations
Relative
microbe
concentration
0 km
0 mi 1
1
Presence of
butane-utilizing
microbes
Smoothed Microbial Concentrations
Summer 2012 13
In late 1999, Statoil switched from biocide to
nitrate to treat the injected seawater for reser-
voir microbe control at the Gullfaks B and C plat-
forms.
39
Nitrate was added to the injection water
at 30 to 40 ppm as a 45 weight percent solution of
Ca(NO
3
)
2
. At both platforms, scientists observed
decreases in SRB counts about one month after
the start of nitrate injection. Decreases in the
SRB population were accompanied by increases
in the NRB counts. These changes in microbe dis-
tribution are consistent with how these two
microbe groups compete for nutrients. As nitrate
injection continued, the changes in microbe dis-
tribution led to major changes in the corrosion
rate (right). Engineers also noted decreases in
H
2
S levels in the produced water at Gullfaks
(below right). Tangible benets for Statoil
include reduction of H
2
S in the produced water in
most parts of the eld and a 50% decrease in cor-
rosion rates on metal coupons in the seawater
injection system.
Nitrate controls certain undesirable aspects
of microbe behavior, but MEOR does the oppo-
siteit exploits microbes positive characteris-
tics. The rationale for bringing microbes into the
oil recovery process is simpleabout 80% of the
oil currently produced is from elds discovered in
the early 1970s. More than 50% of the oil in these
elds remains trapped and cannot be economi-
cally recovered.
40
In the last few years, scientists
have developed MEOR processes that use new
analytical technology to selectively identify and
exploit benecial microbes living in oil reser-
voirs. These MEOR processes have given opera-
tors a new tool to inexpensively free oil trapped
in mature reservoirs. Husky Energy Inc. used this
approach in a pilot oil recovery project in Canada.
35. Sunde E, Lilleb B-LP, Bdtker G, Torsvik T and
Thorstenson T: H
2
S Inhibition by Nitrate Injection on the
Gullfaks Field, paper NACE 04760, presented at the
NACE Corrosion Annual Conference and Exposition,
New Orleans, March 28April 1, 2004.
36. Hesjedal A: Introduction to the Gullfaks Field,
http://www.ipt.ntnu.no/~tpg5200/intro/gullfaks_
introduksjon.html (accessed May 24, 2012).
37. Statoil collected samples of injection water downstream
of the vacuum deaerator using a bioprobe. Bioprobes
allow collection of samples from a biolm that deposits
on a metal surface within the probe. These instruments
are commonly used in oil and gas systems to detect
corrosion-causing organisms.
38. Thorstenson et al, reference 30.
39. Statoil started nitrate injection at Gullfaks B in
October 1999 and about a month later at Gullfaks C.
40. Marcotte B, Govreau B and Davis CP: MEOR Finds Oil
Where It Has Already Been Discovered, E&P,
(November 4, 2009), http://www.epmag.com/
Exploration-Wildcats-Stepouts/MEOR-nds-oil-it
already-discovered_47917 (accessed July 15, 2012).
>
Gullfaks microbe activity. Before nitrate was used in injection water at Gullfaks B, enrichment
cultures from water and biolm showed a stable and diverse SRB population. Although at lower
concentrations, NRB were also present (not shown) and used the same carbon sources as nutrients.
After nitrate addition, SRB activity signicantly decreased and NRB numbers in the biolm increased
by three orders of magnitude (not shown). Corrosion measurements on carbon steel coupons in the
water injection system showed similar trends. Beginning in early 1994, corrosion rates at Gullfaks B
rose, peaking shortly before nitrate addition was started. After nitrate addition, corrosion rates
trended downward and were reduced by at least half. (Adapted from Sunde et al, reference 35.)
C
o
r
r
o
s
i
o
n

r
a
t
e
,

m
m
/
y
r
Date
Corrosion rate
SRB activity
Nitrate added, Gullfaks B
April
1994
May
1997
February
2000
February
2003
S
R
B

a
c
t
i
v
i
t
y
,

g

H
2
S
/
c
m
2
/
d
0 0
5
10
15
20
25
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.2
U K
NORWAY
200 0 mi
0 200 km
Gullfaks field
N
o
r
t
h
S
ea
>
Gullfaks H
2
S production. Statoil engineers measured H
2
S in the produced
water before and after nitrate addition. At Gullfaks C, produced water H
2
S
levels were slowly increasing prior to introduction of nitrate. After nitrate
addition, H
2
S levels fell signicantly but only after a delay. This delay is a result
of the time it takes H
2
S to equilibrate in the reservoir. Statoil scientists estimate
that several pore volumes must be displaced in the reservoir before a new or
reequilibrated H
2
S value is observed in the producers. Statoil researchers
have also developed a reservoir souring modelpredicted H
2
S values are
shown for Gullfaks C. The predicted values indicate levels that would have
been experienced had there been no nitrate addition. (Adapted from Sunde et
al, reference 35.)
Date
0
2
4
6
8
10
Nitrate added, Gullfaks C
Nov
1997
July
1999
Feb
2001
Oct
2002
Predicted H
2
S
Measured H
2
S
H
2
S
,

m
g
w
a
t
e
r
,

L
14 Oileld Review
The Husky pilot MEOR project is located
within a eld in the southwest corner of
Saskatchewan, Canada (left).
41
This eld, discov-
ered in 1952, has a reservoir depth of about
1,200 m [3,940 ft] and an average temperature of
47C [117 F]. Current production from the eld
is 60 m
3
/d [380 bbl/d] of 22 to 24 degree API
gravity oil and 4,250 m
3
/d [150 Mcf/d] of gas.
Husky began waterooding in 1967, and current
water injection is 1,300 m
3
/d [8,200 bbl/d]. In
2010, cumulative oil production from this eld
reached 3.3 million m
3
[21 million bbl] since
discoveryestimated to be about 29% of the
original oil in place (OOIP).
Husky teamed with Titan Oil Recovery to
investigate the feasibility of using MEOR to
recover crude oil trapped in this eld. The Titan
technology is simpleidentify and quantify
microbes that are indigenous to the reservoir.
42

Using these data plus results from other eld
tests, Titan engineers formulated a nutrient mix-
ture to release in the reservoir by way of the
water injection system. The engineers theorized
that the injected nutrients would stimulate
changes in certain species of resident microbes,
allowing the microbes to affect the interfaces
between oil, water and rock to release small
droplets of oil into the active ow channels.
Husky applied the Titan process in two
stepsbatch nutrient treatment of a single well
followed by water injection to spread nutrients to
nearby wells. For the single-well treatment,
Husky injected 1.3 m
3
[8.2 bbl] of nutrients and
13 m
3
[82 bbl] of injection water through the
wellbore, then shut in the well for a week. When
the well was returned to production, results were
encouragingoil production increased from 1.2
to 4.1 m
3
/d [7.5 to 25.8 bbl/d] and water cut
decreased from 94% to 80%. Because these results
showed that the nutrients were appropriate for
the reservoir and its resident microbes, Husky
shifted its focus to the water injector for treating
nearby wells in the pilot area.
Starting in early 2008 and using procedures
similar to treatment of the single well, Husky
injected the custom nutrient via the water
injector in the pilot area. After three weeks, the
closest producing well showed a signicant
oil production increase and a corresponding
decrease in water cut (left). After an appropriate
interval to allow underground transit of nutri-
ents, engineers observed these positive results at
>
Husky-Titan pilot location. The pilot area encompassed four producing
wells and one water injector in the Saskatchewan, Canada, eld. Nutrient
injection was carried out in two steps. Husky rst used Well A to conrm
the laboratory-derived nutrient formula by batch treating the well. The
operator next used Injector B to deliver the nutrients while production was
monitored at nearby Wells C, D and E. (Adapted from Town et al, reference 41.)
Well C
Well A
Well D
Well E
Pilot area
Injector B
Water injector
Producing well
C A N A D A
U N I T E D S T A T E S

MEOR pilot

Saskatchewan

0 km
0 mi 1
1
>
Husky-Titan pilot results. From early 2007 until the beginning of 2008, oil
production at Well C in the Saskatchewan MEOR pilot was reasonably
steady, between 2 and 4 m
3
/d [13 and 25 bbl/d]. The water cut for the same
period was about 95%. After the rst and subsequent nutrient injections at
Injector B, oil production at Well C increased to 7 to 9 m
3
/d [44 to 57 bbl/d].
For the same period, water cut fell to about 88%. Because Well C was not
treated directly, the pilot conrmed response through the reservoir from
injector to producer. (Adapted from Town et al, reference 41.)
Date
0
2
4
6
8
75
85
95
65
55
70
80
90
100
60
50
10
12
14
Jan
2007
Aug
2007
Feb
2008
Sep
2008
Mar
2009
W
a
t
e
r

c
u
t
,

%
Nutrient Injections at Injector B
Treatment
1
Treatment
2
Treatment
3
O
i
l

p
r
o
d
u
c
t
i
o
n
,

m
3
/
d
Oil production
Water cut
Summer 2012 15
other wells in the pilot area. In addition, engi-
neers used the same treatment in wells and
injectors outside the pilot area, achieving posi-
tive results, which conrmed the response from
injector to producer.
Success with microbe stimulation to enhance
oil production from a mature waterood was also
seen at a eld in Kansas, USA.
43
The Stirrup eld,
discovered in 1985, is located in the southwest
corner of Kansas. The reservoir depth is about
5,200 ft [1,600 m], and current production is
490 bbl/d [78 m
3
/d] of 38 to 41 degree API gravity
oil. The initial reservoir pressure was 1,650 psi
[11.4 MPa] and had declined to less than 100 psi
[0.69 MPa] at the start of waterood in 2003.
Primary recovery from the Stirrup eld was cal-
culated at 19.1 million bbl [3.04 million m
3
] of oil,
and waterood is estimated to add another
2.8 million bbl [0.44 million m
3
], for an ultimate
recovery of about 15% of the OOIP. In mid-2010,
Glori Energy, in collaboration with Statoil, tested
the AERO activated environment for recovery of
oil technology in the Stirrup eld to see if there
was potential to boost recovery based on micro-
bial stimulation (right).
Detailed characterization of the existing
microbe population using both traditional and
genome-based techniques was the first step in
implementing the AERO technology at Stirrup.
Once Glori Energy had characterized the indig-
enous microbe population, engineers devel-
oped a custom nutrient formulation and micro-
bial inoculant.
Glori Energy started the AERO technology
pilot at Stirrup in May 2010 by continuously
injecting the custom nutrient using two of the
water injectors. The initial test pattern for the
pilot included two injectors and ve producing
wells. After several months of operation, it was
clear that water from one of the injectors was not
entering the test pattern, so that injector was
withdrawn from the pilot. Some of the ve test
wells experienced similar problems when follow-
up work showed that injectors not included in the
test pattern program were inuencing perfor-
mance. Since this eld does not have a dedicated
system for separation and testing, evaluation can
be made only on a well-by-well basis. Stirrup
Well 12-2 demonstrated the predominant response.
Analysis of the data from Well 12-2 suggests that
41. Town K, Sheehy AJ and Govreau BR: MEOR Success in
Southern Saskatchewan, paper SPE 124319, presented
at the SPE Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition,
New Orleans, October 47, 2009.
>
AERO technology. Glori Energy has theorized that the AERO technology stimulates oil production in
four steps. The microbes in the reservoir use existing oil as a carbon source to produce surfactants
that reduce the oil-water surface tension, helping to release trapped oil (top left). The microbes then
multiply and block some existing water ow paths, thereby forcing the opening of new ow paths that
move trapped oil out of the reservoir (top right). When some of the trapped oil has been released and the
local carbon source depleted, the microbes disperse and former water ow paths reopen (bottom left). If
the stimulated microbes are active and have sufcient nutrients, the process is continuously repeated
until trapped oil is brought to the surface and production increases (bottom right). (Adapted with
permission from Glori Energy.)
Microbes reduce
oil-water tension.
Microbes
Water
Flow path
Rock grain
Oil released
into pore
Oil trapped
in pore
Microbes affect
preferential flow.
Microbes disperse. New water flow
paths open.
42. Analysis for resident microbes is typically carried out on
produced water samples.
43. Bauer BG, ODell RJ, Marinello SA, Babcock J, Ishoey T
and Sunde E: Field Experience from a Biotechnology
Approach to Water Flood Improvement, paper SPE
144205, presented at the SPE Enhanced Oil Recovery
Conference, Kuala Lumpur, July 1921, 2011.
16 Oileld Review
the AERO treatment, when properly applied, is
capable of signicantly boosting ultimate recov-
ery (below).
Microbes on the Surface
While many microbe applications are designed
for the subsurface, others contribute to shallow
and surcial processes such as the management
of oileld waste or remediation of production
from oil sands and spills.
Oil and gas production generates a variety of
vapor, liquid and solid waste that not only must
meet governmental regulations but also be dis-
posed of in a safe and environmentally responsi-
ble manner. Microbes are currently playing an
important role in disposal of these waste streams,
particularly in the realm of solid waste. Two solid
waste streams that arise from oil and gas produc-
tion may be amenable to bioremediation: hydro-
carbon-impacted soil and drilling waste.
During the last 100 years, some production
facilities have experienced contaminated soils
because of leaks or uncontrolled discharges of
crude oil and other liquids. Natural weathering
can signicantly reduce the hydrocarbon con-
centration in soil but does not eliminate it.
Although researchers have shown that heavily
weathered, highmolecular weight hydrocar-
bons are essentially nonbiodegradable, these
same hydrocarbons can be rendered less detri-
mental by treatment with a mixture of nutrients
and cultured microbes.
44
Currently, bioremedia-
tion is usually the preferred method for dealing
with crude oilimpacted soil.
45
Because not all
crude oils respond to bioremediation in the
same way, engineers have developed predictive
models to allow quick assessment of ex situ bio-
remediation without resorting to time-consum-
ing laboratory trials.
Drilling waste, a by-product of oileld opera-
tions, is mostly nonhazardous, although the vol-
umes of such waste are signicant for both marine
and onshore operations. For example, a midsize
operator in the Gulf of Mexico may routinely gen-
erate 250 tonUS [227,000 kg] of waste monthly.
46

Some operators dispose of water-base drilling
wastes from marine operations directly to the
ocean. Although harm to the ecosystem from this
type of disposal has not been demonstrated, it
remains a controversial practice.
47
As in marine environments, onshore drilling
generates a signicant volume of waste. A 509-m
[1,670-ft], 6
1
/2-in. hole produces 21 m
3
[130 bbl] of
cuttings, and disposal of onshore cuttings pres-
ents a different challenge from that of marine
environments. Scientists are designing synthetic
drilling muds that, when added to soil, enhance
soil quality and stimulate more rapid bioremedia-
tion.
48
In addition, engineers have developed a
standardized screening protocol for drill cut-
tings. This protocol compares rates of bioreme-
diation using greenhouse-scale models to
simulate eld conditions (next page). Scientists
at M-I SWACO, a Schlumberger company, use
results from the greenhouse simulations to pre-
dict the length of time for treatment, nal condi-
tion of the material following treatment, the
capability of the material to comply with environ-
mental targets and the likelihood of technique
effectiveness.
>
AERO technology results. Data from the Stirrup Well 12-2 are plotted as
water cut versus cumulative production from the well with approximate
trend lines drawn for periods both before and after nutrient injection. When
these trend lines are extrapolated to constant 95% water cut, they imply a
50,000- to 55,000-bbl [7,950- to 8,740-m
3
] oil production increase as a result
of the treatment. (Adapted with permission from Glori Energy.)
W
a
t
e
r

c
u
t
,

%
Cumulative production, 1,000 bbl
95
85
75
75 100 125 225 150 250 175 275 200
90
80
70
100
AERO nutrient start
Before AERO nutrient addition
After AERO nutrient addition
Estimated increase
50,000 to 55,000 bbl
44. Adams RH, Daz-Ramrez IJ, Guzmn-Osorio FJ and
Gutirrez-Rojas M: Biodegradation and Detoxication
of Soil Contaminated with Heavily Weathered
Hydrocarbons, presented at the 13th Annual
International Environmental Petroleum Conference,
San Antonio, Texas, October 1620, 2006.
45. Hoffman R, Bernier R, Smith S and McMillen S:
A Four-Step Biotreatability Protocol for Crude Oil
Impacted Soil, paper SPE 126982, presented at the
SPE International Conference on Health, Safety and
Environment in Oil and Gas Exploration and Production,
Rio de Janeiro, April 1214, 2010.
46. Louviere RJ and Reddoch JA: Onsite Disposal of
Rig-Generated Waste via Slurrication and Annular
Injection, paper SPE/IADC 25755, presented at the
SPE/IADC Drilling Conference, Amsterdam,
February 2225, 1993.
47. Neff JM: Composition, Environmental Fates and
Biological Effects of Water Based Drilling Muds and
Cuttings Discharged to the Marine Environment:
A Synthesis and Annotated Bibliography. Report
prepared for the Petroleum Environmental Research
Forum and API, January 2005, http://perf.org/pdf/
APIPERFreport.pdf (accessed August 2, 2012).
48. Curtis GW, Growcock FB, Candler JE, Rabke SP and
Getliff J: Can Synthetic-Based Muds Be Designed to
Enhance Soil Quality?, paper AADE 01-NC-HO-11,
presented at the AADE National Drilling Conference,
Houston, March 2729, 2001.
Clements K, Rabke S and Young S: Development of a
Standardized Screening Procedure for Bioremediation
of Drill Cuttings, presented at the 14th International
Petroleum Environmental Conference, Houston,
November 69, 2007.
49. Orwig J: Scientists Grow Bacteria to Improve Oil Sands
Remediation, EARTH 57, no. 4 (April 2012):18.
50. Phan CM, Allen B, Peters LB, Le TN and Tade MO:
Can Water Float on Oil?, Langmuir 28, no. 10
(March 13, 2012): 46094613.
Summer 2012 17
Microbe Frontiers
The ubiquity of microbe distribution on the
planet ensures that scientists associated with the
oil and gas industry have an abundance of oppor-
tunities ahead of them. These opportunities
include oil sands remediation and cleanup of
ocean oil spills.
Production of hydrocarbons from Canadian oil
sands has been successful in adding to the worlds
sources of petroleum, but such hydrocarbon pro-
duction is not without environmental cost. Tailings
ponds, which must be fenced off to protect wild-
life, are one consequence of oil sands production.
Biologists and engineers have found that certain
microbes thrive on potentially hazardous com-
pounds in that environment.
49
These scientists
theorize that if the microbes could be cultured,
identied and grown into biolms, they could be
reintroduced to shorten the current 20- to 30-year
compound breakdown time. Researchers are
making progress; by simulating tailings pond con-
ditions, they have reproduced 30% to 60% of the
microbes in the sludge and expect to have pilot
bioreactors running in a few years.
Drillers and producers in offshore operations
must take signicant precautions to avoid spills
and must be prepared to deal with them if they
occur. Use of dispersants remains controversial
because the dispersants may have environmental
impacts. Researchers in Australia, studying the
physical chemistry of oil-water interactions, have
reported a seemingly contradictory nding that
may improve the odds in oil spill cleanup. These
researchers found that, given certain values of
interfacial tension, oil density and water droplet
volume, water droplets can oat on an oil sur-
face.
50
Acceleration of aerobic biodegradation of
spills is one application of this ndingsmall
water droplets that oat on the oil surface have
more contact with airborne oxygen, thus acceler-
ating the microbe-driven cleanup.
New analytical methods and scientists
increased understanding of microbes have led to
developments in controlling souring and corro-
sion and improving oil recovery from mature
wells. These advances are stimulating further
work in the use of microbes for bioremediation in
both onshore and offshore settings. Today, engi-
neers are bringing the negative characteristics of
microbes in the oil eld under tighter control and
are increasingly able to harness their positive
aspects for improved hydrocarbon production
and solutions to environmental concerns. DA
>
Bioremediation. Scientists at M-I SWACO in Houston use a greenhouse to study bioremediation rates by composting tub-sized
samples of drill cuttings (right). These specialists have developed bioremediation protocols using 2.7- to 4.0-ft
3
[0.08- to 0.1-m
3
] size
samples of a drill-cutting mix containing sand, bentonite clay, an additional nonswelling silica clay and water, followed by coating with
hydrocarbons at the 10 weight percent level. Typical soil amendments and nutrients are added to the resultant hydrocarbon-compost
mix before it is allowed to sit for long periods under greenhouse conditions. During this extended period, constant conditions for the
compost are maintained by introducing oxygen via periodic mixing and adding water and nutrients as required. Bioremediation as
measured by total petroleum hydrocarbons is plotted for three hydrocarbon proxies (left). These data show that after 30 days, linear
parafns and mixed olens have nearly completely dissipated, while diesel oil is signicantly reduced but does not fall below about
1 weight percent. M-I SWACO uses this test to screen onsite remediation as well as to train eld personnel to maintain optimal
compost conditions.
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Time, d
Linear paraffins
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