What We Hide in Words: Value-Based Reasoning and Emotive Language

FABRIZIO MA A!"O
ArgLab Instituto de Filosofia da Linguagem (IFL) Universidade Nova de Lisboa Edifcio I&D ! andar Avenida de "erna #$ %&$' &$% Lisbon (ortugal fabri)io*macagno+fcs,*unl*-t

AB#$RA $: $here are emotivel% &o'er(ul 'ords that )an modi(% our *udgment+ arouse our emotions and in(luen)e our de)isions, $his &a&er sho's ho' the use o( emotive meaning in argumentation )an -e e.&lained -% sho'ing ho' their logi)al dimension+ 'hi)h )an -e anal%sed using argumentation s)hemes+ )om-ines 'ith heuristi) &ro)esses triggered -% emotions, Arguing 'ith emotive 'ords is sho'n to use value--ased &ra)ti)al reasoning grounded on hierar)hies o( values and ma.ims o( e.&erien)e (or evaluative )lassi(i)ation, /E0WOR1#: argumentation s)hemes+ )hara)ter atta)2s+ )entral-&eri&heral &ro)ess+ emotions+ heuristi)s+ emotive 'ords+ &ersuasion+ rhetori)al strategies

3, I"$RO14 $IO" $he 5637 Italian &residential ele)tion )an -e )onsidered as a rhetori)al -attle(ield, $he di((erent &arties 8es&e)iall% the right- and le(t-'ing )oalitions9 (o)used more on atta)2ing the alternatives than &romoting )onstru)tive &rograms, In this )onte.t+ a )ru)ial role 'as &la%ed -% rhetori) and in &arti)ular -% emotive 'ords, $he voters 'ere not &rovided 'ith slogans des)ri-ing long-term &lans+ -ut mainl% 'ith terms )r%stalli:ing negative &ro&erties o( the )om&eting &arties, Instead o( re&orting and des)ri-ing )om&le. reasoning or length% dis)ourses+ the ne's&a&ers ;uoted su)h emotive )hara)teri:ations and )ontri-uted to )reating a 'ar o( e&ithets, $his &oliti)al e.am&le highlights a (undamental argumentative strateg%+ the use o( emotive or ethi)al terms, I( 'e leave (or a moment the &oliti)al and statisti)al )onsiderations and anal%:e this ta)ti) (rom a &hiloso&hi)al+ argumentative and linguisti) &ers&e)tive+ 'e are le(t 'ith unans'ered ;uestions, $he (irst one )an -e (ormulated as (ollo's: What ma2es a 'ord emotive< $here are 'ords = or rather )on)e&ts = that do not sim&l% des)ri-e a (ragment o( &ossi-le realit%, >$errorist? is not sim&l% used to re(er to a &erson 'ho )ommits s&e)i(i) a)tions 'ith a s&e)i(i) intent, Words su)h as >torture? or >massa)re?+ >(reedom? or >&ea)e? )arr% 'ith them something more than a sim&le des)ri&tion o( a state o( a((airs+ a mere )on)e&tual )ontent 8#tevenson+ 3@AA+ &, 5369, $hese 'ords are >ethi)al?: the% have a >magneti)? e((e)t 8#tevenson+ 3@7B+ &, 3C9+ an im&erative (or)e+ a tenden)% to in(luen)e the interlo)utorDs de)isions 8#tevenson+ 3@7B+ &&, 3E-3@9, In the modern &s%)hologi)al
Mohammed+ 1,+ F Le'iGs2i+ M, 8Eds,9, .irtues of Argumentation* (roceedings of t,e %&t, International /onference of t,e 0ntario 1ociet2 for t,e 1tud2 of Argumentation (011A)3 ## #$ 4a2 #&%5* Windsor+ O": O##A+ &&, 3-3B,

terminolog%+ 'e )an sa% that there terms )arr% >emotional valen)e? 8Fri*da F Mes;uita+ 5666+ &, A@9: at the same time+ the% &resu&&ose and trigger a value *udgment that )an lead to an emotion, In &oliti)s and other domains o( human )ommuni)ation+ these terms &la% a )ru)ial role 8#)hia&&a+ 5667H Zare(s2%+ 566A9, $he% )hange the evaluation o( a state o( a((airs+ and modi(% the interlo)utorDs attitudes and )hoi)es )on)erning it, $he% hide the )om&le.it% o( a *udgment on a )om&le. entit% or event+ &roviding the hearer 'ith a &re&a)2aged suggested evaluation+ an allegedl% o-*e)tive re&resentation &ointing out onl% s&e)i(i) ethi)al 8or rather evaluative9 dimensions, $hese &o'er(ul instruments o( &ersuasion raise &ro-lems that e.)eed the domain o( rhetori) and argumentation+ -ut that are )ru)ial (or understanding the me)hanism o( the rhetori)al e((e)t that the% trigger, Ho' )an a 'ord -e emotive< Ho' )an value *udgments -e related to emotions< Wh% are emotions used to a((e)t de)isions< $he ans'ers to these ;uestions need to -e sear)hed (or in the anal%sis o( the )om&le. stru)ture o( emotions and the reasoning me)hanisms that have -een investigated under the la-el o( >heuristi)s? or >&eri&heral &ro)esses? 8Iett% et al,+ 566AH Iett% F a)io&&o+ 3@EC9, 5, $HE IOWER A"1 $HE 4#E# OF EMO$IVE WOR1# Atta)2ing the )om&eting &arties and &oliti)ians is a strateg% that is (re;uentl% used during the ele)tions in man% )ountries, Ho'ever+ in the 5637 Italian &residential ele)tions the num-er and the originalit% o( the atta)2s 'ere unusual, As a matter o( (a)t+ three individuals dominated the s)ene+ sho'ing an in)redi-le )reativit% in (orging ne' e&ithets (or de&i)ting their 8&ossi-le9 rivals in a negative manner: Be&&e !rillo+ leader o( the Movimento J #telle+ #ilvio Berlus)oni+ the &oliti)ian 'ho ruled the )ountr% (or the last 3E %ears+ and Mario Monti+ the outgoing &rime minister, While the &oliti)al )am&aign o( !rillo 'as )entered on &u-li) s&ee)hes+ organi:ed as &olemi) and )omi) sho's+ Berlus)oni heavil% relied on advertisements and &rograms on the several mass media o( his &ro&ert% 8$V )hannels+ ne's&a&ers+ maga:inesK9 and ads sent -% ordinar% mail, Finall%+ Monti did not organi:e a massive &oliti)al )am&aign+ -ut rather released intervie's in 'hi)h he e.&lained his &rogram, $he )ommuni)ation ta)ti)s o( the three &arties mirror the t%&e o( strateg% ado&ted+ and the t%&e o( et,os+ or rather )ommuni)ative )hara)ter+ o( the &erson re&resenting them, !rillo a)ted as a )omi) a)tor and &olemi)al &u-li) s&ea2er+ de(ending his &ositions -% &ointing out the )riti)al issues o( the &oliti)al and e)onomi) -ehavior in Ital% in a (unn% and entertaining (ashion, Monti+ as a (amous &ro(essor and e)onomist+ unders)ored the e)onomi) &ro-lems o( the )ountr%+ &ro&osing a &rogram to (a)e them, Berlus)oni a)ted as the vi)tim o( a )ons&ira)% aimed at dis)rediting him and+ at the same time+ he also em-odied the &rotot%&i)al ideals o( the stereot%&i)al Italian male, $he atta)2 strategies grounded on emotive 'ords varied noti)ea-l% de&ending on the &oliti)ian, !rillo used the strateg% o( am&li(i)ation 8Luintiliani Institutio 0ratoria+ VI+ 5+ 57-76H al-oli Monte(us)o+ 566A9+ namel% the )lassi(i)ation o( an entit% or an event using indignant language 8Aristotle 6,etoric II+ 5A+ 79+ -ased on a slight mani&ulation o( )ir)umstan)es or (a)ts that are or )an -e )ommonl% a))e&ted, Luintilian illustrated this ta)ti) 'ith the e.am&le o( a dishonest man turned into a >ro--er?+ or the 5

'ounds o( another trans(ormed into a sim&le in*ur% 8Institutio 0ratoria+ VIII+ A+ 39, $he strateg% o( distorting realit% is -ased on the similarit% -et'een the altered image o( realit% and 'hat is )ommonl% regarded as real, $he e((e)tiveness o( this dialogi)al move )an -e enhan)ed -% )om-ining the distortion 'ith other )ommuni)ative ta)ti)s, !rillo e.&loits in &arti)ular one o( them+ the use o( the )omi) role, His )hara)teri:ation o( the o&&onents are (unn%+ e.aggerated+ and at the same time the% &la)e the interlo)utor in a s)enario in 'hi)h the -oundar% -et'een realit% and (i)tion is -lurred 8Me%er 5666H #mith F Voth 56659+ and lead the interlo)utor to a negative *udgment -ased on a limited dimension o( the issue, For instan)e 'e )an )onsider his des)ri&tion o( the le(t-'ing o&&onent+ Iier Luigi Bersani3:
ase 3 Bersani >is not a (as)ist, He is onl% a loser, But I a))use him o( having made arrangements 'ith (ormer (as)ists and masons (or t'ent% %ears+ sharing among them also the -ones o( this ountr%?,

In this )ase+ his atta)2 is highl% emotional and -ased on heav% e.aggerations, He uses 'ords su)h as >(as)ist? and >mason?5+ he des)ri-es him as a >loser? and de&i)ts his a)tions as >sharing the -ones o( a )ountr%?, Ho'ever+ the grounds o( his atta)2 are or )an -e shared -% the audien)e+ as Bersani dire)tl% or indire)tl% su&&orted mem-ers o( the Iarliament having strong right-'ing &ositions or )onne)tions 'ith masoni) organi:ations 8illegal in Ital%9, A similarl% )harged des)ri&tion is &rovided on the right-'ing 8Lega "ord9 &oliti)ian+ Ro-erto Maroni:
ase 5 He is a dreaming -ar-arian, He al'a%s dreams o( (ooling us,

In this )ase+ !rillo am&li(ies the &oorl% re(ined manners o( the &oliti)ian and its &art% in general+ adding a )omment on his real intentions, $he strateg% o( redu)ing a &erson to (e' ad*e)tives the negative traits allo's the audien)e to dra' an eas% value *udgment on him+ grounded on li2el% (a)ts that )an -e also un2no'n to someone in the &u-li), For instan)e+ he des)ri-es the Fiat EO+ #ergio Mar)hionne 8a (igure e.tremel% relevant (or the Italian e)onom% and em&lo%ment+ o(ten involved in &oliti)al dis)ussions9 ta2ing (or granted the (a)t that he has his residen)e in #'it:erland, In this (ashion+ !rillo de&i)ts him as a (oreigner &lunderer:
ase 7 A #'iss )iti:en 'ho 'ears a )ashmere *erse% and &ursues the &oli)% o( disintegrating the Italian industr%,

$hese des)ri&tions are e.treme and (unn%, $he% &rovide a )lear )lue (or an eas% value *udgment+ -ased on the em&hasis on (e' negative traits 8other o( his des)ri&tions involve )alling Berlus)oni >the -oun)ing d'ar(? and Monti >(ather Merrin?+ the &riest in the E.or)ist9 and the omission o( other &ositive a)hievements or ;ualities, Ho'ever+ the audien)e e.&e)ts the use o( su)h e.travagant e&ithets (rom a sho'man 2no'n (or his )omi)-&oliti)al sho's, $he (or)e and grounds o( the atta)2 are )onsidered in a t%&e o(
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Masonr% is illegal in Ital%+ and (re;uentl% related 'ith high-level )riminal organi:ations,

dialogue di((erent (rom the real one+ mar2ed -% *o2es and e.aggerations aimed at entertaining, A )om&letel% di((erent a&&roa)h )an -e (ound in MontiDs statements, He is not *o2ing at allH on the )ontrar%+ he a)ts &ursuant to his )hara)ter and his role o( e)onomist+ statesman and intelle)tual, He grounds his atta)2s+ mostl% dire)ted against Berlus)oni+ on emotional and sour des)ri&tions, For instan)e 'e )an )onsider the (ollo'ing statement7:
ase A >Berlus)oni )ontinues ma2ing &romises+ tr%ing to -u% the votes o( the Italian &eo&le 'ith the mone% o( the Italian &eo&le,? NKO A))ording to Monti+ >this )an lead to &o&ularit%+ -ut this 'ould -e a )hallenge (or a ountr% that is -asi)all% 'ithout memor%, I do not 'ant to -elieve that the Italians do not remem-er their &ast?,

Here+ Monti a))uses Berlus)oni o( -u%ing the votes o( the Italians+ and at the same time &oisons the 'ell o( his &ossi-le su&&orters+ )lassi(%ing them as >&eo&le 'ithout memor%? 8re(erring to the disastrous )onditions o( Italian e)onom% le(t -% Berlus)oniDs government9, In another intervie' he e.&li)itl% &ointed out the mismanagement o( his &rede)essor+ )laiming to -e distressed 'hen >some *a)2asses sa% that the% have le(t Ital% in good )onditions in 5633,? A $his atta)2 is aimed at arousing -oth anger against his o&&onent 8Berlus)oni is de)eiving and stealing (or his o'n interest9 and )ontem&t to'ards the su&&orters thereo( 8&eo&le 'ithout memor% are li2e &u&&ets9, $he emotion o( anger is )om-ined 'ith (ear in the (ollo'ing similitude dra'n -et'een Berlus)oni and the Iied Ii&erJ:
ase J A))ording to the outgoing &rime minister+ the &romises made -% #ilvio Berlus)oni >are similar to the Iied Ii&er o( Hamelin 'ho lures a'a% the mi)e, $he (a)t that the Italians )an -elieve to some 'ords stated -% t,at mouth reminds me o( the Iied Ii&er+ 'ho ta2es the mi)e to dro'n?+ said the &ro(essor, He admits: Berlus)oni >has alread% de)eived the Italian &eo&le three times, $he (irst time I 'as also de)eived,?

Here+ Monti unders)ores the de)eit(ul and trea)herous )hara)ter o( Berlus)oni -% des)ri-ing his &romises as aimed at >luring? the Italians to disaster and >de)eiving? them, He &oints out his un*ust and detrimental a)tions against the &eo&le to trigger anger+ 'hile the stor% o( the Iied Ii&er is intended to underline the danger through the (ear (or the &ossi-le )onse;uen)es, $he rea)tion o( Berlus)oni to this atta)2 (ollo's the )hara)ter that he &la%s+ )hara)teri:ed -% vi)timi:ation 8he is the vi)tim o( an in*usti)e and a )ons&ira)%9 and )loseness to ,is idea o( the stereot%&i)al Italian man 8aggressive+ 'omani:er+ vulgar and so))er (an9 8em&hasis added9C:
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ase C Who )laims this is a scumbagH this is an a)tion o( a scumbag+ as the s&read is something that is inde&endent (rom ever%thing, $hese are the )laims o( the le(t 'ingH these are lies+ it is not the truth?, Berlus)oni raises his voi)e and states again that >this this &art o( the cons-irac2+ as the% 'anted to )lear a government a'a% in order to &ursue the interest o( the other Euro&ean )ountries,? And then )on)erning the >&ied &i&er?: >I+ a &ied &i&er< He also deceived us+ and this is a real ,oa7 and 'e have -een all deceived, We ho&ed that this man 'ere 'hat he a&&eared to -e, Iro-a-l% he also 'ants to ta. m% >&i&e?K?

$he vulgar and ungrounded e&ithets 8in another intervie' he )alled Monti a >madman?B9 and the o((-)olor *o2e are aimed at sho'ing a resem-lan)e -et'een the -illionaire and the ordinar% man 8or at least the &rotot%&e de&i)ted -% him9, $he indignant language+ ta2ing (or granted the (alsit% o( the )laims o( a (amous e)onomist 8>these are lies?9 and a se)ret &lan o( the other Euro&ean )ountries 8>)ons&ira)%?9+ is intended to )onve% the sim&le &i)ture o( a vi)tim+ to -e s%m&athi:ed 'ith, He then re&lies to MontiDs atta)2 8'hi)h 'as a)tuall% grounded on e)onomi) (igures9 -% a))using him o( de)eiving the &eo&le, Ho'ever+ di((erent (rom MontiDs remar2s+ Berlus)oniDs )ounteratta)2 is not grounded on an% reason+ e.)e&t (or the &o&ular dissatis(a)tion 'ith the austerit% measures, In this &oliti)al de-ate also Berlus)oniDs )riminal )harges 8and )onvi)tions9 )ould have &la%ed an im&ortant role+ -ut the leader o( the right-'ing )oalition managed to &resent them as &art o( the )ons&ira)% against him 8em&hasis added9E:
ase B >$he *udges o( the )ourt o( Milan should -e tried+ as the% are ,orrible defamation mac,ines, It is a true s)andal?, $hen Berlus)oni added that Ms, Bo)assini Rthe &u-li) Irose)utorS >should -e tried (or her use o( the resour)es o( the state to set u- an ine7istent accusation*? >It is a barbarous )ountr%+ in 'hi)h one is a))used o( indire)t su&&ort to the Ma(ia onl% -e)ause one goes to a dinner, We have rea)hed a level o( sic8ness that 'e need to de(eat no'?,

With his emotive e&ithets+ Berlus)oni ta2es (or granted ungrounded (a)ts 8the *udges aim at dis)rediting honest )iti:ensH the )harges against him are (alse9 and arouses anger against 'hat he )alls the >di)tatorshi& o( the &u-li) &rose)utors,? His -latant denial o( &roved (a)ts and &revious *udgments )annot -e -ased on reasons, For this reason+ he sim&l% am&li(ies the alleged in*usti)e o( the Italian legal s%stem and minimi:es the )harges &ressed against him and his )olla-orators 8the )onne)tions 'ith Ma(ia -e)ome >dinners?9, $hese e.am&les sho' ho' emotive 'ords )an -e used as instrument (or &roviding the interlo)utor 'ith an emotional des)ri&tion+ namel% a re&resentation aimed at arousing an emotive rea)tion, $his rea)tion is inter)onne)ted 'ith a value *udgment+ in the sense that at the same it &resu&&oses su)h an evaluation and leads the interlo)utor to dra' it through the emotion, Ho'ever+ this ta)ti) is not as sim&le as it a&&ears to -e, $he three &oliti)al )hara)ters use the same instrument o( &ersuasion 'ithin di((erent more )om&le. strategies, $he emotional e&ithets 'ere a))e&ted 'ithin !rilloDs )omi) role as &art o(
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hilarious )ari)atures, MontiDs sour remar2s are grounded on his &resu&&osed and )ommonl% shared authorit% and su&erior 2no'ledge, Berlus)oni uses emotive 'ords to turn the &oliti)al )on(rontation into a street (ight+ 'here the )riti)isms against his &oliti)al (igure -e)ome atta)2s against himsel( as an ordinar% man @, His a)ting mirrors the im&ulsive and indignant rea)tion o( an un*ustl% o((ended &erson, Emotive 'ords )an have a noti)ea-le im&a)t on the audien)eDs *udgments and de)isions, In order to anal%:e their e((e)tiveness+ it is ne)essar% to ta2e into )onsideration t'o distin)t and )onne)ted dimensions o( this instrument: their logi)al (un)tion as im&li)it and )ondensed arguments+ and their rhetori)al e((e)t )onsisting in arousing emotions, 7, $HE AR!4ME"$A$IVE #$R4 $4RE OF EMO$IVE WOR1# #tevenson de(ined emotive 'ords as 'ords >that involve a 'edding o( des)ri&tive and emotive meaning >+ and have the &o'er o( dire)ting attitudes 8#tevenson+ 3@AA+ &, 5369, $hese 'ords are used to re(er to a (ragment o( realit%+ -ut at the same time the% have the tenden)% to en)ourage (uture a)tions 8#tevenson+ 3@7E+ &, A@-J69 and lead the hearer to'ards a )hange -% a((e)ting his s%stem o( interests 8#tevenson+ 3@AA+ &, 5369, $his tenden)% amounts to a dis&osition o( su)h terms to -e used to a)hieve a s&e)i(i) e((e)t+ to move the hearer and )hange his attitude to'ards a)tion, #tevensonDs a))ount )an -e anal%:ed (rom t'o distin)t &ers&e)tives, On the one hand+ it is &ossi-le to investigate the stru)ture o( the reasoning leading (rom the &redi)ation o( a 'ord to a reason to a)t, On the other hand+ it is ne)essar% to anal%:e 'hat ma2es a 'ord >magneti)? 8as #tevenson des)ri-es the emotive meaning9+ namel% strongl% en)ouraging a )ourse o( a)tion, $he (irst ste& )onsists in in;uiring into 'hat lin2s a 'ord to a &ossi-le )hoi)e+ and (or this reason 'e need to -uild on the logi)al a&&roa)hes to ethi)al *udgments 8$oulmin+ 3@J6H von Wright+ 3@C7aH 3@C7-H Hare+ 3@C7H /u&&erman+ 56659, On this vie'+ ethi)al *udgments are means to lead the interlo)utor to a)tion on the -asis o( )ommon 2no'ledge 8a )ommonl% a))e&ted rule o( -ehavior9 and )riteria o( )lassi(i)ation 8'hat is a good a)tion+ a good goal+ or more sim&l% a good )ar+ et),9, $hese t'o )om&onents are stri)tl% )om-ined 8Hare+ 3@C7+ &, 5A9:
Let us imagine a so)iet% 'hi)h &la)es a negative value u&on industr%H there seem to -e su)h so)ieties in the 'orld+ in 'hi)h the industrious man is regarded as a mere nuisan)e, #u)h a so)iet% )ould never 8i( it s&o2e English9 e.&ress its moral standards -% using the 'ord TindustriousT+ li2e us+ (or )ommending &eo&le+ onl% 'ith a totall% di((erent des)ri&tive meaningUi,e, )ommending them (or totall% di((erent ;ualities+ (or e.am&le that o( doing as little 'or2 as &ossi-le, I( the% did that+ 'e should sa% that the% had )hanged the meaning o( the English 'ord TindustriousT, $he des)ri&tive meaning o( TindustriousT is mu)h too (irml% atta)hed to the 'ord (or this sort o( thing to -e allo'edH these &eo&le 'ould -e mu)h more li2el% to use the 'ord in its normal des)ri&tive meaning+ -ut neutrall% or &e*orativel%H i,e, to give it no+ or an adverse+ &res)ri&tive meaning,

1e&ending on 'hat is )onsidered to -e desira-le (or a given )ommunit%+ the )lassi(i)ation o( a state o( a((airs+ an a)tion or a -ehavior as >good? varies, $his
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$his ta)ti) 'as also used 'hen he e.&lained he some o&en )riti)isms to his &oliti)s as atta)2s (rom the su&&orters o( Vuventus 8>the% must -e su&&orters o( VuventusW?9+ the rival o( the team he o'ns,

&ers&e)tive is rooted in the Aristotelian ethi)al s%stem+ 'hi)h regards ever% de)isions as al'a%s aimed to a goal+ 'hi)h amounts to 'hat is good 8or -etter9+ or 'hat a&&ears to -e good 8or -etter9 8Nicomac,ean Et,ics 3337a 3J9+ >(or ever%thing aims at the good? 8the desira-le+ XYZY[\]9 89o-ics 33Ca+ 3EH see Burn%eat+ 3@E6+ &, E79, $his a))ount unders)ores the )ru)ial im&ortan)e o( the &rin)i&les o( in(eren)e 8s&e)i(i) loci9 that 'e use to *udge something as desira-le or more desira-le+ or+ on the )ontrar%+ undesira-le or more undesira-le 86,etoric+ 37C5- 5-3E9, $ogether 'ith the ideal and &hiloso&hi)al &rin)i&les o( value *udgments+ -ased on 'hat shall -e )onsidered as &ro&er (or the nature o( man+ Aristotle &rovides more &ra)ti)al+ or rather rhetori)al+ )riteria+ grounded on 'hat is usuall% the )ase among &eo&le, On this vie'+ values+ or &rin)i&les o( )hoi)e+ are stru)tured in hierar)hies 8Ierelman F Ol-re)hts-$%te)a+ 3@J39 de&ending on a manDs )ulture and &ersonal dis&ositions:
Further+ a man o( a given dis&osition ma2es )hie(l% (or the )orres&onding things: lovers o( vi)tor% ma2e (or vi)tor%+ lovers o( honour (or honour+ mone%-loving men (or mone%+ and so 'ith the rest, $hese+ then+ are the sour)es (rom 'hi)h 'e must derive our means o( &ersuasion a-out !ood and 4tilit%, 86,etoric 37C7- 3-J9 In the same 'a% also it is in )ertain &la)es honoura-le to sa)ri(i)e oneTs (ather+ e,g, among the $ri-alli+ 'hereas+ a-solutel%+ it is not honoura-le, Or &ossi-l% this ma% indi)ate a relativit% not to &la)es -ut to &ersons: (or it is all the same 'herever the% ma% -e: (or ever%'here it 'ill -e held honoura-le among the $ri-alli themselves+ *ust -e)ause the% are $ri-alli, Again+ at )ertain times it is a good thing to ta2e medi)ines+ e,g, 'hen one is ill+ -ut it is not so a-solutel% 89o-ics 33J- 3@-5B9,

lassi(%ing a state o( a((airs or an entit% as >good? or >-ad?+ or rather >desira-le? or >undesira-le? de&ends on )onsiderations a-out the nature o( the thing itsel(+ -ut also on the &ur&ose in relation to 'hi)h a thing is regarded as good or -ad, For instan)e+ a man )an )onsider a 2ni(e as good+ as it )uts 'ell+ 'hile another )an )onsider it as -ad+ as it is dangerous or not ni)e 8von Wright+ 3@C7a9, On this &ers&e)tive+ values )an -e thought o( as the reasons (or )lassi(%ing something as desira-le or not+ and at the same reasons (or a)tion, B% &ointing out the ;ualities o( a )ourse o( a)tion+ an event or an o-*e)t 2no'n to (all 'ithin the )ategories o( the interlo)utorDs >desira-le or undesira-le things?+ the s&ea2er )an &rovide him 'ith a reason to a)t in a s&e)i(i) (ashion, $his &ro)ess o( reasoning is t'o(old, On the one hand+ the s&ea2er needs to )lassi(% a state o( a((airs as (alling 'ithin a value, On the other hand+ the desira-ilit% o( a state o( a((airs triggers a &attern o( reasoning leading a de)ision to a)t, $he (irst t%&e o( reasoning )an -e des)ri-ed as a &assage (rom the )ommitment to a s&e)i(i) a-stra)t goal 8honest% shall -e &raisedMsought a(ter9 to the )ommitment to a s&e)i(i) one 8this man shall -e &raisedMsu&&orted9, $his trans(er o( )ommitments )an -e thought o( as a &assage (rom some ;ualities o( the state o( a((airs to its )lassi(i)ation a))ording to a value+ and another+ &ro)eeding (rom values+ (rom the )ommitment to an a-stra)t desire to a )on)rete one, $he (irst ste& )an -e re&resented 'ith the (ollo'ing s)heme 8Walton+ Reed F Ma)agno+ 566E+ &, 73@9: Argumentation s)heme 3: Argument (rom )lassi(i)ation

For instan)e+ i( a man ruins 'illingl% his o'n )ountr%+ he 'ill -e )lassi(ied as >evil? or >)ontem&ti-le?+ 'hile i( someone (ights (or im&roving it+ he )an -e )lassi(ied as >honora-le?, $he &assage (rom the instantiation o( a value to the s&e)i(i) )ommitment )on)erning it )an -e re&resented as (ollo's 8Walton+ Reed F Ma)agno+ 566E+ &, 7539: Argumentation s)heme 5: Argument (rom Values

On this vie'+ i( >honor? is &raise-'orth% 8)ontem&ti-le9+ also this s&e)i(i) man is &raise'orth% 8)ontem&ti-le9, $he se)ond )om&onent o( ethi)al reasoning is the &assage (rom moral *udgment to a)tion, $he de)ision-ma2ing &ro)ess )an -e thought o( as a &attern o( reasoning )onne)ting a desired a)tion+ or rather a ^de)laration o( intention_ or )ommitment to -ringing a-out a state o( a((airs 8von Wright+ 3@B5+ &, A39 'ith its grounds 8Ans)om-e+ 3@@E+ &, 339, A s&ea2er )an reason in t'o distin)t (ashions 8von Wright+ 3@C7-+ &, 3C3H 3@C7a+ h, VIII9, $he (irst reasoning is (rom a )ommitment to -ring a-out a s&e)i(i) state o( a((airs to the )ommitment to the &rodu)tive or ne)essar% means to -ring it a-out 8'hat A-elard 'ould )all the )onsensus+ i,e, the de)ision to engage in a s&e)i(i) 8good or -ad9 a)tivit%+ aimed at &ursuing a s&e)i(i) 8good or -ad9 goal+ see A-aelardi Et,ica+ C7C A9: Argumentation s)heme 7: Ira)ti)al reasoning

A))ording to this t%&e o( reasoning+ i( m% &ur&ose is to su&&ort a s&e)i(i) honora-le )andidate+ I )an )hoose among di((erent )ourses o( a)tion+ su)h as voting (or him or &romoting his ideas among voters+ and so on, A di((erent t%&e o( reasoning &ro)eeds (rom an a)tion 'hi)h is the ne)essar% or &rodu)tive )ause o( a desira-le or undesira-le state o( a((airs, We )an re&resent this t%&e o( reasoning as the argument (rom )onse;uen)es 8(rom Walton+ Reed F Ma)agno+ 566E+ &, 7759: Argumentation s)heme A: Argument (rom )onse;uen)es

For instan)e+ i( m% )hoi)e o( voting (or a )ertain &art% su&&orts the nomination o( a )ontem&ti-le &erson+ I 'ill not vote (or su)h a &art% 8ne)essar% )ause9, On the )ontrar%+ i( m% su&&ort to a )ertain &art% results in an honora-le &erson -eing ele)ted+ I 'ill vote (or it, $hese &atterns o( reasoning need also to ta2e into )onsideration the so-)alled (oreseea-le )onse;uen)es 8von Wright+ 3@C7a+ h, C9, M% goal o( having m% ta.es redu)ed )an -e goodH ho'ever+ i( the &rodu)tive )ause thereo( also results in e)onomi) &ro-lems (or the )ountr% or the ele)tion o( a &erson un(it to govern the state in 'hi)h I live+ I 'ill -e &ursuing an unreasona-le goal 8I )hoose a hierar)hi)all% in(erior value over the su&erior one9, $his stru)ture o( reasoning that )an mirror the ;uasi-logi)al d%nami) e((e)t o( emotive 'ords is )om&le. and re;uires a noti)ea-le e((ort+ in addition to in(ormation that a sim&le )lassi(i)ation )annot &rovide, Ho'ever+ the ideal rationalit% is o(ten ;uite di((erent (rom realit%, Aristotle &ointed out that desira-le )an also -e 'hat >a&&ears? to -e good, $he )ru)ial (or)e o( emotive 'ords lies in this su-tle di((eren)e+ 'hi)h dra's the distin)tion -et'een s%stemati) 8or )entral9 and heuristi) 8or &eri&heral9 reasoning, In order to anal%:e this other evaluative and de)isional &ro)ess 'e need to investigate the se)ond dimension o( emotive 'ords &ointed out a-ove+ namel% reason 'h% the% are >emotive?, A, EMO$IO"# A"1 WOR1# @

Wh% are some 'ords emotive< Ho' )an an instrument that re&resents )on)e&ts+ )ommonl% used to re(er to realit%+ -ring a-out an emotional state< A &ossi-le ans'er )an -e (ound in the )ognitivist a&&roa)hes to emotions, $hese studies (o)us on the rational+ or rather )on)e&tual+ dimension o( emotions+ sho'ing ho' the% are stri)tl% inter'oven 8Iugmire+ 3@@E+ &, B9, For instan)e+ an emotion o( >(ear? &resu&&oses a value *udgment on 'hat is (eared, I( it is not )onsidered as undesira-le and &ro-a-le+ it )annot -e (eared 8Leighton+ 3@EE+ &, 56JH Ben ZeDev+ 5666+ &, ABJ9, #imilarl%+ anger involves the &er)e&tion o( an o((en)e against the sel(, Emotions &resu&&ose a s&e)i(i) evaluation o( a state o( a((airs or entit%+ 'hi)h ma2es them essentiall% di((erent (rom (eelings 81e #ousa+ 3@EB9, $o (eel an emotion )orres&onds to im&li)itl% a&&raise a state o( a((airs 8#olomon+ 5667+ &&, B-E9:
NKO emotions are interestingl% similar to -elie(s, We )an no' e.&lain this similarit% -% )laiming that emotions are *udgments = normative and o(ten moral *udgments, >I am angr% at Vohn (or ta2ing 8>stealing? -egs the ;uestion9 m% )ar? entails that I -elieve that Vohn has someho' 'ronged me NKO, $he moral *udgment entailed -% anger is not a *udgment a-out m% anger NKO, M% anger is that *udgment, I( I do not -elieve that I have someho' -een 'ronged+ I )annot -e angr% 8though I might -e u&set+ or sad9, #imilarl%+ i( I )annot &raise m% lover+ I )annot -e in love 8though I might 'ant her or need her+ 'hi)h+ traditional 'isdom aside+ is entirel% di((erent9, I( I do not (ind m% situation a'2'ard+ I )annot -e ashamed or em-arrassed, I( I do not *udge that I have su((ered a loss+ I )annot -e sad or *ealous, NKO emotions in general do a&&ear to re;uire this (eature: to have an emotion is to hold a normative *udgment a-out oneDs situation

Emotions )an -e de(ined -% )onsidering their a&&raisal )om&onent and their a)tion tenden)% 8Iugmire+ 566J+ &, 3CH /eltner F Lerner+ 5636+ &, 75A9, $he (irst )om&onent )orres&onds to the >evaluative *udgments o( 'hether an event is good or -ad and 'hether &eo&leDs )urrent a)tions and environment )orres&ond to their &ersonal goals and e.&e)tations? 8/eltner F Lerner+ 5636+ &, 73J9, $he se)ond )om&onent is the organi:ing &rin)i&le that motivates s&e)i(i) -ehaviors or rea)tions, For instan)e+ the emotion o( (ear 'ill result in a tenden)% to (lee or redu)e un)ertaint%+ 'hile anger 'ill lead the agent to restore *usti)e, $he value *udgment 8or rather the )ognitive )hange9 is the reason (or a &h%si)al and &s%)hi)al rea)tion that )an drive us to a)tion 8Fri*da F Mes;uita+ 5666+ &, AC9, $he relationshi& -et'een value *udgments and emotions highlights another im&ortant )hara)teristi) o( emotional a&&raisal+ i,e, its )ultural de&enden)e 8/eltner F Lerner+ 5636+ &, 75B9, As emotions are grounded on value *udgments+ and values are &la)ed in hierar)hies that de&end on the )ulture and the individual dis&osition+ emotions are also in(luen)ed -% )ulture 8#mith F La:arus+ 3@@6+ &, C5B9, An individualDs &ast e.&erien)es -e)ome )riteria (or evaluating a state o( a((airs as good or not 81amasio+ 3@@A+ &, 5AC9, Ho'ever+ )ulture em-odies the e.&erien)es o( a )ommunit%+ and in this (ashion &rovides the )riteria (or the evaluative *udgment 8see Fri*da F Mes;uita+ 3@@E9, On this &ers&e)tive+ an emotion is in &art )ulture-de&endent+ as it is >a s%stem o( )on)e&ts+ -elie(s+ attitudes+ and desires+ virtuall% all o( 'hi)h are )onte.t--ound+ histori)all% develo&ed+ and )ulture-s&e)i(i)? 8#olomon+ 5667+ &, EB9, $he same a)tion or (a)t )an -e )onsidered as o((ensive in one )ulture 8and trigger anger9 and not-o((ensive in another 8Fri*da F Mes;uita+ 5666+ &&, J@-C39,

36

$he stri)t relationshi& -et'een value *udgments+ )ulture and emotion is the ground o( the rhetori)al )onstru)tion o( emotions+ in 'hi)h emotive 'ords &la% an essential role, Luintilian unders)ored the (un)tion that the >vivid re&resentation? has in dis)ourse 8see also the notion o( >vividness e((e)t? des)ri-ed -% Fri*da+ 3@@E+ &, 5BC9, $he orator should am&li(% some details o( a state o( a((airs to add >additional (or)e to things un*ust+ )ruel or hate(ul?+ so that he )an a'a2en >emotions 'hi)h either do not naturall% arise (rom the )ase or are stronger than the )ase 'ould suggest? 8Institutio 0ratoria+ VI+ 5+ 5C-769, Words )an -e used to de&i)t a s)ene that resem-les realit%+ or that is similar to a situation related 'ith the audien)eDs e.&erien)es and memories, $he li2eliness o( the image triggers an immediate value *udgment+ resulting in an emotion 8Institutio 0ratoria+ VI+ 5+ 5@-739:
But ho' are 'e to generate these emotions in ourselves+ sin)e emotion is not in our o'n &o'er< I 'ill tr% to e.&lain as -est I ma%, $here are )ertain e.&erien)es 'hi)h the !ree2s )all `YaXYbcYd+ and the Romans visions+ 'here-% things a-sent are &resented to our imagination 'ith su)h e.treme vividness that the% seem a)tuall% to -e -e(ore our ver% e%es, It is the man 'ho is reall% sensitive to su)h im&ressions 'ho 'ill have the greatest &o'er over the emotions, #ome 'riters des)ri-e the &ossessor o( this &o'er o( vivid imagination+ 'here-% things+ 'ords and a)tions are &resented in the most realisti) manner+ -% the !ree2 'ord e]`YaXYbcfX\gH and it is a &o'er 'hi)h all ma% readil% a);uire i( the% 'ill, NKO I am )om&laining that a man has -een murdered, #hall I not -ring -e(ore m% e%es all the )ir)umstan)es 'hi)h it is reasona-le to imagine must have o))urred in su)h a )onne.ion< #hall I not see the assassin -urst suddenl% (rom his hiding&la)e+ the vi)tim trem-le+ )r% (or hel&+ -eg (or mer)%+ or turn to run< #hall I not see the (atal -lo' delivered and the stri)2en -od% (all< Will not the -lood+ the deathl% &allor+ the groan o( agon%+ the death-rattle+ -e indeli-l% im&ressed u&on m% mind<

$hese 'ords and des)ri&tions do not sim&l% in(orm us, $he% ma2e us e.&erien)e a s&e)i(i) emotion+ something 'e )an &er)eive as real+ an >a&&arent realit%? that is &resent to our senses and 'e )annot dou-t o( 8Fri*da F Mes;uita+ 5666+ &, C@H lore F !as&er+ 5666+ &, 5C9, $he audien)e )annot dou-t o( the anger that it (eels against the mer)iless assassin des)ri-ed -% Luintilian, For this reason+ his deeds+ his )ruelt%+ his hate(ulness are a&&arentl% real, On this &ers&e)tive+ emotive 'ords )an -e used to >instill -elie(s?, B% &roviding the audien)e 'ith an emotional re&resentation o( a &erson+ a grou& or an issue+ it is &ossi-le to arouse an emotion+ and in this (ashion give the interlo)utor something more &o'er(ul than sheer in(ormation or truth: the sensation or the a&&earan)e o( truth, 1e&i)ting individuals+ grou&s+ or issues (rom an emotional &ers&e)tive or as a)tors in emotional events evo2es emotions+ and the emotions instill the -elie( )onstituting its a&&raisal dimension into the hearers 8Fri*da F Mes;uita+ 5666+ &, AB9, $he grammar o( emotions -e)omes the grammar o( the emotive 'ords, When !rillo )alls Ren:i+ a le(t 'ing &oliti)ian+ >little moron? and Bersani 8the leader o( the le(t 'ing )oalition9 >a loser that has shared 'ith masons and e. (as)ists the -ones o( Ital%?+ he is not sim&l% telling *o2es, His (irst des)ri&tion is aimed at de&i)ting Ren:i as an in(erior+ triggering )ontem&t+ namel% the emotion e.&ressing >the su-*e)tTs su&eriorit% over the o-*e)t? 8Ben ZeDev+ 5666+ &, 7@69, $he se)ond (unn% )hara)teri:ation )om-ines the *udgment o( BersaniDs in(eriorit% 'ith his allegedl% un*ust and evil a)tions+ arousing anger and )ontem&t at the same time, Berlus)oni does the same 'hen des)ri-es Monti as a >s)um-ag? or a >madman?+ or 'hen atta)2s the *udges -% )alling them >de(amation 33

ma)hines? or di)tators, MontiDs image o( the Iied Ii&er &rovides a strongl% emotional re&resentation o( the alleged dangers in 'hi)h the Italians are running+ a'a2ening (ear, As seen a-ove+ emotive 'ords are im&li)it arguments and instruments (or arousing emotions, Ho'ever+ 'hat ma2es emotive 'ords so &o'er(ul in redire)ting attitudes and )hoi)es< Ho' )an the rational dimension o( emotions a((e)t the rational assessment o( a state o( a((airs< A &ossi-le e.&lanation )an -e (ound in the anal%sis o( the 2ind o( reasoning that emotions trigger, J, EMO$IO"# A"1 IERIIHERAL REA#O"I"! Emotions )an -e instrument (or instilling -elie(s, $he% )reate an a&&arent realit%+ something that 'e &er)eive as real even i( it is not, When 'e (ear a &erson that de)eived the )iti:ens+ 'e strengthen or )ommit ourselves to that -elie(, When 'e (eel )ontem&t (or a leader+ 'e are led to hold his in(eriorit% as true+ even i( no eviden)e is &rovided, When 'e hate the o((i)ers o( a &u-li) institution+ 'e do not need (urther &roo(s to *udge their a)tions as un*ust, Emotions &rovide us 'ith a &i)ture o( realit% that is more li2el% than the one su&&orted -% data and &roo(s, $he reasoning triggered -% emotions 'as )learl% des)ri-ed -% Luintilian, On his vie'+ the orator should am&li(% a des)ri&tion to arouse a &assion+ -e)ause &assions trigger a (orm o( reasoning that is di((erent (rom the s%stemati) one, $he *udge+ 'hen over)ome -% &assions+ >a-andons all attem&ts to en;uire into the truth o( the arguments+ is s'e&t along -% the tide o( &assion+ and %ields himsel( un;uestioning to the torrent? 8Institutio 0ratoria+ VI+ 5+ C9, Emotions+ as seen a-ove+ &resu&&ose and &rovide the agent 'ith an a&&earan)e o( realit%+ an a&&raisal that is not the result o( a )are(ul assessment+ -ut the out)ome o( an immediate and sim&li(ied &er)e&tion+ an intera)tion -et'een the individualDs )on)erns and the o-*e)t 8 lore F !as&er+ 5666+ &, 769, Emotions ma2e us *um& to )on)lusion+ trigger generali:ations -ased on single e.&erien)es 8Fri*da F Mes;uita+ 5666+ &, JJ9+ resulting in attri-uting a single e&isodi) )hara)teristi) 8>he loo2s dangerous?9 to inner+ essential &ro&erties 8he his evil9+ or e.tending an event 8>he -ehaved -adl%?9 over time 8>he has al'a%s -een -ad?9, #u)h -elie(s are strong+ as the% are (elt+ and >'hat is &resent to the senses )annot easil% -e dou-ted to e.ist? 8Fri*da F Mes;uita+ 5666+ &, CB9, For this reason+ emotional *udgments are hast%+ -iased and automati) )on)lusions o( right and 'rong 81amasio+ 3@@AH !reene F Haidt+ 56659+ in the sense that the% are not grounded on a su((i)ient assessment o( the in(ormation availa-le+ nor )an the% -e easil% re-utted -% more lu)id and )are(ul thoughts 8/eltner F Lerner+ 5636+ &, 7739, $his (ast a&&raisal triggers an immediate a)tion tenden)%+ a sudden de)ision to a)t in )on(ormit% 'ith the emotion e.&erien)ed 8Loe'enstein F Lerner+ 56679, $his )om-ination o( hast% and -iased *udgment and de)ision-ma2ing attitude )hara)teri:es the emotional thin2ing 8Fri*da F Mes;uita+ 5666+ &, CA9:
Emotion-steered thin2ing sho's (our (eatures that ma% hel& e.&lain its in(luen)e u&on -elie(s, $he (irst is instrumentalit%, We entertain thoughts that might hel& to a)hieve our emotional goals+ and -e)ause the% might hel&, Emotional thin2ing tries to solve the &ro-lems &osed -% the emotional &redi)ament, $he se)ond is motivational (or)e, $he more urgent our goals+ the greater the in)lination to do 'hat ma% hel& to rea)h them+ in)luding thought, Emotional thin2ing is driven -% emotional urge, $he third is )ontrol o( the s)o&e o( thought, Emotional thin2ing is loath to 'aste time and energ% -% attending

35

to irrelevant detail or indulging in )om&le. in(eren)ing, $he (ourth (eature is motivated -ias, Emotional thin2ing is -iased to'ards -elie(s that su&&ort oneTs emotional aims+ and to'ards retrieving or generating in(ormation that does,

Emotional thin2ing is e.tremel% &o'er(ul -e)ause it re;uires little &ro)essing e((ort -% the agent, He has not to )are(ull% evaluate all the eviden)e )on)erning )om&le. issues and s%ntheti:e itH a momentar% (eeling )an trigger em&iri)al generali:ations+ leading to strong and &ersistent value *udgments 8/eltner F Lerner+ 5636+ &, 7739, Emotional reasoning has -een anal%:ed as di((erent (rom the >)entral? or s%stemati) t%&e o( reasoning+ 'hi)h re;uires e((ort+ time and in(ormation 8 hen F hai2en+ 3@@@9, Emotions &rovide the individual 'ith easil% a))essi-le in(ormation+ namel% mental )ontents that immediatel% )ome to mind 8/ahneman+ 5667+ &, C@@H B6C9, $hese a))essi-le )ontents+ )onstituted -% &rotot%&es+ stereot%&es 8namel% generali:ations a))essi-le -e)ause o( their emotional valen)e9 or )hanges a((e)ting oneDs emotions s&are the individual the e((ort to &ro)ess in(ormation and result in an eas%+ heuristi) *udgment 8/ahneman+ 5667+ &, B3C9, For instan)e+ the similarit% o( an o-*e)t 'ith a &rotot%&e results in similar *udgment 8/ahneman+ 56679H the similarit% -et'een t'o emotional e.&erien)es results in a *udgment on the similarit% o( the situations or o-*e)ts triggering them 8 lore F !as&er+ 5666+ &, 5CH Iett% et al*+ 566A+ &, EC9, $his (ast and eas% t%&e o( reasoning has -een )alled as &eri&heral or heuristi) route to &ersuasion 8Iett% et al*+ 566JH hen F hai2en+ 3@@@9, Instead o( assessing a &oliti)al leader -ased on his a)hievements+ re)ords+ or values+ 'hi)h 'ould result in great e((ort+ a &erson ma% resort to a mu)h less )om&le. *udgment+ grounded on a >heuristi) attri-ute that )omes more readil% to mind? 8/ahneman+ 5667+ &, B6B9, For instan)e+ the attri-utes o( -eing a >madman?+ a >s)um-ag?+ a >moron?+ a >di)tator?+ a >-ar-arian? or a >&ied &i&er? )ome easil% to mind+ as the% have triggered an emotional res&onse, Even 'hen su)h attri-utes are )om&letel% irrelevant 8>s)um-ag?9 or utterl% (alse 8>di)tator?+ >madman?9+ the% &rovide us 'ith a )riterion+ a &eri&heral route to *udgment, #ometimes emotive 'ords are needed in order to summari:e in a )ondensed argument and &rin)i&le o( heuristi) reasoning more )om&le. reasoning, MontiDs )hoi)e to engage in the -attle o( insults )an -e &artiall% e.&lained -% the need o( &roviding the voters 'ith an alternative route to a *udgment+ a short)ut to his )om&le. e)onomi) and &oliti)al )onsiderations, Ho'ever+ i( the a&&earan)e o( realit% is good 'hen it mirrors it+ it )an -e)ome highl% de)eit(ul 'hen )on)eals it 8Iett% et al,+ 566J+ &, 36E9:
NKO sometimes the &eri&heral route might -e the onl% strateg% &ossi-le, For e.am&le+ there are some issues or o-*e)ts (or 'hi)h there are (e' strong arguments 8e,g,+ imagine tr%ing to sell )igarettes 'ith a high tar )ontent9, It is not sur&rising that in these )ases+ ads t%&i)all% )ontain hardl% an% in(ormation a-out the merits o( the &rodu)t 8-e)ause there are none or ver% (e'9 and instead )ontain attra)tive endorsers or ma*esti) s)ener%,

When arguments su&&orting honest% or )orre)tness )annot -e &rovided+ 'hen *udgments -ased on &ast re)ords )annot -e suggested+ 'hen reasons (or -elieving that a )andidate is )redi-le or is a)ting (or the good o( )ountr% )annot -e (ound+ the onl% resort is to ta2e the other route, In this )ase emotive 'ords are no longer &re-&a)2aged reasoning+ -ut mas2s+ instruments (or de)eiving, Moreover+ the e((e)t o( these emotional e&ithets )an -e devastating on the other route+ the rational one 8Loe'enstein F Lerner+ 56679, $he )entral and s%stemati) &ro)ess )an -e a((e)ted -% various varia-les 8Iett% et al*+ 566J9, 37

Emotive 'ords )an inhi-it the )entral and more e((ort-re;uiring t%&e o( reasoning and trigger the other+ (ast and -iased+ &ro)ess 8 lore F !as&er+ 5666+ &, 769:
On)e an emotion is e.&erien)ed+ the s%stem no longer o&erates as a s)ientist+ )are(ull% 'eighing the &ros and )ons o( the -elie( im&lied -% the emotion, Instead+ the emotional &erson a)ts li2e a &rose)utor or a de(ense la'%er see2ing -% an% means to (ind eviden)e (or the -elie(, Iresuma-l%+ the e.&eriential as&e)t o( the emotion is itsel( res&onsi-le (or this &ro)ess o( interru&ting the (lo'+ &roviding in(ormation+ and+ through asso)iated -elie(s+ guiding attention,

Wea2 arguments are &er)eived as stronger 'hen the attention needed (or the s%stemati) &ro)essing lo'ers 8Iett% et al*+ 566A9, On this &ers&e)tive+ emotive 'ords are instruments o( de)ision ma2ing that )an -e e.tremel% e((e)tive, Ho'ever+ *ust li2e all &o'er(ul instruments+ the% )an -e also e.tremel% dangerous, $he (ragment o( realit% that the% -ring to the interlo)utorDs attention+ the a&&arent realit% that the% &rovide )an -e a s%nthesis or a mas2, Emotive 'ords )an &rovide a s%m-oli)+ summari:ed reason (or a )on)lusion+ -ut at the same time the% )an a)t as strategies (or &revent a )are(ul assessment o( a situation, learl%+ 'hen the eviden)e that su)h 'ords are sim&l% lies or e.aggerations is too )lear+ the strateg% itsel( ris2s turning against the s&ea2er, For this reason+ other ta)ti)s are used to &revent &ossi-le )riti)isms or in)rease the -urden o( an atta)2, !rillo a)ts in a )omi) environment+ 'here e.aggerations are regarded as instruments (or triggering humor and entertainment, A))using him o( distorting realit% 'ith his e&ithets 'ould -e li2e a))using him o( -eing entertaining, Berlus)oni &la%s -et'een t'o roles+ a)ting as a light-hearted and mundane entertainer and a serious &oliti)ian a))ording to his )ommuni)ative &ur&oses, Moreover+ -% turning &oliti)al atta)2s into a (ight o( &ersonal insults and &la%ing the indignant and angr% role+ he manages to shi(t a de-ate into a ;uarrel+ t'isting the intentions o( his o&&onents, C, O" L4#IO" In the late-medieval diale)ti)al theor%+ (alla)ies 'ere des)ri-ed a))ording to t'o )riteria: their reason (or the sem-lan)e+ the &lausi-le a&&earan)e that ma2es the &eo&le assent to the argument+ and a reason (or the (ailure+ (or their -eing 'ea2 or invalid 8/ret:mann+ /enn% F Iin-org+ 3@E5+ &, 35A9, Emotive 'ords &rovide an a&&earan)e o( realit%+ a &er)e&tion o( a state o( a((airs that ma2es them instruments (or easil% dra'ing a value *udgment in )onditions o( la)2 o( time+ resour)es or in(ormation, Ho'ever+ the same sem-lan)e o( realit% )an -e used to re&la)e it 'ith a distorted image+ and lead the interlo)utor to a *udgment -ased on irrelevant or (alse attri-utes, $he inner rationalit% o( these 'ords (ades a'a% 'hen &eri&heral thin2ing ta2es the &la)e o( the s%stemati) one, Emotive 'ords are &o'er(ul and dangerous instruments+ -oth (or the audien)e and (or the s&ea2er, For this reason+ the% are o(ten )om-ined 'ith side ta)ti)s that leave unaltered their rhetori)al 8&ersuasive9 e((e)t 'hile a((e)ting their diale)ti)al and dialogi)al (or)e, A )omi) a)tor )annot -e a))used o( e.aggerating or -eing irrelevant+ an angr% man )annot -e -lamed (or -eing aggressive or voi)ing his &ersonal o&inions 8even i( &u-li)all% and 'hen a)ting as a &u-li) (igure9,

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A /"OWLE1!EME"$#: $he author 'ould li2e to than2 the Iortuguese Fundahio &ara a ijn)ia e $e)nologia (or the resear)h grant on >Argumentahio+ omuni)ahio e onte.to? 8I$1 MFIL-FILM33633BM566@9,
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Iett%+ R, E,+ Ru)2er+ 1,+ Bi:er+ !,+ F a)io&&o+ V,$, 8566A9, $he ela-oration li2elihood model o( &ersuasion, In V, #, #eiter F !, H, !ass 8Eds,9+ (ers-ectives on -ersuasion3 social influence and com-liance gaining 8&&, CJ-E@9,Boston: All%n F Ba)on, Iett%+ R,+ a)io&&o+ V,+ F #trathman+ A, F, Iriester+ I, 8566J9, $o thin2 or not to thin2< E.&loring t'o routes to &ersuasion, In $, Bro)2, F M, !reen 8Eds,9+ (ersuasion= (s2c,ological insig,ts and -ers-ectives 85nd ed,+ &&, E3-33C9, $housand Oa2s+ A: #age Iu-li)ations, Iugmire+ 1, 83@@E9, 6ediscovering emotion, Edin-urgh: Edin-urgh 4niversit% Iress, Iugmire+ 1, 8566J9, 1ound 1entiments* Integrit2 in t,e Emotions, O.(ord: larendon Iress, Luintilian+ M, 83@@C9, Institutio 0ratoria, $ranslated -% H, E, Butler, am-ridge+ Mass,: Harvard 4niversit% Iress, #)hia&&a+ E+ 856679, Defining 6ealit2* Definitions and t,e (olitics of 4eaning , ar-ondale and Ed'ardsville: #outhern Illinois 4niversit% Iress, #mith+ ,+ F La:arus+ R, 83@@69, Emotion and Ada&tation, In L, Iervin 8Ed,9+ <andboo8 of (ersonalit2= t,eor2 & researc, 8&&, C6@-C7B9, "0: !uil(ord Iress, #mith+ ,+ F Voth+ B, 856659, $he role o( humor in &oliti)al argument: Ho' k#trateger%k and kLo)2-o.esk )hanged a &oliti)al )am&aign, Argumentation and advocac2+ 7@+ 336-35@, #olomon+ R, 856679, Not (assionBs 1lave, "e' 0or2: O.(ord 4niversit% Iress, #tevenson+ , 83@7B9, $he Emotive Meaning o( Ethi)al $erms, 4ind+ AC+ 3A-73, #tevenson+ , 83@7E9, Ethi)al Vudgments and Avoida-ilit%. 4ind+ AB 83EJ9+ AJ-JB, #tevenson+ , 83@AA9, Et,ics and Language* "e' Haven: 0ale 4niversit% Iress, $oulmin+ #, 83@J69, An E7amination of t,e (lace of 6eason in Et,ics , am-ridge: am-ridge 4niversit% Iress, Von Wright+ !, 83@C7a9, 9,e varieties of goodness, London: Routledge, Von Wright+ !, 83@C7-9, Ira)ti)al In(eren)e, 9,e (,iloso-,ical 6evie:+ B5 859+ 3J@-3B@, Von Wright+ !, 83@B59, On so-)alled &ra)ti)al in(eren)e, Acta 1ociologica+ 3J+ 7@-J7, Walton+ 1,+ Reed+ ,+ F Ma)agno+ F, 8566E9, Argumentation 1c,emes, am-ridge 4niversit% Iress+ "e' 0or2, Zare(s2%+ 1, 8566A9, Iresidential Rhetori) and the Io'er o( 1e(inition, (residential 1tudies Cuarterl2+ 7A 879+ C6B-C3@,

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