October 2013 Teacher's Guide Table of Contents

About the Guide..............................................................................................3 Student Questions (from the articles ..........................................................! Ans"ers to Student Questions (from the articles .....................................# Chem$atters %u&&le' (luster for Chemists...............................................12 Ans"ers to the Chem$atters %u&&le.........................................................13 )ational Science *ducation Standards ()S*S Correlations..................1+ )e,t-Generation Science Standards ()GSS Correlations......................1# Antici.ation Guides.....................................................................................1/
Chilling Out, Warming Up: How Animals Survive Temperature Extremes............2 Wh! Col" #oesn$t Exist........................................................................................2% Sports Supplements: Help&ul or Harm&ul'.............................................................22 The (ra)*ing +evolution.......................................................................................2, -u)lear (usion: The -ext Energ! (rontier'..........................................................2. Chilling Out, Warming Up: How Animals Survive Temperature Extremes............2/ Wh! Col" #oesn$t Exist........................................................................................20 Sports Supplements: Help&ul or Harm&ul'.............................................................21 The (ra)*ing +evolution.......................................................................................22 -u)lear (usion: The -ext Energ! (rontier'..........................................................,

0ee.in1 Cool2 Sta3in1 4arm' 5o" Animals Sur6i6e Tem.erature *,tremes.......................................................................................................31

3a)*groun" 4n&ormation 5tea)her in&ormation6......................................................,% Conne)tions to Chemistr! Con)epts 5&or )orrelation to )ourse )urri)ulum6..........7% 8ossi9le Stu"ent :is)on)eptions 5to ai" tea)her in a""ressing mis)on)eptions6 72 Anti)ipating Stu"ent ;uestions 5answers to <uestions stu"ents might as* in )lass6 .............................................................................................................................. 7. 4n=)lass A)tivities 5lesson i"eas, in)lu"ing la9s > "emonstrations6.......................7. Out=o&=)lass A)tivities an" 8ro?e)ts 5stu"ent resear)h, )lass pro?e)ts6.................70 +e&eren)es 5non=We9=9ase" in&ormation sour)es6...............................................70 We9 Sites &or A""itional 4n&ormation 5We9=9ase" in&ormation sour)es6...............72

4h3 Cold 7oesn8t *,ist...............................................................................#3

3a)*groun" 4n&ormation 5tea)her in&ormation6....................................................../, Conne)tions to Chemistr! Con)epts 5&or )orrelation to )ourse )urri)ulum6..........0/ 8ossi9le Stu"ent :is)on)eptions 5to ai" tea)her in a""ressing mis)on)eptions6 00 Anti)ipating Stu"ent ;uestions 5answers to <uestions stu"ents might as* in )lass6 .............................................................................................................................. 00 4n=)lass A)tivities 5lesson i"eas, in)lu"ing la9s > "emonstrations6.......................00 Out=o&=)lass A)tivities an" 8ro?e)ts 5stu"ent resear)h, )lass pro?e)ts6.................01 +e&eren)es 5non=We9=9ase" in&ormation sour)es6...............................................02 We9 Sites &or A""itional 4n&ormation 5We9=9ase" in&ormation sour)es6...............02

S.orts Su..lements' 5el.ful or 5armful9................................................:1 1

3a)*groun" 4n&ormation 5tea)her in&ormation6......................................................1% Conne)tions to Chemistr! Con)epts 5&or )orrelation to )ourse )urri)ulum6..........20 8ossi9le Stu"ent :is)on)eptions 5to ai" tea)her in a""ressing mis)on)eptions6 21 Anti)ipating Stu"ent ;uestions 5answers to <uestions stu"ents might as* in )lass6 .............................................................................................................................. 21 4n=)lass A)tivities 5lesson i"eas, in)lu"ing la9s > "emonstrations6.......................22 Out=o&=)lass A)tivities an" 8ro?e)ts 5stu"ent resear)h, )lass pro?e)ts6.................22 +e&eren)es 5non=We9=9ase" in&ormation sour)es6...............................................22 We9 Sites &or A""itional 4n&ormation 5We9=9ase" in&ormation sour)es6.............%

The (rac;in1 <e6olution...........................................................................103

3a)*groun" 4n&ormation 5tea)her in&ormation6....................................................% , Conne)tions to Chemistr! Con)epts 5&or )orrelation to )ourse )urri)ulum6........%% 8ossi9le Stu"ent :is)on)eptions 5to ai" tea)her in a""ressing mis)on)eptions6 ............................................................................................................................ %%% Anti)ipating Stu"ent ;uestions 5answers to <uestions stu"ents might as* in )lass6 ............................................................................................................................ %%% 4n=)lass A)tivities 5lesson i"eas, in)lu"ing la9s > "emonstrations6.....................%%, Out=o&=)lass A)tivities an" 8ro?e)ts 5stu"ent resear)h, )lass pro?e)ts6...............%%. +e&eren)es 5non=We9=9ase" in&ormation sour)es6.............................................%%7 We9 Sites &or A""itional 4n&ormation 5We9=9ase" in&ormation sour)es6.............%%/

)uclear (usion' The )e,t *ner13 (rontier9............................................11/

3a)*groun" 4n&ormation 5tea)her in&ormation6....................................................%%2 Conne)tions to Chemistr! Con)epts 5&or )orrelation to )ourse )urri)ulum6........%. 8ossi9le Stu"ent :is)on)eptions 5to ai" tea)her in a""ressing mis)on)eptions6 ............................................................................................................................ %. Anti)ipating Stu"ent ;uestions 5answers to <uestions stu"ents might as* in )lass6 ............................................................................................................................ %.% 4n=)lass A)tivities 5lesson i"eas, in)lu"ing la9s > "emonstrations6.....................%.2 Out=o&=)lass A)tivities an" 8ro?e)ts 5stu"ent resear)h, )lass pro?e)ts6...............%.7 +e&eren)es 5non=We9=9ase" in&ormation sour)es6.............................................%./ We9 Sites &or A""itional 4n&ormation 5We9=9ase" in&ormation sour)es6.............%.0

About the Guide

Tea)hers @ui"e e"itors William 3leam, #onal" :)Ainne!, +onal" Tempest, an" Eri)a A. Ba)o9sen )reate" the Tea)hers @ui"e arti)le material. E=mail: 99leamCveriDon.net Susan Cooper prepare" the national s)ien)e e"u)ation )ontent, anti)ipation gui"es, an" rea"ing gui"es. #avi" Olne! )reate" the puDDle. E=mail: "?olne!CveriDon.net 8atri)e 8ages, ChemMatters e"itor, )oor"inate" pro"u)tion an" prepare" the :i)roso&t Wor" an" 8#( versions o& the Tea)hers @ui"e. E=mail: )hemmattersCa)s.org Arti)les &rom past issues o& ChemMatters )an 9e a))esse" &rom a C# that is availa9le &rom the Ameri)an Chemi)al So)iet! &or E, . The C# )ontains all ChemMatters issues &rom (e9ruar! %21, to April 2 1. The ChemMatters CD in)lu"es an 4n"ex that )overs all issues &rom (e9ruar! %21, to April 2 1. The ChemMatters C# )an 9e pur)hase" 9! )alling %=1 =220=7771.

8ur)hase in&ormation )an 9e &oun" online at www.a)s.orgF)hemmatters

Student Questions (from the articles

0ee.in1 Cool2 Sta3in1 4arm' 5o" Animals Sur6i6e Tem.erature *,tremes
%. 2. ,. Gist three wa!s )amels have a"apte" to their environment. Wh! are almost all large animals warm=9loo"e"' Explain the role that shape has in "etermining whether an animal is warm= or )ol"=9loo"e". @ive examples. .. A))or"ing to the author, how has the human spe)ies a"apte" to environmental )on"itions o& temperature' 7. Gist one "isa"vantage an" one a"vantage o& 9eing warm=9loo"e". /. Sin)e the internal temperature o& )ol"=9loo"e" animals approximates that o& their surroun"ings, how "o the! avoi" &reeDing to "eath in ver! )ol" surroun"ings' 0. Gist &our examples o& insulation in warm=9loo"e" animals. 1. Explain the )ounter)urrent heat ex)hange pro)ess. 2. How "oes sweating help a person maintain a &airl! )onstant internal 9o"! temperature when the 9o"! gets hot' % . Gist three wa!s animals maintain their 9o"! temperature in the heat.

4h3 Cold 7oesnt *,ist

%. 2. )onta)t' ,. .. 7. /. 5T=( F Explain6 All parti)les o& a su9stan)e have the same *ineti) energ!. What is the "e&inition o& temperature' -ame the three *in"s o& motion that a parti)le )an have. #es)ri9e the results o& )ollisions 9etween &aster=moving parti)les an" slower= moving parti)les. 0. What term is applie" to the situation in whi)h energ! has 9een trans&erre" &rom &aster parti)les to slower ones an" as a result the parti)les en" up traveling at the same spee"' 1. Explain wh! evaporation o& a li<ui" &rom our s*in ma*es us &eel )ooler. What happens when an i)e )u9e is a""e" to a so&t "rin*' What is the rule a9out how energ! is trans&erre" 9etween two o9?e)ts that are in

S.orts Su..lements' 5el.ful or 5armful9

%. 2. ,. .. 7. /. 0. 1. 2. What are some o& the 9ene&its )laime" on sports supplement la9els' Whi)h three &re<uentl! use" sports supplements are highlighte" in the arti)le' What is an argument &or using whe! protein pow"er' What is an argument against using whe! protein pow"er' What is an argument &or using )reatine' What is an argument against using )reatine' What is an argument &or using G=arginine' What is an argument against using G=arginine' What is some a"vi)e &or how to "e)i"e whether or not to ta*e a supplement an" whi)h sports supplements are use&ul an" sa&e'

The (rac;in1 <e6olution

What is the meaning o& the wor" &ra)*ing' What is involve" in the new te)hni<ue )alle" &ra)*ing' What are the several steps that are &ollowe" when &ra)*ing ta*es pla)e' When the &ra)*ing &lui" returns to the sur&a)e &rom a gas well, what new )hemi)als are &oun" in it 9esi"es methane gas' 7. How is &ra)*ing wastewater pro)esse" a&ter it returns to the sur&a)e &rom a well' /. 4& methane gas )ontaminates well water 5"rin*ing water6, how )an the sour)e o& the methane 9e "etermine", i.e., that it )ame &rom a natural gas well rather than &rom 9a)terial a)tion in the soil aroun" the water well' 0. What is the )on)ern a9out in?e)ting waste water &rom the &ra)*ing operations into so=)alle" in?e)tion wells' 1. 2. ,. ..

)uclear (usion' The )e,t *ner13 (rontier9

%. 2. Gist three reasons that &usion is )onsi"ere" the ultimate energ! sour)e. What &orm o& energ! "oes the &usion rea)tion pro"u)e, an" what will 9e the ultimate &orm o& energ! we use &rom the &usion rea)tion' 3. What )onstitutes su))ess in the ra)e to a)hieve &usion' .. What is 9in"ing energ!' 7. How man! protons an" neutrons "oes tritium have' /. Wh! "o s)ientists have su)h a tough time getting "euterium an" tritium nu)lei to get together to un"ergo &usion' 0. -ame the two approa)hes )urrentl! 9eing use" to )reate &usion energ!. 1. #es)ri9e the "i&&eren)e 9etween these two approa)hes. 2. What is plasma' % . How "oes the heat o& &usion 9e)ome use&ul energ!' %%. What is the "i&&eren)e 9etween the plasma in a plasma TH an" the plasma o& a &usion rea)tion'

Ans"ers to Student Questions (from the articles

0ee.in1 Cool2 Sta3in1 4arm' 5o" Animals Sur6i6e Tem.erature *,tremes
%. =ist three "a3s camels ha6e ada.ted to their en6ironment. Camels have adapted to their environment in the following ways: a. Camels have large patches of thick, leathery skin on their knees that protect them from burning their legs when they kneel on the hot sand (think, O C!" when you walk across hot sand at the beach#, b. $heir normal internal body temperature is higher than ours (%& to '() o*#, so their body temperature has to be higher before they sweat, thus minimi+ing water loss through evaporation, and c. $hey have spongy bones in their noses that absorb e,cess moisture that would normally be lost through e,haling. 4h3 are almost all lar1e animals "arm-blooded9 - large body volume makes it difficult for e,ternal heat to reach the internal body organs to warm them up. .n cold temperatures, a large cold/blooded animal would be very sluggish and would be prime prey for a warm/blooded carnivore. *,.lain the role that sha.e has in determinin1 "hether an animal is "arm- or cold-blooded. Gi6e e,am.les. 0ike si+e, shape affects whether an animal is warm/ or cold/blooded. - round body shape, e.g., a mouse, minimi+es the effect of outside temperature on internal body temperature, while a flat body shape, e.g., a fish, or a cylindrical shape1 e.g., a snake or worm, allows outside temperature to affect internal organ temperature (or vice versa# very 2uickly and efficiently. Accordin1 to the author2 ho" has the human s.ecies ada.ted to en6ironmental conditions of tem.erature9 3eople living in cold climes typically have a more rounded, plump shape, thus better preserving their internal body heat1 while people living in hot, dry regions tend to be thin, allowing them to dissipate body heat more 2uickly. =ist one disad6anta1e and one ad6anta1e of bein1 "arm-blooded. Disadvantage: More heat energy (food# is re2uired to keep internal body temperature at its normal levels than for cold/blooded animals. -dvantage: $hey can stay active at lower e,ternal temperatures1 e.g., in winter, than cold/ blooded animals. Since the internal tem.erature of cold-blooded animals a..ro,imates that of their surroundin1s2 ho" do the3 a6oid free&in1 to death in 6er3 cold surroundin1s9 -s the temperature approaches free+ing, the fluid surrounding cells free+es, but fluid inside cells does not free+e. -s the fluid free+es, water is drawn out of cells to help e2uali+e the increased solute concentration in the remaining unfro+en fluid. -s this occurs, glucose enters the cells. $he combined loss of water and gain of glucose increases the concentration inside cells, resulting in a free+ing point depression inside the cells. $his prevents cells from free+ing, which would be deadly to the animal. =ist four e,am.les of insulation in "arm-blooded animals. Modes of insulation in warm/blooded animals include: a. 4arm clothing in humans b. 4ool or other types of hair

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c. *luffed feathers d. *at or blubber 1. *,.lain the countercurrent heat e,chan1e .rocess. $he heat e,change process prevents e,cessive heat loss from an animals e,tremities. $his is accomplished thusly: arteries that carry warm blood away from the heart are positioned directly against the veins that carry cool blood to the heart. 5o, the warmer blood leaving the heart through the arteries warms the cooler blood entering the heart through the veins. 2. 5o" does s"eatin1 hel. a .erson maintain a fairl3 constant internal bod3 tem.erature "hen the bod3 1ets hot9 5weating moves warm water from inside the body to the surface of the skin. $here it can evaporate into the air. 6ut to do so, energy is re2uired (remember that evaporation, the process of changing a li2uid to a vapor by means of breaking bonds between the li2uid molecules, is an endothermic process#. $he energy re2uired to effect the phase change comes from the body, thus removing heat from the already too/warm body. % . =ist three "a3s that animals maintain their bod3 tem.erature in the heat. -nimals maintain their core body temperature in varying ways: a. Dogs salivate, rather than sweating (although they do have sweat glands between their paw pads#. 4hen they pant, the saliva evaporating off their tongues helps to cool them. b. Cats have sweat glands on the pads of their feet and on their tongues. c. Cats and kangaroos (along with other animals# lick their fur. $his provides water that evaporates off their fur, resulting in surface cooling.

4h3 Cold 7oesnt *,ist

%. 2. 4hat ha..ens "hen an ice cube is added to a soft drin;9 4hen an ice cube is added to a soft drink, heat is transferred from the soft drink to the ice cube and so the soft drink gets colder. 4hat is the rule about ho" ener13 is transferred bet"een t"o ob>ects that are in contact9 -s the article states, energy is always transferred from the ob7ect with the higher temperature to the ob7ect with the lower temperature. (T-( ? *,.lain All .articles of a substance ha6e the same ;inetic ener13. $he statement is false1 all particles of one substance do 8O$ have the same kinetic energy. .n a given substance, the particles are all moving but at difference velocities. $herefore, the particles have a range of kinetic energies, since kinetic energy varies with the s2uare of the velocity. 4hat is the definition of tem.erature9 $emperature is a measure of the average kinetic energy of the particles in a substance. 5ince the particles have a range of kinetic energies, the best we can do is determine an average. )ame the three ;inds of motion a .article can ha6e. The three t!pes o& motion o& a parti)le are translational, vi9rational an" rotational. The! )an vi9rate 5wiggle a9out a &ixe" position6, translate 5move &rom one lo)ation to another6, or rotate 5spin aroun"6. 7escribe the results of collisions bet"een faster-mo6in1 .articles and slo"er-mo6in1 .articles.

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4hen faster/moving particles collide with slower/moving particles, the latter speed up and the former slow down. $he net effect is that energy is transferred from faster/moving particles to slower ones. 4e call this transferred energy heat. $he transfer continues until the two particles are traveling at the same speed. 0. 4hat term is a..lied to the situation in "hich ener13 has been transferred from faster .articles to slo"er ones and as a result the .articles end u. tra6elin1 at the same s.eed9 $he condition in which all particles are traveling at the same speed is known as thermal e2uilibrium. 1. *,.lain "h3 e6a.oration of a li@uid from our s;in ma;es us feel cooler. 9vaporation occurs when li2uid molecules leave the li2uid state to become vapor. Only the fastest molecules have enough energy to leave and become vapor. $his leaves the remaining molecules moving more slowly than your skin, so heat is transferred from your skin to the remaining li2uid. $his results in your skin feeling cooler, since the molecules on your skin are now traveling more slowly than they were before the li2uid evaporated.

S.orts Su..lements' 5el.ful or 5armful9

%. 4hat are some of the benefits claimed on s.orts su..lement labels9 5ome of the benefits claimed on sports supplement labels are that they increase muscle si+e and strength, enhance stamina, and even improve focus and cognition. 4hich three fre@uentl3 used s.orts su..lements are hi1hli1hted in the article9 $he three fre2uently used sports supplements highlighted in the article are whey protein powder, creatine, and 0/arginine. 4hat is an ar1ument for usin1 "he3 .rotein .o"der9 3ossible arguments for using whey protein powder are: a. During e,ercise the protein in muscle tissue becomes damaged, and consuming protein right after a workout might help repair muscle tissue. 4hey protein powder is a fast and easy way to supplement protein consumption. b. 4hey proteins are rich in essential amino acids the body cannot make on its own. c. 4hey proteins are water/soluble, so they are easier to digest than less/soluble proteins. 4hat is an ar1ument a1ainst usin1 "he3 .rotein .o"der9 3ossible arguments against using whey protein powder are: a. :esearch shows that people get enough protein in their diet, so people who add e,tra protein are merely adding calories and no additional muscle growth. b. $oo much protein has been linked to kidney problems. 4hat is an ar1ument for usin1 creatine9 - possible argument for using creatine is that studies have shown that these supplements seem to give a slight benefit in sports where athletes need to produce energy in short spurts. 4hat is an ar1ument a1ainst usin1 creatine9 - possible argument against using creatine is that it has several possible side effects: muscle cramping, small muscle tears, dehydration, headaches, nausea, diarrhea, an,iety, and depression. 0ong/term use of creatine may lead to kidney and liver problems. 4hat is an ar1ument for usin1 =-ar1inine9

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- possible argument for using 0/arginine is that since it is converted into nitric o,ide, a compound that dilates blood vessels, it could in theory increase blood flow and help athletes to improve athletic performance. 1. 4hat is an ar1ument a1ainst usin1 =-ar1inine9 3ossible arguments against using 0/arginine are: a. 5tudies have shown little or no evidence that 0/arginine boosts energy and muscle strength, or improves stamina or workout intensity. b. se of 0/arginine has a long list of potential side effects, including nausea, diarrhea, hives and lower back pain. 2. 4hat is some ad6ice for ho" to decide "hether or not to ta;e a su..lement and "hich s.orts su..lements are useful and safe9 4hen deciding whether or not to take a supplement and which to take, it is recommended to consult a physician or a registered dietitian.

The (rac;in1 <e6olution

1. 2. 4hat is the meanin1 of the "ord frac;in19 $he word fracking comes from two words, hydraulic fracturing. *racking is the composite word, so to speak. 4hat is in6ol6ed in the ne" techni@ue called frac;in19 *racking or hydraulic fracturing consists of in7ecting a mi,ture of water, sand, and chemicals into the ground through deeply drilled holes to break up the shale where the natural gas is to be found. 4hat are the se6eral ste.s that are follo"ed "hen frac;in1 ta;es .lace9 $he steps involved in fracking are: a. *irst, companies drill downward and then hori+ontally about a mile or two into the ground. b. -fter the well hole (bore# is drilled, the drill is removed and the bore is encased with piping that is cemented together to seal the well. c. $hen holes are blasted through the hori+ontal piping (and pipe casing# with e,plosives. d. $hen they pump the water, sand and chemicals into the well until the pressure e,ceeds the weight of the rock above, creating more cracks in the already fractured rock. e. $he multiple cracks created provide pathways through which the natural gas or oil can flow into the well bore and all the way up to the surface along with the fracking mi,ture. f. $hereafter, only gas or oil flows into the pipes. 4hen the frac;in1 fluid returns to the surface from a 1as "ell2 "hat ne" chemicals are found in it besides methane 1as9 -bout ;( < of the original water initially in7ected into the well returns with not only the methane gas but also some new chemicals including salt, naturally occurring radioactive material, and heavy metals including mercury and arsenic. 5o" is frac;in1 "aste"ater .rocessed after it returns to the surface from a "ell9 $he wastewater is either stored in lined pits (done less often now#, reused, or in7ected into specially/designed deep wells called in7ections wells. Af methane 1as contaminates "ell "ater (drin;in1 "ater 2 ho" can the source of the methane be determined2 i.e.2 that it came from a natural 1as "ell rather than from bacterial action in the soil around the "ater "ell9 Methane gas, with the formula C!=, can be analy+ed for the type of carbon contained in the molecules. Methane contains two isotopes of carbon, C/'; and C/'&. Methane from

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bacterial action contains less carbon '& than methane in fossil fuel. $he same type of analysis for the hydrogen in methane reveals that there are two isotopes of hydrogen possiblehydrogen/' and hydrogen/;. 6acterial methane contains less hydrogen/; than fossil fuel methane. 0. 4hat is the concern about in>ectin1 "aste "ater from the frac;in1 o.erations into so-called in>ection "ells9 $he concern with in7ecting waste water from fracking into in7ection wells is that there is the possibility that the in7ected waste water can initiate earth2uakes.

)uclear (usion' The )e,t *ner13 (rontier9

%. Gist at least three reasons that &usion is )onsi"ere" the ultimate energ! sour)e. *usion is considered the ultimate energy source because: a. .t uses the same process that powers the sun, b. .ts environmentally friendly, c. $heres little danger from radiation, d. $heres no long/lasting radioactive waste, e. $heres +ero chance of a runaway chain reaction, f. .f anything goes wrong with the reactor, it simply shuts down. 4hat form of ener13 "ill "e ultimatel3 use from the fusion reaction9 9nergy from the fusion reaction will be changed to electricity for our use. 4hat constitutes success in the race to achie6e fusion9 5uccess in a fusion reaction is defined as measuring more energy going out than coming in. (.n other words, more than breaking even# 4hat is bindin1 ener139 6inding energy is the energy that holds a nucleus together. .n the fusion reaction described, between a deuterium nucleus and a tritium nucleus, it can be calculated by measuring the mass difference between the sum of the masses of the individual nuclei and the mass of the final larger nucleus, and converting that mass into energy using 9insteins e2uation 9>mC;. 5o" man3 .rotons and neutrons does tritium ha6e9 $ritium, hydrogen/& or &!, has ' proton (this is what makes it hydrogen# and ; neutrons, for a total mass of &. 4h3 do scientists ha6e such a tou1h time 1ettin1 deuterium and tritium nuclei to 1et to1ether to under1o fusion9 Deuterium and tritium nuclei dont easily come together to fuse because they are both positively charged, and their electrostatic force of repulsion forces them apart. )ame the t"o a..roaches currentl3 bein1 used to create fusion ener13. $he two current approaches to creating fusion energy are: a. .nertial confinement fusion and b. Magnetic confinement fusion. 7escribe the difference bet"een these t"o a..roaches. .nertial confinement fusion heats a compressed target pellet of deuterium and tritium, while the magnetic confinement fusion process uses magnetic fields to contain a plasma of deuterium and tritium nuclei. 4hat is .lasma9 3lasma, the fourth state of matter, is an ioni+ed gas consisting of positive ions and free electrons in proportions resulting in no overall electric charge.

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5o" does the heat of fusion become useful ener139 $he heat from the nuclear fusion reaction will be passed to a heat e,changer to make steam, and the steam will turn turbines to produce electricity. %%. 4hat is the difference bet"een the .lasma in a .lasma TB and the .lasma of a fusion reaction9 $he plasma in a plasma television is room/temperature gas that has been ioni+ed by free/ flowing electrons from an electrical charge, while the plasma in a fusion reaction is superhot'( times the temperature inside the sun.

11

ChemMatters %u&&le' (luster for Chemists

A paper and pencil word game called FL !"#$ %ea&'re( a 4)4 grid pop'la&ed wi&* 16 alp*a+e& le&&er( , wi&* d'plica&e( allowed. !ee &*e grid in p'--le 1 a( an e)ample. "*e o+.ec& i( &o ma/e a( man0 word( a( po((i+le +0 mo1ing +e&ween ad.oining cell(2 *ori-on&all0, 1er&icall0, or diagonall0 ,wi&*in an agreed3'pon &ime limi& "*ere( .'(& one r'le4 all le&&er( o% a gi1en word m'(& +e in di%%eren& cell(. 5% a gi1en word *a( &wo $( in i&, 0o' m'(& *a1e &wo di%%eren& (6'are( ('ppl0 &*em. 7'& 0o' ma0 '(e an $ in a gi1en cell in more &*an one word. 8ell adap& &*e %orma& &o c*emical 1oca+'lar0 (e&(, in &*ree p'--le(. 9'--le :14 ;ere are 16 le&&er(. <o' can %ind in i& F5=# !5 metric prefixes > mo(& in common '(e, +'& a %ew no& (o %amiliar?. For e)ample &*ere i( a @ in &*e lower rig*& corner "*ro'g* 1er&ical and *ori-on&al mo1e( le%&ward( 0o' can (pell o'& @5LA, ending in col'mn 3, row 4. Ban 0o' %ind &*e o&*er %o'rC 5& i( %air game &o '(e a &e)& +oo/ or re%erence &*a& gi1e( all &*e po((i+le pre%i)e(. ;in&4 All 16 le&&er( ge& '(ed a& lea(& once, mo(& more &*an once. $ A A G B E F G 5 # L A D B 5 @

9'--le :24 "*i( p'--le deal( wi&* &*e 5 9AB naming (0(&em %or organic c*emical(. "*e(e +a(e name( (*ow *ow man0 B a&om( are in &*e longe(& c*ain. For e)ample &*e +a(e name AB" implie( 8 Bar+on a&om( >a( in AB"AG#, B8;18 ?. <o'll %ind AB" in &*e Fl'(&er grid, along wi&* (e1en o&*er +a(e name( %or car+on( 1 &*ro'g* 7. Again, e1er0 le&&er i( '(ed a& lea(& once, o%&en more. ;ere i( &*e grid4 A B " 7 $ 9 G 9 # H # " ; D 9

9'--le :34 "*i( i( &*e &o'g*e(& one. ;idden in &*e grid are %i1e la(& name( o% %amo'( c*emi(&(. Ban 0o' %ind all %i1eC ;ere are %i1e *in&( on *i(I*er main ac*ie1emen&, one %or eac* name4 i(ola&ed 9oloni'm, co1alen& +onding, p= J a con(&an& a& con(&an& n and ", *0drogen( elec&ron energ0 le1el(, i(ola&ed (e1eral al/ali me&al(. ! 8 A F 5 # = $ $ L < ; B A 7

12

Ans"ers to the ChemMatters %u&&le

9 KKL# :1 ))) 1 2 3 4 a $ A A G + B E F G c 5 # L A d D B 5 @

mega4 cell d1 &o c2 &o +2 &o a3 /ilo4 d4Ld3Lc3Lc4 micro4 d1Lc1L+1La1La2 deci 4 +3Lc2Ld2Ld3 nano4 a4La3L+4Lc4 9 KKL# :2 ))) a + c d 1 A $ 9 " 2 B 9 # ; 3 " H D 4 7 G # 9 D#"; 4 cell d3Lc2L d1Ld2 #";4 c2Ld1Ld2 9$A94 c1L+1La1L+2 7 "4 a4Lc3La3 9#G"4 d4Lc4L+4La3 ;#H4 d2Lc2Lc3 ;#9"4 d2Lc2Lc1Ld1 or d2Lc2L+2La3 AB"4 a1La2La3 9 KKL# :3 ))) 1 2 3 4 a ! 8 A F + 5 # = $ c $ L < ; d B A 7

13

B $5# >Darie and 9ierre, named %or *er *omeland.?4 (&ar&( in cell d2,Ld1Lc1L+1L+2 L#85! >E.G., emp*a(i-ed &*e (*ared pair o% elec&ron(?4 c2L+2La2L+1La1 7A<L# > !ir $o+er&, o% 7o0le( Law %ame.?4 d4Ld3Lc3Lc2L+2 7A;$ > Giel( , lin/( 6'an&'m &*eor0 &o (pd% ('+(*ell( in ; (pec&ra4 d4Ld3Lc4L+4 FA=< >!ir ;'mp*re0M '(e( elec&rici&0 &o decompo(e (al&(?M a4La3L+3Lc3

14

)ational Science *ducation Standards ()S*S Correlations

)ational Science *ducation Content Standard Addressed As a result o& a)tivities in gra"es 2= %2, all stu"ents shoul" "evelop un"erstan"ing %h3sical Science Standard A' a9out s)ienti&i) in<uir!. %h3sical Science Standard D: o& the stru)ture o& atoms %h3sical Science Standard D: o& the stru)ture an" properties o& matter. %h3sical Science Standard D: o& )hemi)al rea)tions. %h3sical Science Standard D: o& the )onservation o& energ! an" in)rease in "isor"er =ife Science Standard C: o& the )ell. =ife Science Standard C: o& matter, energ!, an" organiDation in living s!stems. *arth Science Standard 7: o& geo)hemi)al )!)les Science and Technolo13 Standard *: a9out s)ien)e an" te)hnolog!. Science in %ersonal and Social %ers.ecti6es Standard (: o& personal an" )ommunit! health. Science in %ersonal and Social %ers.ecti6es Standard (: o& natural resour)es. Science in %ersonal and Social %ers.ecti6es Standard (: o& environmental <ualit!. Science in %ersonal and Social %ers.ecti6es Standard (: o& natural an" human=in"u)e" haDar"s. Science in %ersonal and Social %ers.ecti6es Standard (' o& s)ien)e an" te)hnolog! in lo)al, national, an" glo9al )hallenges. 5istor3 and )ature of Science Standard G' o& histori)al perspe)tives. Chillin1 Out2 4armin1 C. 4h3 Cold 7oesnt *,ist S.orts Su..lements (rac;in1 )uclear (usion

15

)e,t-Generation Science Standards ()GSS Correlations

Article Chilling Out, Warming Up: How Animals Survive Temperatur e E tremes NGSS HS!"S#!$% Apply scientific principles and evidence to provide an explanation about the effects of changing the temperature or concentration of the reacting particles on the rate at which a reaction occurs. Crosscutting Concepts: Structure & Function Scale, Proportion, & Quantity Science an& Engineering "ractices: onstructing explanations Nature o' Science: Science assumes the universe is a vast single system in which basic laws are consistent. HS!"S*!+% !evelop and use models to illustrate that energy at the macroscopic scale can be accounted for as a combination of energy associated with the motions of particles "ob#ects$ and energy associated with the relative positions of particles "ob#ects$. Crosscutting Concepts: Systems & System %odels &nergy & %atter Science an& Engineering "ractices: onstructing explanations Nature o' Science' Science assumes the universe is a vast single system in which basic laws are consistent. HS!-S#!.% onstruct and revise an explanation based on evidence for how carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen from sugar molecules may combine with other elements to form amino acids and(or other large carbon)based molecules. Crosscutting Concepts: ause & &ffect Structure & Function Science an& Engineering "ractices: As*ing +uestions and defining problems Analy,ing and interpreting data Nature o' Science: Science and engineering are influenced by society and society is influenced by science and engineering. %any decisions are not made using science alone, but rely on social and cultural contexts to resolve issues.

Wh( Col& )oesnt E ist

Sports Supplement s: Help'ul or Harm'ul,

16

The /rac0ing 1evolution

HS!ESS*!+% &valuate competing design solutions for developing, managing, and utili,ing energy and mineral resources based on cost)benefit ratios.HS!ETS#!*% &valuate a solution to a complex real)world problem based on prioriti,ed criteria and trade)offs that account for a range of constraints, including cost, safety, reliability, and aesthetics as well as possible social, cultural, and environmental impacts. Crosscutting Concepts: ause & &ffect Stability & hange Science an& Engineering "ractices' As*ing +uestions and defining problems Analy,ing and interpreting data Nature o' Science' .echnological advances have influenced the progress of science and science has influenced advances in technology. %any decisions are not made using science alone, but rely on social and cultural contexts to resolve issues. HS!"S#!2% !evelop models to illustrate the changes in the composition of the nucleus of the atom and the energy released during the processes of fission, fusion, and radioactive decay. HS!ETS#!*% &valuate a solution to a complex real)world problem based on prioriti,ed criteria and trade)offs that account for a range of constraints, including cost, safety, reliability, and aesthetics as well as possible social, cultural, and environmental impacts. Crosscutting Concept: &nergy & %atter Science an& Engineering "ractices' As*ing +uestions and defining problems Planning and carrying out investigations Nature o' Science' .echnological advances have influenced the progress of science and science has influenced advances in technology.

Nuclear /usion: The Ne t Energ( /rontier,

17

Common Core State Standards Connections for all articles'

1ST%3!#4%# ite specific textual evidence to support analysis of science and technical texts, attending to the precise details of explanations or descriptions. 1ST ##!#+%# ite specific textual evidence to support analysis of science and technical texts, attending to important distinctions the author ma*es and to any gaps or inconsistencies in the account. In addition, the teacher could assign writing to include the following Common Core State Stan&ar&' WHST%3!##%3 an& WHST ##!#+%3 !raw evidence from informational texts to support analysis, reflection, and research.

18

Antici.ation Guides
An&icipa&ion g'ide( *elp engage (&'den&( +0 ac&i1a&ing prior /nowledge and (&im'la&ing (&'den& in&ere(& +e%ore reading. 5% cla(( &ime permi&(, di(c'(( (&'den&( re(pon(e( &o eac* (&a&emen& +e%ore reading eac* ar&icle. A( &*e0 read, (&'den&( (*o'ld loo/ %or e1idence ('ppor&ing or re%'&ing &*eir ini&ial re(pon(e(. Directions for all Anticipation Guides: Before reading, in &*e %ir(& col'mn, wri&e A or F indica&ing 0o'r agreemen& or di(agreemen& wi&* eac* (&a&emen&. A( 0o' read, compare 0o'r opinion( wi&* in%orma&ion %rom &*e ar&icle. 5n &*e (pace 'nder eac* (&a&emen&, ci&e in%orma&ion %rom &*e ar&icle &*a& ('ppor&( or re%'&e( 0o'r original idea(.

19

Chilling Out, Warming Up: How Animals Survive Temperature Extremes

Directions: Before reading, in &*e %ir(& col'mn, wri&e A or F, indica&ing 0o'r agreemen& or di(agreemen& wi&* eac* (&a&emen&. A( 0o' read, compare 0o'r opinion( wi&* in%orma&ion %rom &*e ar&icle. 5n &*e (pace 'nder eac* (&a&emen&, ci&e in%orma&ion %rom &*e ar&icle &*a& ('ppor&( or re%'&e( 0o'r original idea(. Me Text Statement 1. 7ird( are warm3+looded animal( wi&* an a1erage +od0 &empera&'re o% 95 F. 2. Bold3+looded animal( &end &o +e long, (lender, or %la&. 3. 8i&*in a gi1en (pecie(, warm3+looded animal( &end &o +e larger in warmer clima&e( and (maller in colder clima&e(. 4. 8arm3+looded animal( re6'ire more %ood energ0 &*an cold3+looded animal( o% (imilar (i-e. 5. Bold3+looded animal( are %o'nd in a wider 1arie&0 o% en1ironmen&( &*an warm3+looded animal(. 6. 8*en man0 cold3+looded animal( *i+erna&e, &*e wa&er aro'nd &*eir cell( %ree-e(. 7. "rapped air i( a good in('la&or %or warm3+looded animal(. 8. 8arm3+looded animal( li1ing in wa&er need le(( energ0 &o (&a0 warm &*an animal( li1ing in air. 9. #1apora&ion i( an e)o&*ermic p*a(e c*ange. 10. Ba&( and dog( *a1e (wea& gland( on &*e pad( o% &*eir %ee&.

11. ;'mming+ird( ea& 233 &ime( &*eir +od0 weig*& e1er0 da0.

20

Why Col !oesnt Exist

Directions: Before reading, in &*e %ir(& col'mn, wri&e A or F, indica&ing 0o'r agreemen& or di(agreemen& wi&* eac* (&a&emen&. A( 0o' read, compare 0o'r opinion( wi&* in%orma&ion %rom &*e ar&icle. 5n &*e (pace 'nder eac* (&a&emen&, ci&e in%orma&ion %rom &*e ar&icle &*a& ('ppor&( or re%'&e( 0o'r original idea(. Me Text Statement 1. #nerg0 can +e &ran(%erred %rom a colder &o a *o&&er +od0.

2. A& a gi1en &empera&'re, all o% &*e par&icle( in a li6'id *a1e &*e (ame /ine&ic energ0.

3. 5n a (ample o% ice in a (o%& drin/, &*e wa&er molec'le( in +o&* &*e ice and (o%& drin/ *a1e &*e (ame /ind o% /ine&ic energ0.

4. #nerg0 &ran(%er i( called *ea&.

5. A& &*ermal e6'ili+ri'm, &*e n'm+er o% molec'lar colli(ion( re('l&ing in energ0 gain i( &*e (ame a( &*e n'm+er o% molec'lar colli(ion( re('l&ing in energ0 lo((. 6. 8*en wa&er e1apora&e( %rom 0o'r %inger, &*e wa&er molec'le( wi&* a lower a1erage /ine&ic energ0 are le%& +e*ind, (o 0o'r %inger %eel( cooler.

7. "*e in&ermolec'lar %orce( +e&ween molec'le( o% oil are le(( &*an &*e in&ermolec'lar %orce( +e&ween molec'le( o% wa&er.

8. Bold i( an ad.ec&i1e '(ed &o de(cri+e a lac/ o% *ea&.

21

Sports Supplements: Help"ul or Harm"ul#

Directions: Before reading, in &*e %ir(& col'mn, wri&e A or F, indica&ing 0o'r agreemen& or di(agreemen& wi&* eac* (&a&emen&. A( 0o' read, compare 0o'r opinion( wi&* in%orma&ion %rom &*e ar&icle. 5n &*e (pace 'nder eac* (&a&emen&, ci&e in%orma&ion %rom &*e ar&icle &*a& ('ppor&( or re%'&e( 0o'r original idea(. Me Text Statement 1. !por&( ('pplemen&( are reg'la&ed +0 &*e Food and Fr'g Admini(&ra&ion.

2. 8*e0 pro&ein come( %rom mil/.

3. 8*e0 pro&ein( con&ain amino acid( &*a& &*e +od0 canno& ma/e on i&( own.

4. <o'r +od0 re6'ire( le(( energ0 &o +rea/ down %a&( &*an pro&ein(.

5. Brea&ine i( prod'ced na&'rall0 +0 &*e +od0.

6. Brea&ine pla0( an impor&an& role in prod'cing energ0.

7. Brea&ine *a( +een (*own &o +ene%i& all a&*le&e(, incl'ding &*o(e in1ol1ed in end'rance (por&(. 8. L3Arginine can +e prod'ced +0 &*e +od0.

9. L3Arginine *a( +een demon(&ra&ed &o +oo(& +o&* energ0 and m'(cle (&reng&*.

10. Dara&*on r'nner( and weig*& li%&er( *a1e (imilar n'&ri&ional need(.

22

The $ra%&ing 'evolution

Directions: Before reading, in &*e %ir(& col'mn, wri&e A or F, indica&ing 0o'r agreemen& or di(agreemen& wi&* eac* (&a&emen&. A( 0o' read, compare 0o'r opinion( wi&* in%orma&ion %rom &*e ar&icle. 5n &*e (pace 'nder eac* (&a&emen&, ci&e in%orma&ion %rom &*e ar&icle &*a& ('ppor&( or re%'&e( 0o'r original idea(. Me Text Statement 1. Frilling %or na&'ral ga( '(ing *0dra'lic %rac&'ring *a( prod'ced economic +ene%i&( in (e1eral (&a&e(.

2. ;0dra'lic %rac&'ring >%rac/ing? in1ol1e( drilling *ori-on&all0 and 1er&icall0 &*ro'g* (*ale roc/ %orma&ion(.

3. "*e wa&er '(ed in %rac/ing re&'rn( 'ncon&amina&ed &o &*e ('r%ace.

4. Frac/ing co'ld in&rod'ce me&*ane in&o a6'i%er( '(ed %or wa&er well(.

5. !ome wa&er in &*e Appalac*ian 7a(in na&'rall0 con&ain( me&*ane.

6. "*e #n1ironmen&al 9ro&ec&ion Agenc0 >#9A? will relea(e a repor& on &*e po&en&ial impac&( o% %rac/ing in la&e 2013.

7. 5& i( po((i+le &o de&ermine i% &*e me&*ane in drin/ing wa&er come( %rom na&'rall0 occ'rring +ac&eria or %rac/ing.

8. "*e 5n&erna&ional #nerg0 Agenc0 >5#A? predic&( &*a& &*e ni&ed !&a&e( will prod'ce more oil &*an !a'di Ara+ia in le(( &*an &en 0ear(.

23

(u%lear $usion: The (ext Energy $rontier#

Directions: Before reading, in &*e %ir(& col'mn, wri&e A or F indica&ing 0o'r agreemen& or di(agreemen& wi&* eac* (&a&emen&. A( 0o' read, compare 0o'r opinion( wi&* in%orma&ion %rom &*e ar&icle. 5n &*e (pace 'nder eac* (&a&emen&, ci&e in%orma&ion %rom &*e ar&icle &*a& ('ppor&( or re%'&e( 0o'r original idea(. Me Text Statement 1. !cien&i(&( *a1e crea&ed a %'(ion reac&or &*a& will prod'ce more energ0 &*an i( p'& in&o i&.

2. !cien&i(&( %rom (e1eral co'n&rie( are c'rren&l0 wor/ing on n'clear %'(ion e)perimen&(.

3. 5n n'clear %'(ion, energ0 i( prod'ced +eca'(e ma(( i( gained w*en &*e (maller n'clei %'(e &o crea&e a larger n'cle'(.

4. "wo o% *0drogen( &*ree na&'rall0 occ'rring i(o&ope( are '(ed in %'(ion e)perimen&(.

5. "*e (&rong n'clear in&erac&ion can o1ercome Bo'lom+ %orce( &*a& ca'(e pro&on( &o repel eac* o&*er.

6. G'clear %'(ion can occ'r a& room &empera&'re.

7. Ane e)perimen&al n'clear reac&or depend( on pla(ma +eing con&ained +0 (&rong magne&ic %ield(.

8. "*e 'l&ima&e goal o% n'clear %'(ion pro.ec&( i( &o prod'ce *ea& &*a& can +e '(ed &o prod'ce (&eam &o dri1e &'r+ine( &o prod'ce elec&rici&0.

24

<eadin1 Strate1ies
"*e(e ma&rice( and organi-er( are pro1ided &o *elp (&'den&( loca&e and anal0-e in%orma&ion %rom &*e ar&icle(. !&'den& 'nder(&anding will +e en*anced w*en &*e0 e)plore and e1al'a&e &*e in%orma&ion &*em(el1e(, wi&* inp'& %rom &*e &eac*er i% (&'den&( are (&r'ggling. #nco'rage (&'den&( &o '(e &*eir own word( and a1oid cop0ing en&ire (en&ence( %rom &*e ar&icle(. "*e '(e o% +'lle&( *elp( &*em do &*i(. 5% 0o' '(e &*e(e reading (&ra&egie( &o e1al'a&e (&'den& per%ormance, 0o' ma0 wan& &o de1elop a grading r'+ric ('c* a( &*e one +elow.

Score 4 3 2 1 0

Description #)cellen& Eood Fair 9oor Go& accep&a+le

Evidence Bomple&eM de&ail( pro1idedM demon(&ra&e( deep 'nder(&anding. Bomple&eM %ew de&ail( pro1idedM demon(&ra&e( (ome 'nder(&anding. 5ncomple&eM %ew de&ail( pro1idedM (ome mi(concep&ion( e1iden&. =er0 incomple&eM no de&ail( pro1idedM man0 mi(concep&ion( e1iden&. !o incomple&e &*a& no .'dgmen& can +e made a+o'& (&'den& 'nder(&anding

Teaching Strategies: 1. Lin/( &o Common Core Standards for writin 4 A(/ (&'den&( &o de+a&e one o% &*e con&ro1er(ial &opic( %rom &*i( i(('e in an e((a0 or cla(( di(c'((ion, pro1iding e1idence %rom &*e ar&icle or o&*er re%erence( &o ('ppor& &*eir po(i&ion. 2. !oca"ular# &*a& i( rein%orced in &*i( i(('e4 a. !'r%ace area +. @ine&ic energ0 c. Amino acid d. 9ro&ein e. 7inding energ0 3. "o *elp (&'den&( engage wi&* &*e &e)&, a(/ (&'den&( w*a& $uestions &*e0 (&ill *a1e a+o'& &*e ar&icle(. "*e ar&icle( a+o'& (por&( ('pplemen&( and %rac/ing, in par&ic'lar, ma0 (par/ 6'e(&ion( and e1en de+a&e among (&'den&(.

25

Chilling Out, Warming Up: How Animals Survive Temperature Extremes

Directions: A( 0o' read &*e ar&icle, comple&e &*e c*ar& +elow &o compare warm3+looded and cold3+looded animal( '(ing in%orma&ion and e)ample( %rom &*e ar&icle. %arm&"looded animals 'od# temperature 'od# si(e Cold&"looded animals

'od# s)ape

Ener # needs Meta"olism re$uirements *an e of environments +)a"itats, -i"ernation

.nsulation

Evaporation /reventin water loss

26

Why Col !oesnt Exist

Directions: A( 0o' read &*e ar&icle, '(e 0o'r own word( &o de(cri+e or draw &*e molec'lar mo&ion %or eac* proce(( li(&ed in &*e c*ar&. /rocess !i"rational 0inetic ener # Description

Translational 0inetic ener #

*otational 0inetic ener #

Ener # transfer

T)ermal e$uili"rium

Evaporation

.ntermolecular force of attraction

27

Sports Supplements: Help"ul or Harm"ul#

Directions4 A( 0o' read, '(e &*e c*ar& +elow &o *elp 0o' anal0-e &*e in%orma&ion regarding &*e +ene%i&( and ri(/( o% &*e (por&( ('pplemen&( di(c'((ed in &*e ar&icle. 'enefits *is0s

%)e# protein powder

Creatine

1&Ar inine

28

The $ra%&ing 'evolution

Directions4 A( 0o' read &*e ar&icle, '(e 0o'r own word( &o comple&e &*e c*ar& +elow de(cri+ing %rac/ing. 8*a& i( i&C

8*ere i( i& +eing doneC

!&a&e(4

!*ale %orma&ion(4

8*0 i( i& +eing doneC

8*a& are (ome +ene%i&(C

8*a& are (ome ri(/(C

;ow are &*e ri(/( +eing a((e((edC

8*a& 6'e(&ion( do 0o' (&ill *a1e a+o'& %rac/ingC

29

(u%lear $usion: The (ext Energy $rontier#

Directions4 A( 0o' read, '(e 0o'r own word( &o comple&e &*e &wo c*ar&( +elow, de(cri+ing n'clear %'(ion and comparing &*e &wo n'clear %'(ion pro.ec&( de(cri+ed in &*e ar&icle. 2uclear 3usion 8*a& i( i&C

;ow doe( i& prod'ce energ0C 8*ere doe( &*e energ0 come %romC 8*0 don& we *a1e n'clear %'(ion elec&rici&0 genera&ion (&a&ion(C

2ational . nition 3acilit# 1ocation /rocess 3uel

.nternational T)ermonuclear Experimental *eactor

S)ort description

30

0ee.in1 Cool2 Sta3in1 4arm' 5o" Animals Sur6i6e Tem.erature *,tremes

)a%&groun *n"ormation +tea%her in"ormation,
$ore on thermore1ulation
4n or"er &or an organism to maintain its normal )ellular meta9oli) &un)tion, it must also maintain its normal )ore 9o"! temperature. How it "oes that "etermines into whi)h )amp it &alls Nwarm=9loo"e" or )ol"=9loo"e". Well pursue this argument later. 4n or"er to maintain its normal )ore 9o"! temperature, an organism must have a thermal e<uili9rium or 9alan)e. Thus this maxim: Heat in must e<ual heat outI 4& the organism a9sor9s more heat than it ra"iates, its )ore 9o"! temperature will riseJ i& this )ontinues &or long, the organism will overheat 5su&&er h!perthermia6 an" <uite possi9l! "ie. 4& heat &lows out o& the organism &aster than it a9sor9s heat &rom the outsi"e, its )ore 9o"! temperature will "e)reaseJ i& this )ontinues &or long, the organism will su&&er &rom h!pothermia 59e)ome too )ol"6 an" <uite possi9l! "ie. Either extreme is highl! un"esira9le, hen)e the nee" &or a heat 9alan)e.
Here are some o& the pro9lems at the )ellular level that arise in organisms expose" to high temperatures: O P O O O O O #enaturiDation o& proteins Stru)tural an" enD!mati) Thermal ina)tivation o& enD!mes &aster than rates o& a)tivation 4na"e<uate O2 suppl! to meet meta9oli) "eman"s #i&&erent temperature e&&e)ts on inter"epen"ent meta9oli) rea)tions 5 rea)tion un)oupling6 :em9rane stru)ture alterations 4n)rease" evaporative water loss 5terrestrial animals6 An" here are some pro9lems asso)iate" with low temperatures in organisms at the )ellular level: O O O O O Thermal ina)tivation o& enD!mes &aster than rates o& a)tivation 4na"e<uate O2 suppl! to meet meta9oli) "eman"s #i&&erent temperature e&&e)ts on inter"epen"ent meta9oli) rea)tions 5 rea)tion un)oupling6 :em9rane stru)ture alterations (reeDing

5http:FFwww.in"iana.e"uFKnimsms&F8.%/F8owerpointFTemperature8A+T2.ppt6

$ore on cold-blooded 6s. "arm-blooded (endotherms 6s. ectotherms

31

Warm=9loo"e" animals are sai" to 9e en"othermsJ that is, the! generate &rom within their own 9o"ies the heat the! nee" to maintain meta9oli) pro)esses that *eep them alive. The! are thus somewhat in"epen"ent o& the am9ient temperature in terms o& their level o& a)tivit!. 3ut in or"er to maintain their )ore 9o"! temperature, en"otherms must expen" a large portion o& their energ! on "oing ?ust that. Theirs is a high=maintenan)e li&est!le. Col"=9loo"e" animals 5e)totherms6, on the other han", rel! on their surroun"ings &or the heat the! nee" to maintain meta9oli) pro)esses &or li&e. An" 9e)ause external temperature varies )onsi"era9l!, even throughout the "a!, the temperature o& e)totherms also varies as the external temperatureN&ar more than that o& en"otherms, as the illustration to the right shows. Su)h animals level o& a)tivit! also varies with their surroun"ingsJ the! will t!pi)all! 9e more a)tive when the temperature is higher an" sluggish when the temperature "rops.

(http://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/homeost atic-processes-for-thermoregulation-2359204 !

3oth as a result o& utiliDing external heat rather than their own meta9oli) energ! an" 9! var!ing a)tivit! level with temperature, e)totherms use &ar less energ! to survive than "o en"otherms. As mentione" in the arti)le, there are a"vantages an" "isa"vantages to 9eing an e)totherm or an en"otherm. The &ollowing su))in)tl! summariDes the pros an" )ons o& ea)h:
E)totherm! P low energ! approa)h to li&e O 8ros P P P P P O P P Gess &oo" re<uire" Gower maintenan)e )osts 5more energ! &or growth an" repro"u)tion6 Gess water re<uire" 5lower rates o& evaporation6 Can 9e small P exploit ni)hes en"otherms )annot. +e"u)e" a9ilit! to regulate temperature +e"u)e" aero9i) )apa)it! P )annot sustain high levels o& a)tivit!

Cons

En"otherm! P high energ! approa)h to li&e O 8ros P P :aintain high 9o"! temperature in narrow ranges Sustain high 9o"! temperature in )ol" environments

32

P O P P P P

High aero9i) )apa)it! P sustain high levels o& a)tivit! -ee" more &oo" 5energ! expen"iture %0x that o& e)totherms6 :ore nee"e" &or maintenan)e, less &or growth an" repro"u)tion -ee" more water 5higher evaporative water loss6 :ust 9e 9ig

Cons

5http:FFwww.in"iana.e"uFKnimsms&F8.%/F8owerpointFTemperature8A+T2.ppt6

$ore on en6ironment E animal ada.tation

:ammals an" 9ir"s 5en"otherms6 emplo! the &ollowing a"aptations an" strategies to minimiDe heat loss in )ol" environments:
%. using small smooth mus)les 5arre)tor pili in mammals6 whi)h are atta)he" to &eather or hair sha&tsJ this non=shivering thermogenesis Lgenerating heat, in this )ase 9! 9o"il! motionM "istorts the sur&a)e o& the s*in as the &eatherFhair sha&t is ma"e more ere)t 5)alle" goose 9umps or pimples6 2. in)reasing 9o"! siDe to more easil! maintain )ore 9o"! temperature 5warm= 9loo"e" animals in )ol" )limates ten" to 9e larger than similar spe)ies in warmer )limates 5see 3ergmannNs +ule6 ,. having the a9ilit! to store energ! as &at &or meta9olism .. have shortene" extremities 7. have )ounter)urrent 9loo" &low in extremities = this is where the warm arterial 9loo" travelling to the lim9 passes the )ooler venous 9loo" &rom the lim9 an" heat is ex)hange" warming the venous 9loo" an" )ooling the arterial 5e.g. Ar)ti) Wol& or penguins6 6. un"ergoing torpor or "orman)!Nina)tivit!, su)h as hi9ernation 5http:FFen.wi*ipe"ia.orgFwi*iF3o"!OheatO"issipation6

3ir"s an" mammals use these a"aptations an" strategies to maximiDe heat loss in warm environments:
%. 9ehavioural a"aptations, li*e living in 9urrows "uring the "a! an" 9eing no)turnal, or moving into the water 5reptiles6 2. evaporative )ooling 9! perspiration an" panting ,. storing &at reserves in one pla)e 5e.g. )amelNs hump6 to avoi" its insulating e&&e)t .. elongate", o&ten vas)ulariDe" extremities to )on"u)t 9o"! heat to the air 5http:FFen.wi*ipe"ia.orgFwi*iF3o"!OheatO"issipation6

E)totherms a"apt to )ooler temperatures in the &ollowing wa!s: %. 2. ,. 4. To *eep warm the! )an un"ergo voluntar! mus)ular a)tivit!, su)h as &lapping wings Some e)totherms )an shiver to *eep warm The! )an move into the sun, 9as*ing in its warmth Exhi9it signs o& torpor or "orman)!Nina)tivit!

To a"apt to warmer temperatures, the! )an "o the &ollowing: %. Change their 9o"! posture so that less o& it is expose" to the sun, while maximiDing exposure to 9reeDes

33

2. :ove into the sha"e o& a ro)* or their 9urrow or "eeper un"erwater 5&ish, amphi9ians6 3. Change 9o"! )olor so that it a9sor9s less o& the suns ra"iation 5http:FFwww.umass*%2.netFip!Fsess 2FThermoregulationP2 arti)le.p"&6

$ore on hibernation 6s. esti6ation

Some en"otherms survive )ol" temperatures 9! hi9ernating, "uring whi)h time their 9o"! pro)esses slow "own, allowing the organism to sleep through the )ol" temperatures until spring returns an" temperatures re9oun". E)totherms also slow "own, although the! "ont have an! )hoi)e, as their 9o"! an" )ellular &un)tions slow "own with the "e)rease in external temperature whi)h )auses a similar "e)rease in their 9o"! temperature an" a general slow= "own o& 9o"il! &un)tions. 3ut in warm temperatures these e)totherms 9oun)e 9a)* an" regain their normal a)tivit! Nunless temperatures get too hot. 4n ver! hot, "r! )limates, some e)totherms will 9ur! themselves in the san" 5in "esert regions6, or in the mu" 5in other hot lo)ales6, whi)h ma! "r! an" har"en in ari" regions. Some reptiles an" amphi9ians ma! exhi9it this me)hanism o& sel&= preservation, *nown as estivation. Cro)o"iles an" salaman"ers, an" some &rogs an" toa"s are *nown to estivate when &oo" an" water supplies run low. Her! &ew mammals estivateNamong the ones that "o are groun"hogs an" spe)i&i) lemurs.

$ore on camel ada.tations to desert life

The arti)le mentions several a"aptations )amels have ma"e in their evolution to minimiDe water loss in or"er to )ontrol their )ore 9o"! temperatureJ however, )amel a"aptations to living in the "esert are not limite" to minimiDing water loss. Here is a more )omplete list o& a"aptations that )amels exhi9it: A hump 5or two6 that stores &at Lnot waterM: When meta9oliDe", &at pro"u)es water while also pro"u)ing energ! 5although mu)h o& that water is lost via exhalation6 Storage o& &at )entrall! 5"orsall!6, outsi"e the 9o"! )ore, minimiDes the e&&e)t o& insulation that woul" o))ur i& &at were store" throughout the 9o"!, whi)h woul" prevent heat loss &rom 9o"!. +e" 9loo" )ells are oval, not roun", as in almost all other mammals, Allowing the )ells to pass through arteries, veins an" )apillaries more easil! when the )amel is "eh!"rate" 5an" tu9ular stru)tures are smaller6. Helping them to withstan" intense osmoti) pressure "i&&eren)es without rupturing when )amels "rin* their &ill 5up to 7 gallons o& water in , minutesI6. Counter)urrent 9loo" &low s!stem aroun" 9rain helps to *eep it )ool. 5Humans an" most other mammals "ont have that.6 Sweat "oesnt happen mu)h, until the external temperature gets to % / o( or a9ove 59e)ause o& their higher normal 9o"! temperature6, 9ut when it "oes, the sweat evaporates "ire)tl! o&& the s*in, an" "oesnt get a9sor9e" 9! their heav! &ur )oat an" then evaporate &rom thereJ this ta*es heat "ire)tl! &rom the s*in 5an" )ools it "own6, rather than &rom the hot surroun"ings. Camels )an lose up to 27P o& their 9o"! weight through sweating, )ompare" to ,P.P &or most other animals.

34

-ostrils trap most o& the water vapor exiting the lungs an" rea9sor9 it 9e&ore it )an 9e lost via exhaling. 3! eating lo)al green vegetation, the! )an, un"er normal )on"itions, get su&&i)ient moisture to meet their water nee"s. :outh has a tough leather! lining, whi)h allows them to eat tough an" thorn! "esert vegetation. Thi)* )oat: 4nsulates them &rom intense heat ra"iate" &rom san"J the! sweat 7 P more a&ter shearing. Transitions to lighter )olor in summer to re&le)t more o& the suns light an" heat.

Gong legs *eep their 9o"ies &arther &rom san" sur&a)eN&arther &rom san"s ra"iate" heat. Geather! pat)hes: Anees have thi)* pat)hes o& tissue that prevent s*in 9urns when the! *neel in hot san". Sternum has a thi)*ene" pa" o& tissue )alle" the pe"estal 5onl! on #rome"ar! )amels6 When the! assume the normal resting position o& sternal re)um9en)! 5sitting on all &ours6, the pe"estal *eeps mu)h o& the un"ersi"e o& the 9o"! up an" awa! &rom the hot san", an" allows air &low un"er the )amel, thus helping to )ool it o&&. Congregate 5hu""le6 when resting to minimiDe exposure to sun an" hot surroun"ings Gong e!elashes, ear hairs, an" nostrils with &laps that )an )loseNall help to prevent san" &rom entering the 9o"! "uring san"storms. The! also have a transparent thir" e!eli" to help them remove san" parti)les that "o get into the e!es. Wi"e pa"s on their &eet *eep them &rom sin*ing into the san".

Ai"ne!s an" intestines are well a"apte" to "esertJ urine is a thi)*, s!rup! &lui" 5not mu)h water leaves the 9o"!6J &e)es emerge so "r! the! )an 9e use" as &uel &or )amp &ires. 5http:FFen.wi*ipe"ia.orgFwi*iFCamel6

$ore on a6oidin1 free&in14nucleatin1 .roteins

As the arti)le mentions, some proteins in extra)ellular &lui" in living organisms serve as nu)leation sites upon whi)h li<ui" water mole)ules )an un"ergo &reeDing. 4t is this &reeDing o& water outsi"e o& )ells that allows the )ells surroun"e" 9! the i)e to remain li<ui". 4& water &reeDes insi"e )ells in an organism, it expan"s an" ruptures the )ell mem9ranes 5or in plants, the )ell walls6. Then, when this organism thaws out as the temperature warms up again, it )annot survive the )ellular "amage an" will not revive. 3ut as the extra)ellular &lui" )ontaining these nu)leating protein &reeDes, the remaining un&roDen &lui" 9e)omes more )on)entrate"Nit still )ontains all the solute parti)les 5ex)ept the nu)leating proteins6 that were )ontaine" in all the &lui", now )on)entrate" into the le&tover li<ui". This h!pertoni) &lui" then "raws water 9! osmosis out o& the )ells it surroun"s. Those )ells thus also 9e)ome h!pertoni) an" the! "raw in glu)ose &rom the remaining un&roDen &lui" an" surroun"ing tissue, thus in)reasing the )on)entration 5osmolalit!6 o& the intra)ellular &lui". This lowers its &reeDing temperature an" prevents the )ells &rom &reeDing, unless the surroun"ing temperature "e)reases signi&i)antl!.

35

There are un"ou9te"l! man! more spe)ies o& inse)ts that utiliDe nu)leating proteins than an! other t!pe o& e)totherms. Animals that )an survive su9=&reeDing temperatures utiliDing nu)leating proteins to prevent )ellular &reeDing are sai" to 9e &reeDe=tolerant. 5http:FFwww.9io."avi"son.e"uFpeopleFmi"or)asFanimalph!siolog!Fwe9sitesF2 %%FCrouserFin"ex.h tm6 *ree+e tolerance is "e&ine" as the )onversion o& 7 P or more o& an animals total 9o"! water into extra)ellular i)e. 5http:FF&l!nnthe)at.hu9pages.)omFhu9F&reeDing=strategies6 4nse)ts are the most &reeDe=tolerant animal an", as a result, the! are a9le to survive at lower temperatures than most other animals an" )an exist in the )ol"est regions, where temperatures ma! rea)h P0 oC. (reeDe toleran)e is one o& two me)hanisms &or )oping with su9=&reeDing temperatures. The se)on" is free+e avoidance. This pro)ess allows animals to preserve their 9o"il! &lui"s in a li<ui" state at extremel! low temperaturesNin e&&e)t, super)ooling these &lui"s. These animals survive in part 9! avoi"ing all i)e nu)leating agents. Here is more in&ormation on 9oth &reeDe avoi"an)e an" &reeDe toleran)e: http:FF&l!nnthe)at.hu9pages.)omFhu9F&reeDing=strategies. 5Avoi" the Start #ownloa" 9uttonNthe entire arti)le is there to rea" ?ust 9! s)rolling "own the s)reen.6

$ore on nucleation sites in chemistr3

Ever!one *nows that water &reeDes at oC, right' Well, it "oes i& it has nu)leating sites on whi)h to 9egin )r!stalliDation. These sites )an 9e tin! "ust or pollutant parti)les, tin! air 9u99lesQ or even tin! i)e )r!stals themselvesNan!thing upon whi)h water mole)ules )an 9egin to )r!stalliDe. These parti)les are nu)leation sites, re<uire" &or &reeDing 5or )on"ensing6 to o))ur, even in e)totherms in winter. On)e )r!stalliDation has 9egun on these see" parti)les, it pro)ee"s rapi"l!. Without these nu)leation sites, it is mu)h more "i&&i)ult &or i)e )r!stals to &orm. (reeDing with impurities serving as nu)leation sites is re&erre" to as heterogeneous nu)leation. The pure li<ui" water 5without impurities to serve as nu)leation sites6 must 9e )oole" &ar 9elow its normal &reeDing temperature 9e&ore it a)tuall! &reeDesNit must 9e super)oole". 8ure water "oesnt &reeDe until it rea)hes P.2 oC. When it rea)hes this temperature, however, it &reeDes ver! <ui)*l!, sin)e the &irst )r!stal that &orms is surroun"e" 9! all the super)oole" water mole)ules that <ui)*l! 9on" to the )r!stal an" 9e)ome soli". Un"er normal )ir)umstan)es, we "ont en)ounter trul! pure water 59e)ause its su)h a great solvent, so it almost alwa!s )ontains impuritiesNeven "rin*ing water6, an" that is wh! we o9serve that water &reeDes at or ver! near o C. (reeDing without impurities as nu)leation sites is )alle" homogeneous nu)leation. Water, o& )ourse, is not the onl! pure li<ui" that must have nu)leation sites in or"er to &reeDe at its normal &reeDing temperature 5or must 9e super)oole" i& it "oesnt )ontain nu)leation sites6. 4t is, however, the onl! li<ui" that we normall! experien)e un"ergoing the &reeDing phase )hange. An" all 9everages we )onsume )ontain a ver! high )on)entration o& water, with some impurities, so the! all &reeDe at roughl! the same temperature. O& )ourse, with higher )on)entrations o& solute "issolve" in the water, the &reeDing point o& that solution "e)reases 5&reeDing point "epression6. Supersaturate" solutionsNthose that )ontain more solute "issolve" in the water than the water )an hol" at that temperatureNalso involve nu)leation sites 5or to 9e more pre)ise, the la)* o& nu)leation sites6. Supersaturate" solutions are usuall! ma"e 9! heating water an"

36

)ontinuousl! a""ing solute until the solution is saturate" an" )an hol" no more solute, o9serve" 9! having le&tover soli" solute remaining in solution. +emoving the solute 9! "e)anting o&& the hot solution !iel"s the saturate" solution. The solu9ilit! o& most soli"s usuall! "e)reases with "e)reasing temperature. So, when the solution )ools, i& it remains un"istur9e", the extra solute that shoul" pre)ipitate out o& solution ma! remain "issolve" in the )ool solution. This is what is meant 9! a supersaturate" solution. Without nu)leation sites on whi)h to 9egin pre)ipitation, the ex)ess solute mole)ules )annot easil! )ome out o& solution an" remain "issolve". This solution )on"ition is somewhat unsta9le, though, an" with some "istur9an)e, or with the a""ition o& a single )r!stal o& the original solute, soli"i&i)ation 5pre)ipitation6 o& the ex)ess solute o))urs ver! <ui)*l!. To "emonstrate this, tea)hers t!pi)all! ma*e a supersaturate" solution o& so"ium a)etate 5although so"ium thiosul&ate )an also wor*6 an" see" it with a tin! )r!stal o& the solute. The entire solution <ui)*l! 9e)omes soli". Another example o& this is ro)* )an"!, ma"e &rom a supersaturate" solution o& sugar. This example is not use&ul as a "emonstration, sin)e it o))urs ver! slowl! 5over "a!s6, an" re<uires rather high temperatures to prepare the supersaturate" solution 59ut the en" pro"u)t, ro)* )an"!, is tast!6. As an asi"e, 9oiling an" )on"ensing also involve nu)leation sites. 3oiling an" )on"ensing without homogeneous nu)leation sites re<uires superheating or super)ooling, respe)tivel!. This explains wh! a glass o& water heate" in the mi)rowave oven ma! not 9oil even though its temperature is higher than % oC, an" then 9oils almost explosivel! when !ou a"" sugar or pow"ere" )o)oa, or merel! "rop in a spoon to stir it. The relativel! pure water was superheate" in the mi)rowave without 9oiling. A""ing impurities o& an! sort will provi"e the nu)leation sites nee"e" &or 9oilingJ an" the water mole)ules, 9eing hotter than their normal 9oiling temperature, will all 9oil almost simultaneousl!. Water "roplets in the upper atmosphere )an 9e )oole" wa! 9elow oC an" still remain li<ui". When the! en)ounter "ust parti)les in the atmosphere, the! will <ui)*l! &reeDe to soli", in the &orm o& snow&la*es or even hail. (ormation o& &og an" )lou"s &rom water vapor 5)on"ensing6 also "epen"s on parti)ulate impurities serving as heterogeneous nu)leation sites &or water vapor )on"ensation. #e=gassing o& solutions )ontaining "issolve" gases is also ai"e" 9! heterogeneous nu)leation, su)h as the pro)ess o& rapi" evolution o& )ar9on "ioxi"e gas 9u99les &orming in an opene" 9ottleF)an o& so"a. Another well=*nown example o& this is the :entos an" Co*e "emonstration that results in a ge!ser o& so"a erupting &rom the 9ottle as the )ar9on "ioxi"e "e= gasses almost instantaneousl!. The examples in the pre)e"ing paragraphs are ?ust a &ew o& the natural phenomenon in the ph!si)al worl" that involve nu)leation. So !ou )an see that nu)leation sites are involve" in man! natural pro)esses that we en)ounter ever! "a!.

$ore on 6ar3in1 normal bod3 tem.eratures in animals

The (oo" an" Agri)ulture OrganiDation o& the Unite" -ations provi"es these normal 9o"! temperatures &or various "omesti)ate" animals:
)ormal Tem.. FC ,1.7 ,1.2 )ormal Tem.. o( % %., % .1 )ormal Tem.. FC ,2.7 ,2.7 )ormal Tem.. o( % ,.% % ,.%

Animal Cattle 3u&&alo

Animal Cal& @oat

37

Sheep Glama, alpa)a #on*e! Chi)*en

,2. ,1. ,1.2 .2.

% 2.2 % % .. .1

CamelR Horse 8ig 8iglet

,..7=.%. ,1. ,2. ,2.1

2..%=% 7.1 % .. % 2.2 % ,./

% 0./

6ody temperatures may be '?C above or below these temperatures. @ $he camelAs body temperature will vary with the time of day and water availability. 4hen a camel is watered daily its body temperature rises from &B.C?C in the morning to &%.C?C at noon, if the animal has no water, the temperature range is &=.C?C to ='?C. "http://www.fao.org/docrep/#0 90$/t0 90e04.htm% &ood % and % 'griculture %(rgani)ation % of % the%*nited%+ations%%'%,anual%for%the%-rimary%'nimal%.ealth%/are%0orker1%2994!

Other sele)te" animals an" their normal 9o"! temperatures in)lu"e: Animal +hesus ma)a<ue Hama"r!as 9a9oon Ceta)eans 5in)lu"ing Whale6 +a99it an" Cat 3at Hippopotamus Elephant Seal Sloth, Opossum > 8lat!pus )ormal Tem.. FC ,/=. ,/=,2 ,7.7 ,2. ,0 ,7./ ,/.0 ,2. =,.. )ormal Tem.. o( 2/.1=% . 2/.1=% 2.2 27.2 % 2.2 21./ 2/. 21. 12./=2,.2

5#ata on +hesus ma)a<ue an" Hama"r!as 9a9oon )ame 2(rom %210 $he Care and Management of 0aboratory -nimals Trevor 8oole, e". Gongman S)ienti&i) an" Te)hni)al: Harlow, Essex, while the remaining "ata )ame 2 (rom %22% 9nvironmental and Metabolic -nimal 3hysiology .th e"ition. C. Ga"" 8rosser, e". Wile!=Giss: -ew Sor*. pg. %%% 5&rom Ta9le %66 5A9ove "ata in ta9le an" sour)es liste" all were &oun" here: http:FFwww.a<uati)ape.orgF9o"!temp.html.6 The a9ove "ata shows that there is a )onsi"era9le variation 5,2P.% oC6 among animals normal 9o"! temperatures. -ote that the )amel has the highest normal 9o"! temperature among larger animals. The &a)t that it t!pi)all! exhi9its a normall! higher internal 9o"! temperature means that it will ta*e even higher temperatures 5"esert=li*e temperatures6 &or it to &eel stresse". This ma*es the )amel an i"eal )hoi)e &or "esert li&e. 4t also explains wh! it "oesnt sweat mu)h until it experien)es extremel! high external temperatures.

$ore on 6ariation in human bod3 tem.erature4diurnal rh3thm

4t is t!pi)al to hear people sa! the normal human 9o"! temperature is 21./ o( 9ut, in truth, this num9er varies somewhat "ue to m!ria" &a)tors, su)h as time o& "a!, level an" t!pe o& a)tivit!, external temperature, et).

38

4n health! a"ults, 9o"! temperature &lu)tuates a9out .7 TC 5 .2 T(6 throughout the "a!, with lower temperatures in the morning an" higher temperatures in the late a&ternoon an" evening, as the 9o"!Ns nee"s an" a)tivities )hange. -ormal human 9o"! temperature varies slightl! &rom person to person an" 9! the time o& "a!. Conse<uentl!, ea)h t!pe o& measurement Le.g., oral, analM has a range o& normal temperatures. The range &or normal human 9o"! temperatures, ta*en orall!, is ,/.1U .7 TC 521.2U .2 T(6. This means that an! oral temperature 9etween ,/., an" ,0., TC 520., an" 22.% T(6 is li*el! to 9e normal. 5http:FFen.wi*ipe"ia.orgFwi*iF-ormalOhumanO9o"!Otemperature6

The graph at the right shows the normal variation in human 9o"! temperature. -ote that the lowest temperature o))urs in the late nightF earl! morningV?ust a &ew hours 9e&ore awa*eningVwhen we$re pro9a9l! in our "eepest sleep, an" the highest temperature o))urs sometime in the late a&ternoonF earl! evening.

"http'((en.wi*ipedia.org(wi*i(File'/ody0.emp01ariation.png 6

$ore on "a3s "e control our bod3 tem.erature

%h3siolo1ical ada.tations (.rimaril3 neural res.onses and lon1-term acclimation Basodilation is the pro)ess o& "ilating arteries, in)reasing 9loo" &low to the extremities, there9! maximiDing heat &low &rom the 9o"! to the surroun"ingsV"one when expose" to hot external temperatures, to prevent the 9o"!$s overheating. Basoconstriction is the pro)ess o& re"u)ing the siDe o& veins )arr!ing 9loo"Vespe)iall! arteries an" arterioles, restri)ting 9loo" &low to the s*in an" extremities, there9! minimiDing the amount o& heat loss &rom the 9o"! to the surroun"ingsV"one "uring exposure to cold external temperatures. 4t is interesting to note that vaso)onstri)tion is o&ten &ollowe" 9! a )!)le o& vaso"ilation, with the two )!)les alternating. This is re&erre" to as the hunting rea)tion or the Gewis )!)le. 4t is a wa! &or the 9o"! to minimiDe heat loss 9! )ooling the extremities, !et maximiDing the "uration o& time the extremities )an 9e expose" to the )ol" without su))um9ing to &rost9ite. S"eatin1 o))urs when we are expose" to hot external temperatures. The pro)ess o& sweating pro"u)es water on the sur&a)e o& the s*in. (rom there the moisture evaporates into the air. Evaporation is an en"othermi) pro)ess that re<uires energ!. When perspiration evaporates o&& our s*in, it uses heat &rom our 9o"! to ma*e that ph!si)al )hange happenJ the removal o& heat &rom our s*in lowers our 9o"! temperature. Ansulation provi"es a la!er 9etween the 9o"! )ore an" the external temperature. 4nsulation generall! prote)t &rom cold external temperatures. Several "i&&erent t!pes o& insulation o))ur in the human 9o"!.

39

%iloerectionVW@oose 9umpsXVo))urs when the mus)les surroun"ing hair &olli)les )ontra)t as a response to cold external temperature. This results in the hairs stan"ing on en" whi)h woul", i& we ha" more 9o"! hair, result in trapping air 9etween the hairs as a wa! o& insulating the s*in &rom that )ol" temperature. 4n most humans 5with ver! little 9o"! hair6, this rea)tion is 9oun" to 9e a &aile" attempt to sta! warm, as little insulation ensues. P Subcutaneous fat also provi"es a la!er o& insulation 9etween our 9o"! )ore an" the outsi"e worl". The larger the amount o& &at the 9o"! )ontains, the greater "egree o& prote)tion it o&&ers the 9o"! )ore. 4t is 9est suite" to prote)ting the 9o"! &rom cold temperatures, where the &at insulates the 9o"!$s )ore an" prevents heat loss to the surroun"ings. P S;in an" s;eletal muscle also provi"e some insulation an" there&ore prote)tion to the 9o"! )ore, although not mu)h )an 9e "one to )hange the amount o& these two materials within the 9o"!, unless !ou 9e)ome a 9o"! 9uil"er. )on-shi6erin1 thermo1enesis 5-ST6 is a )ellular pro)ess wherein 9rown &at )ells 53rown A"ipose Tissue, or 3AT6 )ontaining man! mito)hon"ria are a9le to in)rease meta9oli) rates to in)rease energ! pro"u)tion. This o))urs in response to exposure to cold external temperatures. As a response to exposure to low temperatures 5,7=,/ oC or lower6, thermal re)eptors in the s*in are stimulate" an" transmit a signal to the h!pothalamus 5the 9o"!$s thermoregulation )enter6. 4n response to a signal &rom the h!pothalamus, norepinephrine is release" in the 3AT, whi)h initiates meta9olism o& the &at, generating energ!. This pro)ess 9!passes the normal s!nthesis o& AT8 that o))urs in the meta9oli) pro)ess. Thus, energ! pro"u)e" &rom this pro)ess is "issipate" as heat, rather than pro"u)ing AT8 mole)ules, whi)h woul" store the energ! within )ells. P

The heat pro"u)e" in this pro)ess is then trans&erre" 9! the )ir)ulator! s!stem throughout the 9o"!, raising )ore 9o"! temperature. The pro)ess is limite" 9! the amount o& 9rown &at store" in the 9o"!. 8rolonge" exposure to )ol" )an "eplete this sour)e, possi9l! resulting in "eath. As an asi"e, 3AT an" non=shivering thermogenesis is seen as pla!ing a signi&i)ant role in "ia9etes. Until the earl! 2 s, the s)ienti&i) worl" 9elieve" that humans ha" no 3AT, unli*e man! other mammals. 3ut stu"ies sin)e have "is)overe" areas o& 3AT storage in humans, pre&erentiall! in the shoul"er an" ne)* region, an" perhaps other areas as well. One stu"! reports that people "iagnose" with "ia9etes have ver! limite" supplies o& 3AT in their 9o"ies. The report also suggests that 3AT ma! pla! a signi&i)ant role in normal meta9olism in humans. The stu"! has shown that non=shivering thermogenesis )an involve mito)hon"rial un)oupling in s*eletal mus)le, as well as in 3AT. W:ore re)entl!, we showe" that human nonshivering thermogenesis in response to )ol" exposure is a))ompanie" 9! an" signi&i)antl! relate" to mito)hon"rial un)oupling in s*eletal mus)le 5%. 6. +e)ent experiments &rom our group )on&irm these &in"ings an" a""itionall! in"i)ate that 9oth 3AT an" s*eletal mus)le pla! a role in human -ST Lnonshivering thermogenesisM.X Stu"ies are 9eing "one to test whether exposing human su9?e)ts to )ooler environments might &a)ilitate -ST, there9! utiliDing &at )ells to their &ullest extent an" thus re"u)ing &at within the 9o"!, resulting in weight loss or, at least, limiting weight gain. 5http:FFa?pregu.ph!siolog!.orgF)ontentF, %F2F+217.long6

40

Deha6ioral thermore1ulation involves an!thing we "o voluntaril! to regulate our temperature. This )oul" 9e as simple as moving to a warmer spotJ e.g., into the sunlight or a warm room, i& one is )ol", or to a )ooler spotJ e.g., into the sha"e 5or air )on"itioning6, i& one is hot. Other 9ehavioral )hanges in)lu"e sitting rather than stan"ing to prote)t the legs &rom )ol" temperatures, tu)*ing our han"s into our armpits to *eep them warm, 9lowing warm air over our han"s to warm them, a""ing or removing )lothing la!ers, et). All animals utiliDe these me)hanisms 5OA, not all have a))ess to air )on"itioning or a warm room or )lothing6 to help regulate their 9o"! temperature, espe)iall! e)totherms, whi)h rel! primaril! on migration to warmerF)ooler )limes. Shi6erin1 is a repeate" )ontra)tion an" relaxation o& s*eletal mus)les as a result o& exposure to prolonge" cold external temperature, resulting in s*in temperatures 9etween ,1 an" . oC. -o use&ul movement is pro"u)e" 9e)ause antagonisti) mus)le pairs are a)tivate" simultaneousl!, at a9out .Y% tremors per minute. As a result o& this movement o& mus)les, )ellular energ! is expen"e" an" this warms the 9o"!. 4t$s 9een estimate" that shivering )an as mu)h as "ou9le the 9asal meta9oli) rate. Shivering )an in)rease meta9oli) rates 9! 2Y7 times the normal 9asal rates, thus in)reasing energ!Fheat pro"u)tion to warm the 9o"!. 4nterestingl!, though, i& the 9o"! experien)es prolonge" exposure to )ol", shivering stops, as shivering ultimatel! re<uires more energ! than it pro"u)es. So shivering is onl! a short=term W&ixX &or exposure to )ol". On)e shivering has stoppe", onl! an external sour)e o& heat, su)h as 9o"!=to=9o"! )onta)t )an restore warmth.

41

5uddlin1 together 5*leptotherm!6 is another example o& 9ehavioral thermoregulation. 4t is one wa! that humans 5an" other mammals6 )an sta! warm in cold external temperatures. 3eing in )lose )onta)t to others exposes less o& the 9o"!$s sur&a)e area to the )ol" temperature, there9! minimiDing heat loss. 4t )an also 9e use" in hot )limates to re"u)e the amount o& sur&a)e exposure to the sun$s ra!s, there9! helping to *eep )oolJ e.g., )amels "o this to tr! to sta! )ooler6.

$ore on mechanisms of heat transfer to re1ulate bod3 tem.erature

There are essentiall! &our wa!s heat )an 9e trans&erre" toF&rom our 9o"! &romFto the surroun"ings. The! are: ra"iation, )on"u)tion, )onve)tion, an" evaporative )ooling. The "iagram 9elow illustrates all &our me)hanisms. <adiation is the pro)ess where9! energ! is emitte" as ele)tromagneti) ra"iation an" propagates through spa)e. 3! moving awa! &rom the emitting o9?e)tJ e.g., a &ire, we )an avoi" the higher external temperature an" maintain our normal 9o"! temperature. Similarl!, we )an move to a sha"e" area to avoi" the ra"iant heat o& the sun. Or we )an be the ra"iative ( 9o"! 5ra"iating in&rare" or heat http://www.thermoanalytics.com/human-simulation/thermal-manikin energ!6, i& our )ore temperature is ) higher than am9ient temperature. 4n this )ase, o9?e)ts aroun" us will a9sor9 the heat that we ra"iate. At am9ient temperatures whi)h are lower than )ore 9o"! temperature, ra"iation is a)tuall! the main me)hanism use" to regulate 9o"! temperature. At room temperature or 9elow, ra"iation alone is a su&&i)ient me)hanism to maintain our )ore 9o"! temperature. 4n &a)t, at room temperature, an un)lothe" person will lose enough heat to the surroun"ings that he will &eel un)om&orta9l! )ool. At higher temperatures, ra"iation is mu)h less signi&i)ant in terms o& our overall )ore 9o"! temperature regulationVan" a)tuall! wor*s against re"u)ing 9o"! temperature, as we will a9sor9 energ! &rom outsi"e sour)es an" 9e)ome warmer, when our 9o"! is tr!ing to )ool o&&. We still ra"iate energ!, no matter what the external temperature, 9ut when the external temperature ex)ee"s our 9o"! temperature 5when it$s hot6 we$re a9sor9ing more heat than we emit. So, ra"iation is onl! use&ul to us in cold temperatures.

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Conduction o))urs when a warm o9?e)t trans&ers heat "ire)tl! to a )ooler o9?e)t. We )an avoi" this metho" o& heat trans&er 9! avoi"ing hot o9?e)tsJ e.g., "on$t tou)h a hot 9urner on a stove, or "on$t wal* 9are&oot on hot 9ea)h san". Or we )an use it to our a"vantage 9! "eli9eratel! tou)hing )ooler o9?e)ts to trans&er heat &rom our warmer 9o"! to the o9?e)tJ e.g., we )an ?ump into a swimming pool or the o)ean to allow the )ooler water to )ome in )onta)t with our 9o"!, allowing heat &rom our 9o"! to &low into the water, thus re"u)ing our )ore 9o"! temperature. Or we )an sit on a warm ro)* to help us warm us, trans&erring heat "ire)tl! &rom the ro)* to our 9o"!. So, )on"u)tion )an 9e use&ul to us in either hot or cold external temperatures. However, )on"u)tion is usuall! not a signi&i)ant )ontri9utor to our )ore 9o"! heat= )ontrol. Con6ection o))urs when a &lui" trans&ers heat 9! &lowing, so that the warmer parts o& the &lui" move into the )ooler parts. We )an use a &an to 9low air over our 9o"!, allowing heat to &low into the air an" moving awa! &rom our 9o"!, there9! lowering 9o"! temperature, or merel! allow am9ient air to pass our 9o"!, whi)h woul" have the same, al9eit smaller e&&e)t. Or we )an a"" or remove )lothing toF&rom our 9o"!, to "e)rease heat loss 9! )onve)tion to the air in a )ol" environment or in)rease heat loss 9! )onve)tion in the air in a hot environment, respe)tivel!. The )lothing serves as an insulator, preventing the ex)hange o& heat 9etween our 9o"! an" the air. The Wwin"=)hill in"exX re&le)ts win" spee" as a )ontri9utor to the removal o& heat &rom our 9o"! in the wintertime. The &aster the win" spee" is, the greater the rate o& &low o& the air an" the greater the rate o& heat loss 9! )onve)tion &rom our 9o"! to the air. Conve)tion, li*e )on"u)tion, is not t!pi)all! a signi&i)ant )ontri9utor to 9o"il! heat=)ontrol. *6a.oration o))urs whenever we sweat or exhale. Our 9reath )ontains mu)h moisture in the &orm o& water vapor, an" when li<ui" water evaporates in the lungs, it a9sor9s energ! &rom lung tissue, there9! "e)reasing 9o"! temperature somewhat. That warm moisture, usuall! at a higher temperature than the air outsi"e, then leaves the 9o"!, ta*ing its heat with it, again leaving the rest o& the 9o"! at a slightl! lower temperature. An", as our s*in is not totall! impervious to water, evaporation also o))urs via water vapor leaving our s*in in the pro)ess o& transepi"ermal "i&&usion, even though we "o not "ete)t it. The water vapor leaving our 9o"! 9! 9oth exhalation o& water vapor an" the loss through our s*in 5when we$re -OT visi9l! perspiring6 is re&erre" to as insensi9le water loss, insensi9le 9e)ause we "on$t "ete)t that it$s happening an" there&ore is ver! "i&&i)ult to measure. 58erhaps it shoul" 9e )alle" immeasura9le water loss.6 4t$s estimate" that we lose a9out , Y,7 mG per "a! 9! exhaling moist air an" a similar volume 9! "i&&usion through the s*in. 3oth these pro)esses result in the )ooling o& our 9o"ies, although not 9! mu)h. When we sweat, though, our perspiration a9sor9s energ! &rom the s*in as it evaporates into the air an" )arries that heat with it, there9! re"u)ing our )ore 9o"! temperature. 4& the temperature o& the surroun"ings is lower than our 9o"! temperature, we )an lose heat to the surroun"ings 9! ra"iation an" )on"u)tion alone, without the nee" &or 5an" hen)e, without the pro)ess o&6 sweating. 3ut i& the surroun"ings are warmer than our 9o"! temperature, we a)tuall! gain heat &rom ra"iation an" )on"u)tion o& heat &rom the surroun"ings, thus warming our 9o"!. 4n these )on"itions, evaporation is the onl! wa! we )an lower 9o"! temperature, an" sweating is re<uire". Thus sweating is a signi&i)ant meansVin &a)t, essentiall! the onl! e&&e)tive meansVo& 9o"il! heat regulation in hot temperatures a9ove )ore 9o"! temperature, or a9out ,7 oC. 4n the hot )on"itions mentione" a9ove, an!thing that prevents a"e<uate evaporation o& sweat will )ause 9o"! temperature to rise as we a9sor9 heat &rom the air an" o9?e)ts aroun" us. Sin)e humi"it! re"u)es the amount o& moisture that )an evaporate &rom our 9o"!, it a&&e)ts our

43

a9ilit! to regulate 9o"! temperature. Humi"it! is the main reason we use the -ational Weather Servi)e$s Heat 4n"ex ta9le 5see 9elow6 to re&le)t Wreal=&eelX temperatures in the summertime.

-OAA national weather servi)e: heat in"ex temperature 5T(6

:0 :2 :! :# :: /0 /2 /! /# /: 100 102 10! 10# 10: 110

!0 1 1% 1, 17 11 2% 2. 20 % % % 7 % 2 %%. %%2 %2. %, %,/ !+ 1 12 1. 10 12 2, 2/ % % . % 2 %%. %%2 %2. %, %,0 +0 1% 1, 17 11 2% 27 22 % , % 1 %%, %%1 %2. %,% %,0 ++ 1% 1. 1/ 12 2, 20 % % % / %%2 %%0 %2. %, %,0 #0 12 1. 11 2% 27 % % 7 %% %%/ %2, %22 %,0 +elative #+ 12 17 12 2, 21 % , % 1 %%. %2% %21 %,/ Humi"it! G0 1, 1/ 2 27 % % 7 %%2 %%2 %2/ %,. 5P6 G+ 1. 11 22 20 % , % 2 %%/ %2. %,2 :0 1. 12 2. % % / %%, %2% %22 :+ 17 2 2/ % 2 %% %%0 %2/ %,7 /0 1/ 2% 21 % 7 %%, %22 %,% /+ 1/ 2, % % 1 %%0 %20 100 10 27 % , %%2 %2% %,2
Caution Extreme Caution #anger Extreme #anger WTo &in" the Heat 4n"ex temperature, loo* at the Heat 4n"ex )hart a9ove. (or example, i& the air temperature is 2/T( an" the relative humi"it! is /7P, the heat in"exVhow hot it &eelsVis %2%T(.X
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.eat3inde41%from%the%+ational%(ceanic%and%'tmospheric%'dministration!

The Heat 4n"ex Chart sha"e" Done a9ove % .T( 5"ar* orange or re"6 shows a level that ma! )ause in)reasingl! severe heat "isor"ers with )ontinue" exposure or ph!si)al a)tivit!. The Heat 4n"ex re&le)ts pro9lems that arise &rom )on"itions that are a6 too humi" to allow su&&i)ient evaporation o& sweat to allow proper )ooling, or 96 so hot that su&&i)ient evaporation o& sweat )an o))ur, 9ut this pro)ess o))urs too rapi"l! an" results in severe loss o& ele)trol!tes or "eh!"ration, possi9l! resulting in heat stro*e or even "eath.

$ore on s"eatin1 and e6a.orati6e coolin1

Aeeping in min" that at temperatures a9ove )ore 9o"! temperature, three o& the me)hanisms o& heat ex)hange "es)ri9e" a9oveVra"iation, )onve)tion an" )on"u)tionVall result in heat 1ain to the 9o"!Vprimaril! 9e)ause energ! &lows &rom a warmer o9?e)t to a )ooler o9?e)t. 5See WWh! Col" #oesn$t ExistX in this Tea)her$s @ui"e &or more in&ormation on heat &low.6 There&ore, the onl! remaining me)hanism le&t &or )ooling the 9o"! is evaporative )ooling. An" )ooling 9! evaporation o& water through exhalation through the mouth an" nose is insu&&i)ient to "o the ?o9. Thus, sweating must *i)* in as soon as 5or even 9e&ore6 external temperatures rea)h 9o"! temperature.

44

O& )ourse, it is not the li<ui" water itsel& pro"u)e" 9! sweating that is responsi9le &or the )ooling e&&e)t 9ut, rather, the evaporation o& that li<ui" water into gaseous water vapor. Evaporation is an en"othermi) pro)ess that ta*es water &rom the s*in to warm the li<ui" water enough to )hange it to vapor. As the s*in is )oole" "own, heat &rom the interior o& the 9o"! rushes out to e<uili9rate 9o"! temperature, thus )ooling the interior an" *eeping the 9o"! in a state o& homeostasis. As li<ui" water warms, the *ineti) energ! 5temperature6 o& the mole)ules in)reases. This *ineti) energ! is )ontaine" in their translational, rotational an" vi9rational motionVthe! move &aster. This in)rease" motion pushes mole)ules &arther apart an" results in the stret)hing o& an" eventual 9rea*ing o& 9on"s 9etween mole)ules, eventuall! &reeing them &rom the intermole)ular &or)es that ha" surroun"e" them, allowing them to es)ape into the air as vapor. O& )ourse, all the energ! that e&&e)ts this phase )hange has )ome &rom the s*in, with the result that the s*in temperature has "e)rease". -ote, though, that this "is)ussion has &o)use" solel! on the water un"ergoing a phase )hange. Sweating also in)lu"es the se)retion o& other minerals through the sweat glan"s, e.g., salt. 4nterestingl!, the water loss we experien)e through insensi9le loss 5evaporation through exhalation an" through s*in loss6 is pure water, with no mineral )ontent, unli*e water loss through sweating.
Sweat )ontains mainl! water. 4t also )ontains minerals, la)tate, an" urea. :ineral )omposition varies with the in"ivi"ual, their a))limatisation to heat, exer)ise an" sweating, the parti)ular stress sour)e 5sauna, et).6, the "uration o& sweating, an" the )omposition o& minerals in the 9o"!. An in"i)ation o& the minerals )ontent is so"ium 5 .2 gramFliter6, potassium 5 .2 gFl6, )al)ium 5 . %7 gFl6, magnesium 5 . %, gFl6. Also man! other tra)e elements are ex)rete" in sweat, again an in"i)ation o& their )on)entration is 5although measurements )an var! &i&teen&ol"6 Din) 5 .. milligramsFliter6, )opper 5 .,Y .1 mgFl6, iron 5% mgFl6, )hromium 5 .% mgFl6, ni)*el 5 . 7 mgFl6, lea" 5 . 7 mgFl6. 8ro9a9l! man! other less=a9un"ant tra)e minerals leave the 9o"! through sweating with )orrespon"ingl! lower )on)entrations. Some exogenous organi) )ompoun"s ma*e their wa! into sweat as exempli&ie" 9! an uni"enti&ie" o"i&erous Zmaple s!rupZ s)ente" )ompoun" in several o& the spe)ies in the mushroom genus 0actarius. 4n humans, sweat is h!poosmoti) relative to plasma 5i.e. less salt!6. Sweat t!pi)all! is &oun" at mo"eratel! a)i"i) to neutral pH levels, t!pi)all! 9etween ..7 an" 0. . 5http:FFen.wi*ipe"ia.orgFwi*iF8erspiration6

The loss o& the minerals mentione" a9ove as we sweat )an 9e)ome a ma?or pro9lem in extremel! hot regions. Ex)essive sweating to )ool "own the 9o"! results in the loss o& large volumes o& water, 9ut it )an also result in loss o& salt an" other minerals ne)essar! &or normal )ellular &un)tion. 4n )ases su)h as this, "rin*ing water to reh!"rate "oes not e&&e)tivel! repla)e all that is lost through sweating, as water alone "oes not replenish the lost minerals. 4n )ases li*e this, "rin*ing sports "rin*s or other li<ui"s that )ontain these ne)essar! ele)trol!tes is a 9etter solution. This is also true &or athletes who lose large amounts o& water through sweating. (or most non=athletes not expose" to ex)essive "esert temperatures, however, "rin*ing water is pro9a9l! su&&i)ient to replenish the water lost through sweatingJ other nutrients )an pro9a9l! 9e replenishe" through normal &oo" inta*e. Another wa! we )an use evaporation to )ool us "own is 9! using a wet 9an"ana whi)h has ha" so"ium pol!a)r!late sewn into the insi"e. The so"ium pol!a)r!late pol!mer a9sor9s several hun"re" times its weight in water, an" that water slowl! evaporates &rom the 9an"ana

45

as we go a9out our normal tas*s, )ooling our s*in an" helping to maintain our )ore 9o"! temperature..

$ore on the amount of heat loss b3 s"eatin1 and e6a.orati6e coolin1

3elow is a series o& e<uations that "es)ri9es the amount o& energ! involve" in the pro)ess o& evaporation o& sweat. A))or"ing to the e<uipartition o& energ! theor!, The average *ineti) energ! [ \ mv2, whi)h also e<uals ,F2 *T AEavg [ \ mv2 [ ,F2 *T, Where m [ molar mass v [ velo)it! o& mole)ules A [ 3oltDmann$s )onstant, %.,1 / R % T [ a9solute temperature in *elvins Thus, solving &or v, v [ ,*T F m So, &or water, at
o

=2,

BFAFmole)ule

C,
=2,

v [ , R %.,1 / R % v [ /%..11 mFs

BFA R % *g=mFs2 R 20, A R % mole R /. 22 R %

OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO

2,

mole)ule R % %g

OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO

OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO

OOOOOOOOOOOOOO

% mole)ule

%B

%1. % g

% mole

-ote that this )al)ulation assumes all the *ineti) energ! in the water is a measure o& its translational motionVmovement &rom pla)e to pla)e. +otation an" vi9ration are treate" separatel!. (rom the velo)it! o& water mole)ules at in water at oC. AE [ \ mv2 AE [ \ R 5%1. % gFmol6 R 5/%..2 mFs62 R 5% *g F % g6 R 5% B F % *g=m2Fs26 [ ,. ..1 BFmol ,. ..1 BFmol R 5% )al F ..%1. B6 R 5% mol F %1. % g6 [ .7.%1 )alFg #oing the same )al)ulation &or water mole)ules at %
o o

C, we )an )al)ulate the amount o& energ! )ontaine"

C, we get /%.0. )alFg.

L AE [ .7.%1 )alFg R 5,0, A F 20, A6 [ /%.0. )alFg M This results in a net 1ain in *ineti) energ! o& the water &rom oC 5.7.%1 )alFg6 to % oC 5/%.0. )alFg6 o& onl! %/.77 )alFg. 3ut noting that it ta*es % )alories to raise the temperature o& one gram o& water &rom oC to % oC, the remaining energ!, 1,..7 )alFg, must 9e the in)rease in rotational an" vi9rational energ!, that energ! whi)h is nee"e" to stret)h an" then 9rea* the se)on"ar! 9on"ing hol"ing the water mole)ules together in the li<ui" phase.

46

O& )ourse, evaporation o& sweat "oesn$t happen at % oC, 9ut at approximatel! ,0 oC. 3ut it is interesting to note that, while the stan"ar" heat o& vaporiDation o& water at % oC is state" as 7,2 )alFg, ph!siolog! text9oo*s state the heat o& vaporiDation o& perspiration at 9o"! temperature is 71 )alFg, not 7,2. This is primaril! "ue to the &a)t that, at ,0 oC the water mole)ules have less *ineti) energ! than the! "o at % oC, so we must a"" that extra energ! at 9o"! temperature to separate the water mole)ules into vapor. Another &a)tor we must )onsi"er is the energ! nee"e" to "o the wor* to expan" the gas against )onstant pressure 58"H wor*6. Although this is not a huge &a)tor, it "oes )ontri9ute a little less than % P o& the total energ! expen"e" to vaporiDe water. 5See )al)ulations 9elow.6 This amount o& energ! is )ounte" in the total amount a""e" to the s!stem to vaporiDe the water, 9ut it is not "ire)tl! involve" in the phase )hange itsel&. So we shoul" su9tra)t that &rom the total energ! to &in" onl! the amount nee"e" to 9rea* the 9on"s hol"ing the mole)ules together in the li<ui" state to allow them to 9e)ome vapor 5.2..2 )alFg, 9elow6. (or more on the theor! o& e<uipartition, see http:FFwww.&or"ham.e"uFa)a"emi)sFprogramsOatO&or"hamOF)hemistr!F)oursesFph!si)alO)hemist r!Oi%Fle)turesFe<uipartitionO/7.2.asp. Here is a summar! ta9le o& the )al)ulations a9ove, plus a &ew extra: Temperatures Average :ole)ular Belo)it! C t 5%F2 mv [ ,F2 *T6 A)tual AE 5&rom AE [ %F2 mv26 -et AE @ain &rom
o 2

0 /%..2 .7.2 . . . 1,.. , .% .20.2 /%%..

3G /77.2 7%., /.% ,0. , .2 72./ ,..2 .20.2 71../ +:0.0

100

0%1.0 mFs /%.0 )alFg %/./ )alFg % . . )alFg )alFg 1,.. )alFg

C 5a)t AEt = a)t AE 6

o

Heat Energ! A""e" &rom

C to t 5% )alFg= C6

<emaining 5eat *nerg!R 5Heat Energ! a""e"t = -et AEt6 *xtra 5eat )ee"e" to HaporiDe 5+HE% = +HEt6 8"H wor* 5not part o& 9rea*ing 9on"s6 Energ! o& 3on" 3rea*ing 5Hvap% = 8"H wor*% 6 Cal)ulate" Heat HaporiDation 5E33 ] EH- ] 8"H wor*6 Stan"ar" Heat HaporiDation C t

.%.% )alFg .20.2 )alFg 7,2. )alFg

+3/.0 )alFg

R +emaining Heat Energ! [ rotational > vi9rational energ! nee"e" to stret)h an" 9rea* 9on"s to vaporiDe water 5)oul" 9e thought o& as the potential energ! 9arrier nee"e" to 9e over)ome to 9rea* 9on"s6 5a"apte" &rom http:FFh!perph!si)s.ph!=astr.gsu.e"uFh9aseFthermoFphase.html^hvap6

$ore on thermore1ulation and the term Hset .ointI

Thermoregulation, li*e all other homeostati) me)hanisms, uses negative &ee"9a)* to maintain its )onstant value, )alle" a set point. -egative &ee"9a)* o))urs when a )hange o))urs in a s!stem an" that )hange )auses a me)hanism to rea)t to )orre)t the )hange. An analog! to an ele)troni) )ir)uit or a home )entral heating s!stem )an 9e use" to illustrate this

47

phenomenon, although this s!stem is somewhat oversimpli&ie". -onetheless, with an air )on"itioning s!stem, a thermostat is set at a spe)i&i) temperature. This is what is *nown as the set point. 4& the am9ient temperature then gets too warm 5on a hot "a!, &or example6, the thermostat *i)*s in an" 9egins to )ool the room temperature 9a)* "own to the original set point temperature. The opposite is true &or the heating s!stem: when the temperature "rops 9elow the set point temperature, the thermostat starts the &urna)e so that heat is 9rought into the room to 9ring the temperature 9a)* up to the set room temperature. -ote that the me)hanism o& )hange onl! o))urs a&ter a stimulus has a&&e)te" the set point. So trul!, the set point is not per&e)tl! maintaine", 9ut the s!stem )onstantl! os)illates a9ove an" 9elow that set point to maintain e<uili9rium. The same is true in thermoregulation o& )ore 9o"! temperature. 4n humans, a 9o"! temperature o& ,0 oC 521./ o(6 is )onsi"ere" to 9e the set point. An! )hange in status will )ause a response in the 9o"! to )ompensate &or the )hange. 4& the 9o"! 9e)omes too warm, our 9loo" vessels "ilate to allow greater heat &low to the extremities, where it )an 9e more easil! "issipate" into the surroun"ings. We also 9egin to sweat to allow evaporation to )ool us 9a)* "own. 5See "iagram 9elow.6 3oth me)hanisms 9ring the 9o"! 9a)* to the set point temperature. 4& we get too )ool, then 9loo" vessels )onstri)t to minimiDe 9loo" &low to the extremities, thus minimiDing heat loss to the environment. Shivering, whi)h )auses mus)le )ontra)tions an" generates heat, ma! also o))ur i& the external )ooling is too severe. 3oth o& these me)hanisms help to in)rease )ore 9o"! temperature to return the 9o"! to its set point temperature.

"http://www.pc.maricopa.edu/5iology/pfinkenstadt/56(202/2027esson5uilder/*nit(ne/.omeostasis/inde4 .html!

3ut pro9lems with the term set point a9oun", espe)iall! when use" in )on?un)tion with inanimate analogies, su)h as the thermostat, whi)h oversimpli&! the a)tual pro)ess. A. A. +omanovs*! &rom St. Bosephs Hospital in 8hoenix, A_ "etails some o& them here: http:FFa?pregu.ph!siolog!.orgF)ontentF222F%F+,0.&ull. +ather than the oversimpli&ie" stimulus=negative &ee"9a)* loop "is)usse" a9ove, the me)hanisms o& homeostasis are 9etter explaine" 9! a 7=step pro)ess involving: %. 2. ,. .. 7. a stimulus )ause" 9! a )hange in environment a sensor within the 9o"! 5or on the 9o"! sur&a)e6 that "ete)ts that )hange an integrative pro)essor that )an relate the )hange to 9iologi)al responses an e&&e)tor that )an ma*e )hanges happen the 9iologi)al response itsel&

48

4n the )ase o& thermoregulation, the outsi"e stimulus 5%6 is usuall! an external )hange in temperature, hot or )ol". 4t )oul" also 9e exer)ise or stress that )auses internal 9o"! temperature to in)rease. The sensors 526 are t!pi)all! nerve en"ings in the s*in that "ete)t the external )hange. These in turn sen" signals to the 9rain or, more spe)i&i)all!, the h!pothalamus Vthe integrator 5,6 that interprets the external input into a)tion within the 9o"!. The )all &or a)tion within the 9o"! )oul" 9e initiate" 9! sweat glan"s 5to e&&e)t )ooling6 or s*eletal mus)le a)tivit! 5to e&&e)t warming6Vthe e&&e)tors 5.6. Sweating or shivering woul" then 9e the 9iologi)al response 576.

"http://sbi4u2023.wordpress.com/category/basic-feedback-mechanisms-thermoregulation/!

$ore on Der1mann8s (and Allen8s rule(s

As author +ohrig states, larger mammals are generall! &oun" &arther north an" south o& the e<uator, where the average temperature is ver! )ol". #r. #ennis O$-eil &rom the 3ehavioral S)ien)es #epartment o& 8alomar College notes the &ollowing:
4n %1.0, the @erman 9iologist Carl Der1mann o9serve" that within the same spe)ies o& warm=9loo"e" animals, populations having less massive in"ivi"uals are more o&ten &oun" in warm )limates near the e<uator, while those with greater 9ul*, or mass, are &oun" &urther &rom the e<uator in )ol"er regions. This is "ue to the &a)t that 9ig animals generall! have larger 9o"! masses whi)h result in more heat 9eing pro"u)e". The greater amount o& heat results &rom there 9eing more )ells. A normal 9!pro"u)t o& meta9olism in )ells is heat pro"u)tion. Su9se<uentl!, the more )ells an animal has, the more internal heat it will pro"u)e. 4n a""ition, larger animals usuall! have a smaller sur&a)e area relative to their 9o"! mass an", there&ore, are )omparativel! ine&&i)ient at ra"iating their 9o"! heat o&& into the surroun"ing environment.

49

5http:FFanthro.palomar.e"uFa"aptFa"aptO2.htm6

3oth &a)torsVlarger 9o"ies generating more heat, thus nee"ing more )ooling 5&rom )ooler temperatures6, an" smaller sur&a)e=to=volume ratios, thus 9eing less a9le to lose heat &rom the sur&a)e o& their 9o"iesVhave pro9a9l! 9een responsi9le &or larger mammals moving to )ooler )limes an" thriving there throughout evolutionar! histor!.
3ergmannNs rule generall! hol"s &or people as well. A stu"! o& % human populations "uring the earl! %27 Ns showe" a strong negative )orrelation 9etween 9o"! mass an" mean annual temperature o& the region. 4n other wor"s, when the air temperature is )onsistentl! high, people usuall! have low 9o"! mass. Similarl!, when the temperature is low, the! have high mass. 5http:FFanthro.palomar.e"uFa"aptFa"aptO2.htm6

#r. O$-eil notes that there are ex)eptions to the rule$s appli)ation to humansJ sin)e the a"vent o& )entral home heating an" air )on"itioning, there has 9een less nee" to move to warmerF)ooler )limates 9ase" on 9o"! t!pe. Another s)ientist use" 3ergmann$s wor* an" went a step &urther, noting that length o& appen"ages 5arms an" legs6 o& large mammals is also relate" to temperature. Again, #r. O$-eil notes:
4n %100, the Ameri)an 9iologist Joel Allen went &urther than 3ergmann in o9serving that the length o& arms, legs, an" other appen"ages also has an e&&e)t on the amount o& heat lost to the surroun"ing environment. He note" that among warm=9loo"e" animals, in"ivi"uals in populations o& the same spe)ies living in warm )limates near the e<uator ten" to have longer lim9s than "o populations living &urther awa! &rom the e<uator in )ol"er environments. This is "ue to the &a)t that a 9o"! with relativel! long appen"ages is less )ompa)t an" su9se<uentl! has more sur&a)e area. The greater the sur&a)e area, the &aster 9o"! heat will 9e lost to the environment. This same phenomenon )an 9e o9serve" among humans. :em9ers o& the :asai tri9e o& East A&ri)a are normall! tall an" have slen"er 9o"ies with long lim9s that assist in the loss o& 9o"! heat. This is an optimal 9o"! shape in the hot tropi)al parts o& the worl" 9ut it woul" 9e a "isa"vantage in su9ar)ti) regions. 4n su)h extremel! )ol" environments, a sto)*! 9o"! with short appen"ages woul" 9e more e&&i)ient at maintaining 9o"! heat 9e)ause it woul" have relativel! less sur&a)e area )ompare" to 9o"! mass. 5http:FFanthro.palomar.e"uFa"aptFa"aptO2.htm6

On)e again, this e&&e)t woul" 9e less noti)ea9le in )ultures that utiliDe )entral air )on"itioning an" heating s!stems.

$ore on en6ironment E human ada.tation

The ta9le 9elow "es)ri9es 9o"il! responses to high an" low temperatures *ffector <es.onse to lo" tem.erature <es.onse to hi1h tem.erature

50

Smooth muscles in arterioles in the s;in

S"eat 1lands

:us)les )ontra)t )ausing 6asoconstriction. =ess heat is )arrie" &rom the )ore to the sur&a)e o& the 9o"!, maintaining )ore temperature. Extremities )an turn blue an" &eel )ol" an" )an even 9e "amage" 5frostbite6. -o sweat pro"u)e".

:us)les relax )ausing 6asodilation. $ore heat is )arrie" &rom the )ore to the sur&a)e, where it is lost 9! con6ection an" radiation (conduction is generall! low, ex)ept when in water6. S*in turns red. @lan"s se)rete sweat onto sur&a)e o& s*in, where it e6a.orates. Sin)e water has a high latent heat of e6a.oration, it ta*es heat &rom the 9o"!. 5i1h humidit3, an" ti1ht clothin1 made of man-made fibres re"u)e the a9ilit! o& the sweat to evaporate an" so ma*e us un)om&orta9le in hot weather. Trans.iration &rom trees has a "ramati) )ooling e&&e)t on the surroun"ing air temperature. $uscles rela,, lowering the s*in hairs an" allowing air to )ir)ulate over the s*in, en)ouraging )onve)tion an" evaporation.

*rector .ili muscles in s;in (attached to s;in hairs

S;eletal muscles

Adrenal and th3roid 1lands

Deha6iour

$uscles contract, raising s*in hairs an" tra..in1 an insulatin1 la3er of still2 "arm air next to the s*in. -ot ver! e&&e)tive in humans, ?ust )ausing Wgoose9umpsX. Shi6erin1: :us)les )ontra)t an" relax repeate"l!, generating heat 9! &ri)tion an" &rom meta9oli) rea)tions 5respiration is onl! . P e&&i)ient: / P o& in)rease" respiration thus generates heat6. Glands secrete adrenaline an" th3ro,ine respe)tivel!, whi)h increases the metabolic rate in different tissues, espe)iall! the liver, so generating heat. Curling up, hu""ling, &in"ing shelter, putting on more )lothes.

-o shivering.

Glands sto. secretin1 a"renaline an" th!roxine.

Stret)hing out, &in"ing sha"e, swimming, removing )lothes.

"http://biologymad.com/resources/'2820.omeostasis.pdf!

Conne%tions to Chemistry Con%epts +"or %orrelation to %ourse %urri%ulum,

51

%. CombustionVAs the author mentions, meta9olism is re&erre" to as internal )om9ustion, sin)e 9oth pro)esses pro"u)e the same 9asi) materials, H2O an" CO2. O& )ourse, there are signi&i)ant "i&&eren)es, as wellJ e.g., the rate at whi)h the rea)tion happens an" the temperature nee"e" to sustain the rea)tion. 2. %otential 6s. ;inetic ener13V(oo" we eat )ontains potential energ!, whi)h is )onverte" to *ineti) energ! when it is 9ro*en "own an" use" in )ells. The &oo" )alorie 5a)tuall! %C or % )alories6 is a great tool to use to intro"u)e energ! )on)epts to teenagers. ,. *ndothermic reactionsVThe prin)ipal example o& en"othermi) rea)tions use" in this arti)le is evaporation, whi)h is a phase )hange onl!, not a )hemi)al )hange. -evertheless, the example o& sweating resulting in evaporative )ooling as a temperature )ontrol me)hanism is a great example o& a rea)tion o& this t!pe. .. *,othermic reactionsV:eta9olism is given as an example o& a )hemi)al rea)tion 5or whole series o& )hemi)al rea)tions6 that pro"u)es energ! &or use within the 9o"!. 7. <eaction ratesVCol" temperatures slow "own rea)tionsJ e.g., e)totherms in winter. /. (ree&in1 .oint de.ressionVThe a9ilit! o& some )ol"=9loo"e" animals to withstan" su9=&reeDing temperatures without un"ergoing )ellular &reeDing is a great example o& this topi) &or a )hemistr! )ourse. 0. Osmosis 6s. diffusionVThere ma! 9e some 9ene&it to "is)ussing "i&&usion 5t!pi)all! a )hemistr! topi)6 an" osmosis 5t!pi)all! a 9iolog! topi)6 together, so stu"ents )an ma*e a "etaile" )omparison. 5See Anti)ipating Stu"ent ;uestions ^,, 9elow.6 1. Su.ercoolin1 and nucleation sitesV4n )r!stalliDation, normal &reeDing o))urs in the presen)e o& nu)leation sites, an" super)ooling )an o))ur in the a9sen)e o& nu)leation sites. -u)leating proteins in the 9loo" o& some e)totherms results in water &reeDing in the &lui" outsi"e )ells, whi)h "raws glu)ose into the )ells through osmosis. This allows )ells in the animal$s 9o"! to remain un&roDen, sin)e their &lui" is more )on)entrate", resulting in a lower &reeDing temperature &or that intra)ellular &lui". Thus these animals have the a9ilit! to &reeDe soli" in winter, !et re)over in the spring without )ellular "amage. 2. %hase chan1es (e6a.oration VThis en"othermi) pro)ess explains at the mole)ular level wh! sweating )ools us o&&. % . *n&3mes and catal3sisVThe rates o& pro)esses )atal!De" 9! enD!mes )hange signi&i)antl! with temperature )hanges. 4& temperatures ex)ee" the maximum levels o& enD!me operation, )ells, tissues an" organs, an" eventuall! the entire organism ma! "ie, as 9o"il! &un)tions )ease. %%. $ethods of heat e,chan1eVHeat )an 9e lost or gaine" 9! animals 9! an! o& the three stan"ar" metho"s: ra"iation, )on"u)tion an" )onve)tion.

-ossi.le Stu ent Mis%on%eptions +to ai tea%her in a mis%on%eptions,

%.

ressing

HS"eatin1 cools a .erson off >ust because it allo"s "arm "ater (from inside the bod3 to lea6e the bod32 resultin1 in a lo"er a6era1e bod3 tem.erature.I (This misconce.tion is meant to im.l3 that e6a.oration .la3s no role in the coolin1 .rocess. 4hile it is true that removing warm water from inside the body would probably result in a slightly reduced core temperature, it is the evaporation process on the skin surface that actually does the ma7ority of energy removal from the body. $he breaking of secondary bonds between li2uid water molecules on the skinDs surface re2uires energy, which is obtained from skin cells. $hese cooler cells then take energy from internal cells, which lowers the entire bodyDs internal temperature.

52

2.

,.

..

7.

/.

0.

1.

HCold-blooded and "arm-blooded animals .robabl3 can co-e,ist in all climates.I $his statement could be true if we added the word, EmildF before the word climates. .f we avoid e,tremes, cold/ and warm/blooded animals can co/e,ist almost everywhere. 6ut at very cold temperatures, cold/blooded animals canDt get enough energy to keep up their activity levels, so they would slow down, even to the point of not moving at all. -t these same e,tremely cold temperatures, warm/blooded animals can still go about their normal activities because their body temperature comes internally from the food they eat, not e,ternally from their surroundings. -t e,tremely high temperatures, warm/blooded animals must be careful to not overheat, so activities must be curtailed somewhat. Cold/blooded animals can estivate, a process somewhat akin to hibernation, which results in their relative inactivity until cooler temperatures return. Otherwise they would likely die from overheating. HAll animals s"eat2 >ust li;e humans.I -s the author states, many animals donDt sweat, but they have evolved different ways of cooling to maintain consistent internal body temperature and retain moisture1 e.g., e,haling air that has had e,cess moisture removed via spongy bone structures, maintaining higher core body temperatures, reducing the need for sweating, and licking their fur to increase evaporation of water from the skin. HTurtles and fro1s Ksun8 themsel6es for the same reason "e doLit feels 1ood.I While humans 5an" other warm=9loo"e" animals sun themselves 9e)ause the warmth &eels goo" to them, turtles and frogs need the warmth of the sun to maintain their body temperature so that they can continue normal activities. .f their body temperature gets too low, their activities slow down, and they could become easy prey for other animals. HAf it 1ets too hot and dr32 cold-blooded animals "ill >ust die.I During the hot, dry summer, some cold/blooded animals undergo a process called estivation. $his is similar to hibernation in warm/blooded animals. .n estivation, the animals usually bury themselves under the ground or sand and lower their metabolic activity, appearing dormant. 5ome mollusks, reptiles and amphibians are among those known to estivate, including snails and crocodiles. H4earin1 hea6ier clothin1 in the "inter merel3 ;ee.s the cold out.I -ctually, the heavier clothing keeps heat in, not cold out. !eat flows from a warmer ob7ect (higher temperature# to a cooler ob7ect (one at lower temperature#. 5ee the $innesand article on why cold doesnDt e,ist in this issue of Chem:atters. HGoose bum.s ma;e me shi6er2 "hich ma;es more motion (sha;in1 and increases ;inetic ener132 "hich ;ee.s me "arm. This is >ust another e,am.le of ;inetic molecular motion.I $he process of forming goose bumps can result from several stimuliGcold, or strong emotional e,periences. 4eDll focus on the cold stimulus. -s a result of cold, the muscles that surround each hair follicle contract, causing the hair to stand on end. .n an animal covered with hair (as humans may once have been#, the result is the trapping of air between all the upright hairs. $hat trapped air acts as an insulator that prevents heat from escaping as easily from the surface of the skin, thus keeping the animal warm. $his process is of more limited use in humans, since we are not as hairy as we once might have been historically. :egarding shivering, although the stimulus for shivering may be the same as that for goose bumps, shivering is the result of skeletal muscles contracting and rela,ing repeatedly. $hese are not the same muscles as those surrounding hair follicles. HMou can8t s"eat as easil3 to cool do"n "hen the humidit3 is hi1h because the air can8t hold an3 more moisture.I $he first part of the statement is true1 itDs the reasoning that may be faulty. $he idea of the air EholdingF water vapor is a misconception held by many students. $here is lots of room in the air for it to have (but not EholdF# more moisture, because air is a gas, water vapor is a gas, and thereDs lots of empty space between gas molecules. -lso, water vapor molecules are whi++ing around at about B(( miles per hour, so thereDs really no EholdingF them anyway. $he real situation is that at high humidity the air

53

contains almost as much water vapor as is able to escape from the li2uid into the vapor form, based on waterDs vapor pressure. 5ee this 4eb site for further e,planation about why humidity being defined as Ethe amount of moisture in the air compared to the amount of moisture the air can hold is not a clear statement of the situation: http:HHhyperphysics.phy/ astr.gsu.eduHhbaseHhframe.html. (Click on the E4hatDs the problemIF tab on the first screen, which will take you down to E!ow much moisture can the air JholdDI#

Anti%ipating Stu ent /uestions +answers to 0uestions stu ents might as& in %lass,
%. HAf metabolism is reall3 >ust internal combustion2 "h3 don8t "e burn u.2 li;e 1asoline does in the car en1ine9I $he chemical reactions that comprise metabolism all occur at temperatures much lower than those in a real internal combustion engine. -nd the reactions are much slower also. -ll this is thanks to substances called en+ymes. 9n+ymes are biological catalysts that allow reactions to occur more easily with them than without them. 2. H4ouldn8t it be hel.ful to cold-blooded animals if the3 had a la3er of insulation2 so that in the summertime2 less heat "ould flo" into their bodies2 and in the "intertime less heat "ould flo" out of their bodies9I .f cold/blooded animals had layers of insulation, they would be much less able to obtain heat from their surroundings. 5o in the summertime, they wouldnDt get enough energy e,ternally for them to maintain normal bodily activities. $he layer of insulation might help them in the wintertime, but theyDve already managed to take care of the problem of lack of e,ternal heat when itDs cold outsideLby hibernating. ,. HAsn8t osmosis the same thin1 as diffusion9I -lthough there are similarities between the two processes, there are also differences. 6oth are processes which move substances through a fluid (usually# li2uid medium. Diffusion, though, is simply the process of moving solute particles from an area of higher concentration to one of lower concentration by random molecular motion, while osmosis involves solvent transport through a semi/ permeable membrane, through which the solute cannot pass, due to its larger si+e. .n osmosis, the solvent moves from an area of higher (solvent# concentration through the membrane to the area of lower solvent concentration. $he solute particles are too large to pass through the semi/permeable membrane, so they remain where they were. -s a result of the solvent particles moving through the membrane, the solute concentration decreases on the side of the membrane that receives the solvent particles. 5o the result of both processes is similarGthe solute concentration decreasesGbut the mechanism is somewhat different. .t is often said that osmosis is a special case of diffusion.

*n1%lass A%tivities +lesson i eas, in%lu ing la.s 2 emonstrations,

8lease note that, "ue to the nature o& this arti)le, most o& these a)tivities are more relate" to a 9iolog! )lass than a )hemistr! )lass, although there are a &ew )hemistr! items at the en" o& this list. %. Osmosis "emonstrations: a. There are lots vi"eos on SouTu9e that "emonstrate an"For "is)uss osmosis. 1? This 7=minute vi"eo )lip &rom the :us)ogee S)hool #istri)t &irst "e&ines osmosis, then shows three states o& toni)it!, &ollowe" 9! a "emonstration using small W)ellsX o&

54

2.
,.

..

5.

"ial!sis tu9ing, one &ille" with water pla)e" in a sugar solution an" the se)on" &ille" with sugar water an" put in plain water to show h!pertoni)it! an" the se)on" to show h!potoni)it!. 5http:FFwww.!outu9e.)omFwat)h'v[0=;B= UU` iS>&eature[pla!erOem9e""e"6 26 An" here is a .7=se)on" time=lapse vi"eo )lip o& the ol" stan"ar" osmosis "emo with a verti)al tu9e suspen"e" partwa! in water, with a pie)e o& "ial!sis tu9ing a)ting as a sa)*, &ille" with a sugar water solution 5)olore" 9lue6 )overing the 9ottom opening o& the tu9e. The )olore" water )lim9s up the tu9e "ue to osmoti) pressure. http:FFwww.!outu9e.)omFwat)h'v[0W`1DDO+lnE ,6 Here is a 7 =se)on" time=lapse )lip o& a gummi 9ear in water almost "ou9ling in siDe over a 2=hour perio", "ue to osmosis. 5http:FFwww.!outu9e.)omFwat)h' v[txHAs@;`mgs>&eature[pla!erOem9e""e"6 .6 4& !ou woul" li*e to pursue a more mathemati)al approa)h, this un"er 7=minute vi"eo )lip shows the results o& a stu"ent experiment involving the mass )hange over time o& three potato sli)es, %. )m,, 2. )m, an" ,. )m, ea)h, setting in water or one o& 7 "i&&erent )on)entrations o& su)rose 5 .2Y%. : 9! .2 in)rements6. The tea)her plots the P )hanges in mass to show h!potoni)it!, h!pertoni)it!, an" interpolates to "etermine the point on the graph where the solution is isotoni). 5http:FFwww.!outu9e.)omFwat)h'v[nwr%,.UoHHw6 9. The O)to9er %222 ChemMatters Classroom @ui"e )ontains a ver! simple, repro"u)i9le %=page la9 experiment WOsmosis in an EggX. 5An" remem9er, an egg is reall! onl! a ver! large single )ell.6 The Classroom @ui"e also provi"es notes &or the experiment. 5availa9le in the ChemMatters , =!ear C#6 c. Gettu)e wilting in the re&rigerator an" then re&reshing when put in water is an example o& osmosis in plants: http:FFwww.!outu9e.)omFwat)h'v[H/-%4iBTmn) 57 =se)on" time= lapse vi"eo )lip o& wilte" lettu)e W)oming 9a)* to li&eX6 Sou )an use this vi"eo )lip &rom the W3ig 3ang Theor!X television show to intro"u)e homeostasis to !our )lass 5or &orwar" the lin* to !our 9iolog! tea)her i& !ou pre&er6:http:FFwww.!outu9e.)omFwat)h'v[rSOe`&9TTsg>&eature[pla!erOem9e""e". To show the relationship 9etween volume an" sur&a)e area, !ou )an have stu"ents "o the t!pi)al 9iolog! la9 involving gelatinFagar )u9es with phenolphthalein an" -aOH. 5Or i& stu"ents have "one this in 9iolog! in a previous )lass, !ou )an as* them to re)all the results. As* stu"ents to "raw an analog! 9etween the results o& this experiment an" the role o& volume=to=sur&a)e area ratio to the siDe o& e)totherms vs. siDe o& en"otherms. a. This la9 "es)ription &rom (linn S)ienti&i) in)lu"es tea)her preparation an" "is)ussion in&ormation: http:FFwww.&linns)i.)omF#o)umentsF"emo8#(sF3iolog!F3(% %% .p"&. 9. This simple experiment merel! as*s stu"ents to )ompare rate o& "i&&usion o& ea)h o& three "i&&erentl!=siDe" )u9es, a goo" stepping o&& point &or the e)to= en"otherm "is)ussion: http:FFli9rar!.thin*<uest.orgF201%2F"i&&usionOla9.html. c. This la9 "es)ription page, whi)h re<uires the stu"ent to "esign the experiment, is suita9le &or an 43 )hemistr! program: http:FF)h).wr"s9.)aFsitesF)h).wr"s9.)aF&ilesFWS P2 AgarP2 Ga9P2 4ntroP2 P21&orP2 #P22."o)x. ThermoregulationV8rovi"e stu"ents with a series o& photos o& various animals a"apting to their thermal environment an" as* stu"ents to i"enti&! ea)h t!pe o& thermal a"aptationF9ehavior. Sou )an easil! &in" photosVgo online an" "o an image sear)h &or Wanimal thermoregulationX an" )ut an" paste those suita9le &or !our purposes. Examples might in)lu"e: turtles sunning themselves on a log, mi)e hu""ling together &or warmth, "og panting, liDar" emerging &rom 9urrow, et). 4& !ou want to pursue thermoregulation, an" i& !ou su9s)ri9e to Exploreelearning, !ou )an investigate this @iDmo: WHomeostasisX, at http:FFwww.explorelearning.)omFin"ex.)&m'

55

metho"[)+esour)e."sp#etail>+esour)e4#[/72. This simulation provi"es !ou with lots o& varia9les to investigate as !ou tr! to maintain a )onstant )ore 9o"! temperature in the person on the trea"mill. 4& !ou "on$t have a su9s)ription, !ou )an still get a &ree trial an" ma!9e have enough time to run the simulation. There is a tea)her$s gui"e an" a stu"ent exploration sheet an" answer *e! that a))ompanies the simulation. 6. Sou )an use this vi"eo )lip &rom the W3ig 3ang Theor!X television show to intro"u)e homeostasis to !our )lass 5or &orwar" the lin* to !our 9iolog! tea)her i& !ou pre&er6:http:FFwww.!outu9e.)omFwat)h'v[rSOe`&9TTsg>&eature[pla!erOem9e""e". 7. This site provi"es a goo" overall )overage o& homeostasis &or stu"ents that )oul" 9e use" as the 9asis o& a lesson on the topi): http:FFs9i.u2 %,.wor"press.)omF)ategor!F9asi)= &ee"9a)*=me)hanisms=thermoregulationF. OA, now &or the )hemistr!=relate" a)tivitiesI To show &reeDing point "epression that o))urs in the )ells o& some e)totherms when the! experien)e extremel! )ol" temperatures, !ou )an "o the Wma*ing i)e )ream la9X. Another )on)ept involve" here is heat trans&er. Here are a &ew sites: a. The intro"u)tion to this experiment is somewhat simple &or high s)hool, 9ut the "ire)tions are spot on: http:FFwww.s)hool.)"&armsite.)omFla9sFi)e)reamla9 7 /."o). 9. This page, a &ree e9oo* "ownloa", &rom the :!3oo*eD We9 site presents a more <uantitative approa)h, utiliDing the &reeDing point "epression e<uation to )al)ulate the expe)te" &reeDing temperature o& the salt=water solution: http:FFwww.m!9oo*eDDD.)omFe9oo*.php' u[aH+ )#ovG2l,_W4u"@7 _W-oGmH*"S2EU,"h)n;vHEl:T*l#+H:vS*-(:T*.O` Aw-?S7Gn3*_gp+"W(u"@lmeWlu_!3h4@-v9@xp_2( a`_l4H3!9,3l)n+74@(D)22?aW ( _W;g"2l aC3tSWtp9m)gaW-l4@-!_W(t. The page is &rom the Kournal of Chemical 9ducation, August %212 issue, p //2. ). An" in )ase !ou ?ust want to show stu"ents how it$s "one, here is a vi"eo &rom Steve Spangler S)ien)e showing the whole pro)ess in ?ust over a minute: http:FFwww.stevespanglers)ien)e.)omFla9FexperimentsFhomema"e=i)e=)ream=si)*= s)ien)e. 9. 4nsulation an" heat loss la9F"emoVthis experiment )oul" 9e use" as a starting point &or !ou to "ra&t a set o& "ire)tions to have stu"ents "esign their own experiments to test the e&&e)tiveness o& insulation as a means o& preventing heat loss: http:FFeev.liu.e"uFheat2 2FmoreFExperiment..htm. 10. 4& !ou want to "is)uss insulation an" its e&&e)ts in )lass, !ou might want to re&er to this site: http:FFwww.s)hool=&or=)hampions.)omFs)ien)eFthermalOinsulation.htm. 4t 9rie&l! "is)usses insulation &rom )on"u)tion, )onve)tion an" ra"iation. 4t also in)lu"es a ta9le o& materials with their respe)tive +=values o& insulating a9ilit!. 11. Stu"ents ma! 9e intereste" in *nowing a9out the insulating properties o& the materials the! use to hol" their morning )o&&ee: WHeat Trans&er with Hot Co&&eeX, http:FFwww.s)hool=&or= )hampions.)omFs)ien)eFheatOtrans&erO)o&&ee.htm. %2. 4& !ou$" li*e to give a <uantitative treatment o& the heat involve" in warmingF)ooling the human 9o"!, !ou )an &in" an intera)tive We9 page on the H!per8h!si)s We9 site. 4t "is)usses the &our primar! heat trans&er me)hanisms that a&&e)t heat regulation in human 9o"!, an" their relative importan)e. Hiew it a http:FFh!perph!si)s.ph!= astr.gsu.e"uFh9aseFthermoF)oo9o".html^)%. %,. #emonstrations o& nu)leation sites initiating soli"i&i)ation an" &reeDing, 9oth analogous to nu)leating proteins )ausing &reeDing in extra)ellular &lui"s in e)totherms, preventing the animals$ )ells &rom &reeDing, allowing the e)totherms to 9e a9le to &reeDe soli" an" still survive thawing: 1.

56

a. Super)oole" water &reeDing: 1? How to Wma*eX it 5two metho"s are "es)ri9e" here6: http:FF)hemistr!.a9out.)omFo"F)hemistr!howtogui"eFaFhow=to=super)ool=water.htm. 26 Hi"eo )lip 5less than 2 minutes with several "i&&erent wa!s to soli"i&! the super)oole" water: http:FFwww.!outu9e.)omFwat)h'v[(ot,m0*!Gn.. 5Sou ma! have to wat)h a %7=se)on" a"vertisement &irst.6 9. Supersaturate" so"ium a)etate solution soli"i&!ing: %6 How to ma*e it: http:FF)l"&a)ilit!.rutgers.e"uF)ontentF)r!stalliDation=supersaturate"= solution= . 5-ote the amounts o& so"ium a)etate an" water )an 9e s)ale" up or "own, as long as !ou maintain a similar ratio o& amounts.6 26 Hi"eo )lip: WHot 4)eX, http:FFwww.!outu9e.)omFwat)h' v[HnSg2)l 284>&eature[pla!erOem9e""e". ). +o)* )an"! &orming )r!stals &rom supersaturate" solution o& sugar %6 How to ma*e it: http:FFwww.ehow.)omFhowO/%22,77Oma*e=supersaturate"=solution= sugar.html, or a less s)ienti&i) approa)h that )an 9e "one in the *it)hen: http:FFwww.9uDDle.)omFarti)lesFro)*=)an"!=re)ipe=how=to=ma*e=ro)*=)an"!.html. 2? Hi"eo )lip 5less than 2 minutes6: http:FFwww.!outu9e.)omFwat)h'v[WOEBl?= O+,A>&eature[pla!erOem9e""e". Here$s a 0=minute )lip that gives more explanation an" lots o& options as !ou pro)ee": http:FFwww.!outu9e.)omFwat)h' v[W;"`9&1huu;>&eature[pla!erOem9e""e". %.. To show the )ooling e&&e)t o& evaporation, )reate a wet=9ul9 thermometer 9! wrapping a pie)e o& paper towel or )otton )loth aroun" the 9ul9 o& a thermometer using a ru99er 9an". Soa* the paper or )loth with isoprop!l 5ru99ing6 al)ohol an" o9serve the temperature over the next several minutes. The temperature will "rop su9stantiall!. Sou )an repeat the experiment using water 5new )loth or paper6, 9ut the e&&e)t will 9e less noti)ea9le. -evertheless, it illustrates that energ! is a9sor9e" when evaporation ta*es pla)e. 15. Here is another wa! o& ma*ing a h!grometerVa )om9ination o& a "r! 9ul9 an" a wet 9ul9 thermometer in the same instrument: http:FFpals.sri.)omFtas*sF7=1F:E. 7F"ire)ts.html. Wi*ipe"ia has a ni)e "is)ussion a9out wet 9ul9 temperatures relate" to relative humi"it! at http:FFen.wi*ipe"ia.orgFwi*iFWet=9ul9Otemperature.

Out1o"1%lass A%tivities an -ro3e%ts +stu ent resear%h, %lass pro3e%ts,

%. 2. Stu"ents )oul" )on"u)t more online resear)h on human 9o"! t!pe an" )limate. A general rule o& thum9 is that a )hemi)al rea)tion$s rate will "ou9le with a % oC temperature in)rease. Stu"ents )oul" "o online resear)h to see i& )hemi)al rea)tivit! within e)totherms in)reases in a similar mannerVan" whether su)h an in)rease in meta9oli) rea)tion rate results in a "ou9ling o& a)tivit! levelJ e.g., moving twi)e as &ast. ,. Using two i"enti)al thermometers, a stu"ent )oul" "esign an" )arr! out "emonstrations o& heat loss 5or gain6 9! ra"iation, evaporation, )onve)tion, an" )on"u)tion. .. A stu"ent )oul" also "esign a "emonstration showing that the sur&a)e=volume ratio o& an o9?e)t a&&e)ts the rate at whi)h heat is lost 9! an! o& the a9ove=liste" pro)esses. 7. Stu"ents )oul" resear)h reverse osmosis as a me)hanism &or puri&!ing sea water &or "rin*ing.

'e"eren%es +non1We.1.ase in"ormation sour%es,

57

The re&eren)es 9elow )an 9e &oun" on the )*4 ChemMatters 30-3ear C7 5whi)h in)lu"es all arti)les pu9lishe" &rom its in)eption in Septem9er, %21, through April, 2 %,6. The C# is availa9le &rom the Ameri)an Chemi)al So)iet! at www.a)s.org. Sele)te" arti)les an" the )omplete set o& Tea)her$s @ui"es &or all issues &rom the past three !ears are also availa9leV&reeVonline at this same site. (ull ChemMatters arti)les an" Tea)her$s @ui"es are availa9le on the , =!ear C# &or all past issues 5Tea)her$s @ui"es &rom (e9ruar! %22 6, up to 2 %,. Some o& the more re)ent arti)les 52 2 &orwar"6 ma! also 9e availa9le online at the U+G liste" a9ove. Simpl! )li)* on the W8ast 4ssuesX 9utton "ire)tl! 9elow the WMX in the ChemMatters logo at the top o& the page. 4& the arti)le is availa9le online, !ou will &in" it there. +ohrig, 3. Arti&i)ial Snow: 8ow"er &or the Slopes. ChemMatters 2000, 'L 5.6, pp % Y%%. Author +ohrig "is)usses the pro"u)tion o& arti&i)ial snow, using 9a)teria to suppl! nu)leation sites &or )r!stal &ormation. 3e)*er, 3. ;uestion &rom the Classroom: #o "u)*s get )ol" &eet' ChemMatters 2001, '% 5.6, p 2. Author 3e)*er "is)usses thermoregulation in "u)*s, in)lu"ing "is)ussion o& )ounter)urrent heat ex)hange in their legs. Thiel*, #. Ai"ne! #ial!sis: The Giving Conne)tions. ChemMatters 2001, '% 526, pp % Y %2. Author Thiel* "is)usses the role o& "i&&usion an" osmosis in the role *i"ne!s pla! in puri&!ing &lui"s in the 9o"!. The arti)le also )ontains a one=page stu"ent experiment to 9uil" a wor*ing mo"el o& a *i"ne! "ial!sis pro)ess. The Tea)her$s @ui"e &or the April 2 % issue 5a9ove6 o& ChemMatters )ontains 9a)*groun" in&ormation &or the arti)le WAi"ne! #ial!sis: The Giving Conne)tion.X 3an*s, 8. H!pothermiaVSurviving the 3ig Chill. ChemMatters 2001, '% 5.6, pp %.Y%7. This arti)le gives goo" 9a)*groun" in&ormation a9out the &our metho"s o& heat trans&er, how the! wor* in the 9o"!, how we )ope to maintain our )ore 9o"! temperature, an" what happens when we "on$t )ope su))ess&ull!. :ost o& the topi)s in the present arti)le are )overe" in this 2 % arti)le as well. The Tea)her$s @ui"e &or the #e)em9er 2 % issue 5a9ove6 o& ChemMatters )ontains 9a)*groun" in&ormation &or the arti)le WH!pothermiaVSurviving the 3ig ChillX. 4t "es)ri9es what h!pothermia is in greater "etail, how our 9o"! rea)ts to outsi"e )on"itions, an" what to "o to help someone 9attling h!pothermia. Stewart, :. Tapping Saltwater &or a Thirst! Worl". ChemMatters 2002, ;( 5,6, pp %Y0. The arti)le "is)usses the use o& reverse osmosis to puri&! sea water &or "rin*ing. 4t in)lu"es a stu"ent experiment that tests an" )ompares the purit! o& tap water to that o& &iltere" water. The Tea)her$s @ui"e &or the O)to9er 2 2 issue 5a9ove6 o& ChemMatters )ontains "etaile" 9a)*groun" in&ormation a9out osmosis an" "i&&usion &or the arti)le WTapping Saltwater &or a Thirst! Worl"X.

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+osenthal, A. :. Clou"s. ChemMatters 2003, ;' 5,6, pp %2Y%.. The origin o& )lou"s is "is)usse", as well as the nee" &or nu)leation sites on whi)h water vapor mole)ules )an "eposit an" )r!stalliDe. The 3a)*groun" 4n&ormation se)tion o& the Tea)her$s @ui"e &or the O)to9er 2 , ChemMatters arti)le WClou"sX 5a9ove6 )ontains more in&ormation a9out nu)leation sites an" their role in )lou" &ormation. +ohrig, 3. The AmaDing #rin*ing 3ir"I ChemMatters 200+, ;& 5,6, pp % Y%%. Author +ohrig "is)usses the me)hanism 9ehin" the "rin*ing 9ir", in)lu"ing evaporation as an en"othermi) pro)ess. The 3a)*groun" 4n&ormation se)tion o& the Tea)her$s @ui"e &or the O)to9er 2 7 ChemMatters arti)le WThe AmaDing #rin*ing 3ir"IX 5a9ove6 )ontains a length! "is)ussion on evaporation an" )on"ensation an" intermole)ular &or)es. @raham, T. Unusual Sun*en Treasure. ChemMatters 200#, ;= 5.6, pp %%Y%,. A sun*en ship )arr!ing ol" 9ottles o& )hampagne is the &o)us o& this stor!. -u)leation sites pla! a role in the author$s "es)ription o& e&&erves)en)eVgas 9u99les &orming in li<ui". 3e)*er, 3. ;uestion &rom the Classroom, :entos an" #iet Co*e. ChemMatters 200G, ;C 5%6, pp % Y%%. 3o9 3e)*er explains how an" wh! the :entos an" #iet Co*e ge!ser rea)tion wor*. 5Hint: :entos provi"es nu)leating sites.6

We. Sites "or A sour%es,

itional *n"ormation +We.1.ase in"ormation

$ore sites on homeostasis and thermore1ulation

Wi*ipe"ia$s We9 site "is)usses animal thermoregulation at length here: http:FFen.wi*ipe"ia.orgFwi*iFThermoregulation. Several Sli"eShare We9 pages )ontain 8ower8oint presentations on homeostasis an" thermoregulation: This set o& sli"es provi"es "etaile" in&ormation a9out man! o& the me)hanisms at wor* to )ontrol internal 9o"! temperature in e)totherms an" en"otherms, in)lu"ing humans: http:FFwww.sli"eshare.netFwinnie?uanieFhomeostasis=%,%% /2. An" this sli"e show "eals primaril! with human thermoregulation: http:FFwww.sli"eshare.netFrtra&aelm"F9o"!=temperature=regulation. An" here$s a ver! "etaile" sli"e show that "is)usses h!pothermiaVwhat it is, how to avoi" it, an" how to treat it. 4t$s &rom @aeli) Wol& Out"oors, whi)h also "is)usses out"oor gear an" survival: http:FFwww.sli"eshare.netFAnnie 7Fh!pothermia=)lass=presentation. 54 )oul"n$t &in" the organiDation$s a)tual We9 site.6

This 2=plus pages site shows the )omplexit! o& the theor! o& set point temperatureJ it$s not as eas! as it loo*s at &irst: http:FF&a)ult!.washington.e"uF9rengelmFneutODoneFin"xpg.html^metho"s.

59

$ore sites on differences bet"een ectotherms and endotherms

This We9 site "i&&erentiates 9etween e)to= an" en"othermsJ it )ontains spe)i&i) in&rare" photos that show the "i&&eren)es in )ore 9o"! temperatures 9etween e)totherms 5)ol"=9loo"e" animals6 an" en"otherms 5warm=9loo"e" animals6 in the same temperature environment: http:FF)ool)osmos.ipa).)alte)h.e"uFimageOgalleriesFirODooF)ol"warm.html. The site also )ontains text explaining the photos. This is a goo" 9asi) 8ower8oint a9out the "i&&eren)es 9etween e)to= an" en"otherms: http:FFwww.li9ert!.*%2.mo.usFKr*nowlesFAP2 8P2 3iolog! P2 8ower8ointsFA83iolog!Chapter. 3asi)P2 8rin)ipleso&Animals.pptx. Here is an arti)le "es)ri9ing the various me)hanisms that animals 59oth e)to= an" en"otherms6 use to regulate 9o"! temperature: http:FFwww.umass*%2.netFip!Fsess 2FThermoregulationP2 arti)le.p"&.

$ore sites on animal ada.tation

This site &rom the U :ass *=%2 networ*, provi"es goo" 9a)*groun" on wa!s e)to= an" en"otherms a"apt to temperature )hanges in their environment. The paper in)lu"es metho"s not mentione" in the ChemMatters arti)le. 5http:FFwww.umass*%2.netFip!Fsess 2FThermoregulationP2 arti)le.p"&6 Here is a 8ower8oint presentation on wa!s animals a"apt to extreme temperature: http:FFwww.in"iana.e"uFKnimsms&F8.%/F8owerpointFTemperature8A+T2.ppt. Ultimate Wil"li&e$s 2.=minute vi"eo shows various animals$ me)hanisms o& a"apting to )ol" )limates: http:FFwww.!outu9e.)omFwat)h'v[% nWe*Sv"U1. 4n)lu"e" in the vi"eo are ma)a<ues, humming9ir"s, polar 9ears, penguins, )ro)o"iles, an" )ranes This vi"eo &rom Ultimate Wil"li&e, Extreme Environments, shows "eserts, vol)anoes, swamps an" gla)iers, an" it )ontains a short )lip on )amels, illustrating some o& the &eatures o& )amels "is)usse" in the Tea)her$s @ui"e a9ove. The vi"eo also )overs plant a"aptations in these environments. 5http:FFwww.!outu9e.)omFwat)h'v[TAT?#rle(As6 An animal ph!siolog! )lass pro?e)t at #avi"son Universit! resulte" in the "evelopment o& this We9 site to "is)uss &reeDe=toleran)e an" &reeDe=avoi"an)e in inse)ts: http:FFwww.9io."avi"son.e"uFpeopleFmi"or)asFanimalph!siolog!Fwe9sitesF2 %%FCrouserFin"ex.ht m. 3oth pro)esses utiliDe nu)leating proteins to avoi" )ellular &reeDing. This site &rom a Universit! o& Calgar! short )ourse on )r!o9iolog! "is)usses &reeDe toleran)e an" &reeDe avoi"an)e in e)totherms. 4t "is)usses nu)leating proteins an" shows the e&&e)t o& nu)leating proteins on water &reeDing, an" it also "es)ri9es the a)tual pro)ess that o))urs in a &rog as it respon"s to su9=Dero temperatures, an" its reanimation as the temperature warms up again. 5http:FFpeople.u)algar!.)aFK*mul"rewF)r!oO)ourseF)r!oO)hap%2O2.html6 This is a goo" "es)ription o& the various )oping strategies en"otherms have &or &reeDe toleran)e an" &reeDe avoi"an)e at su9=Dero temperatures: http:FF&l!nnthe)at.hu9pages.)omFhu9F&reeDing=strategies. 5re&eren)es an" 9i9liograph! in)lu"e"6

60

This is the site &rom #avi"son Universit! )ite" in the 9a)*groun" in&ormation se)tion a9ove: http:FFwww.9io."avi"son.e"uFpeopleFmi"or)asFanimalph!siolog!Fwe9sitesF2 %%FCrouserFin"ex.ht m.

$ore sites on hibernation

A 27=minute vi"eo )lip &rom Ultimate Wil"li&e "eals with animal hi9ernation: http:FFwww.!outu9e.)omFwat)h'v[p&G%W"Op_EA. A large portion o& the vi"eo &o)uses on 9ees, e)hi"nas, 9ull&rogs, lung&ish, marmots, an" toa"s, an" their a"aptation to )ol". This Thin*;uest 59! stu"ents &or stu"ents6 We9 page "es)ri9es the &our t!pes o& W"eep sleepX, in)lu"ing hi9ernation an" estivation: http:FFli9rar!.thin*<uest.orgFT; ,%21 Festivation.htm.

$ore sites on su.ercoolin1 and nucleation sites

The &ollowing three lin*s show the phenomenon o& super)oole" water &reeDing almost instantaneousl!: This one is &rom St. Boseph 4slan", Cana"a: http:FFwww.!outu9e.)omFwat)h'v[O.0= ;OW+Tr*>&eature[pla!erOem9e""e">nore"ire)t[%. The o9server on this one sa!s he "oesn$t un"erstan" wh! it happensJ this might 9e goo" &or stu"ents to 9egin h!pothesiDing an"For resear)hing. Here is one &rom a s)ien)e s*ills )lass at Genape High S)hool, :e"&or", -B: http:FFwww.!outu9e.)omFwat)h'v[(ot,m0*!Gn.. An" here is a series o& . ver! short experiments "one 9! one person: http:FFwww.!outu9e.)omFwat)h'v[`e1vBr4v#;:>list[8G (#.,3.(,E%C,313. An" &inall!, i& !ou "on$t have a))ess to SouTu9e, here is a short )lip &rom the Universit! o& Utah: http:FFwww.eng.utah.e"uFKlDangFimagesFsuper)oole"=water.avi.

Although it )ontains a rather simple "is)ussion, this site &rom wise@EEA.org provi"es a short, 9asi) "es)ription o& nu)leation, with several examples o& phenomenon using nu)leation sites: http:FFwww.wisegee*.orgFwhat=is=nu)leation.htm. The &ollowing sites illustrate a supersaturate" solution o& so"ium a)etate soli"i&!ing on a small so"ium a)etate )r!stal a)ting as a nu)leation site: (rom (linn S)ienti&i), 4n)., here is a % =minute vi"eo that "is)usses how to ma*e a saturate" solution o& so"ium a)etate an" several "i&&erent "emonstrations !ou )an "o with it, as well as tips o& the tra"e to ensure su))ess&ul "emonstrations: http:FFwww.!outu9e.)omFwat)h'&eature[pla!erOem9e""e">v[A(O11C:&a(A. The vi"eo is prepare" &or tea)hers, 9ut !ou )oul" ta*e )lips &rom the vi"eo to show stu"ents. An" here is a 7 =se)on" up=)lose )lip o& a see"e" &las* o& supersaturate" so"ium a)etate )r!stalliDing out. There is no explanation, an" its SouTu9e title is WHot 4)eX, so it will re<uire explanation to stu"ents. Gong nee"le=li*e )r!stals &orm. 5http:FFwww.!outu9e.)omFwat)h'&eature[pla!erOem9e""e">v[3G<7-i9wH7g6

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$ore sites on osmosis

8aul An"erson &rom 3oDeman presents an 1=minute vi"eo )lip explaining "i&&usion an" osmosis, showing an experiment using "ial!sis tu9ing, the sugar=water an" potato experiment, in)lu"ing a glu)ose test an" an io"ine test: http:FFwww.!outu9e.)omFwat)h'v[GeS2=/DHn/:.

$ore sites on measurin12 and 6ariations of2 human bod3 tem.erature

The )on)ept o& WnormalX human 9o"! temperature is "is)usse" at length here: http:FFen.wi*ipe"ia.orgFwi*iF-ormalOhumanO9o"!Otemperature. These le)ture notes provi"e some 9a)*groun" in&ormation a9out human a"apta9ilit! to temperature variations: http:FFwww.ui).e"uF)lassesFos)iFos)i72 F% O% -otesP2 &orP2 Wee* P2 % .htm.

$ore sites on human biolo1ical ada.tabilit3

The site Human 3iologi)al A"apta9ilit! "is)usses man! "i&&erent wa!s humans have a"apte" to their ever=)hanging environment. The site )ontains a se)tion on WA"apting to Climate ExtremesX at http:FFanthro.palomar.e"uFa"aptFa"aptO2.htm. 4n)lu"e" in the topi)s are 3ergmann$s rule an" Allen$s rule. The site also has a %.=<uestion pra)ti)e <uiD at the en" o& the material.

$ore sites on coolin1 the human bod3

Here$s a "ownloa"a9le Heat 4n"ex ta9le &rom the -ational Weather Servi)e: http:FFwww.nws.noaa.govFomFheatFimagesFCHA+T 7.B8@. The ver! extensive H!per8h!si)s We9 site )ontains a se)tion "evote" to thermo"!nami)s, an" within that, several pages that appl! "ire)tl! to this arti)le: Here$s a page that "is)usses relative humi"it!: http:FFh!perph!si)s.ph!= astr.gsu.e"uFh9aseF*ineti)Frelhum.html^)%. This se)tion "eals with the <uantities o& heat involve" in the various metho"s o& heat trans&er inFout o& the 9o"!: http:FFh!perph!si)s.ph!= astr.gsu.e"uFh9aseFthermoF)oo9o".html^)%. An" this page "is)usses perspiration an" its role in )ooling the 9o"!: http:FFh!perph!si)s.ph!=astr.gsu.e"uFh9aseFthermoFsweat.html. The page allows !ou to investigate the relative )ooling "one 9! )on"u)tion, )onve)tion, ra"iation, an" evaporation.

$ore sites on non-shi6erin1 thermo1enesis and DAT

(or a Banuar! 2 %% arti)le &rom the Kournal of 9,perimental 6iology that "etails resear)h "one on mi)e re: nonshivering thermogenesis, see http:FF?e9.9iologists.orgF)ontentF2%.F2F2.2.&ull. This stu"! &rom the -merican Kournal of 3hysiology "is)usses the role o& nonshivering thermogenesis in temperature regulation in humans, with possi9le )onne)tions to weight )ontrol an" )ontrol o& "ia9etes: http:FFa?pregu.ph!siolog!.orgF)ontentF, %F2F+217.long.

62

Here$s a We9 page &rom 3iome"i)al H!pertexts, &rom the Universit! o& Colora"o, that "is)usses the "i&&eren)es 9etween white &at an" 9rown &at 53AT6, an" the role 3AT pla!s in meta9olism: http:FFwww.vivo.)olostate.e"uFh9oo*sFpathph!sFmis)Otopi)sF9rown&at.html. Another report, this one in Cell Metabolism, supports the resear)h 9eing "one on the role o& 3AT in "evelopment o& "ia9etes an" weight gain: http:FFwww.s)ien)e"ire)t.)omFs)ien)eFarti)leFpiiFS%77 .%,%% 00`. Here$s another report &rom the -merican Kournal of 3hysiology "is)ussing nonshivering thermogenesis: http:FFa?pen"o.ph!siolog!.orgF)ontentF22,F2FE....&ull.

$ore sites on ener13 and e@ui.artition theor3

An Australian We9 site 9! 8eter E!lan" )ontains a series o& ph!si)s le)tures, one o& whi)h is "evote" to the e<uipartition o& energ! theor!. Hiew it at http:FFwww.insula.)om.auFph!si)sF%22%FG2.html. This su9=)hapter o& the )hapter WChemi)al Energeti)sX &rom the Chem ' Mirtual $e,tbook: - :eference $e,t for Neneral Chemistry, 9! Steven Gower, highlights the role o& mole)ular )omplexit! in "egrees o& &ree"om within mole)ules: http:FFwww.)hem%.)omFa)a"Fwe9textFenergeti)sFCE=,.html.

More We. Sites on Tea%her *n"ormation an 4esson -lans +sites geare spe%i"i%ally to tea%hers,
The We9 site &or W)hem % virtual text9oo*X 9! Steve Gower 5Simon (raDier Universit!, Han)ouver, Cana"a6 )ontains a )omplete &irst=!ear general )hemistr! text9oo*. 4t )ontains lots o& "iagrams, as well as appropriate re&eren)es to le)tures on spe)i&i) topi)s &rom the Ahan A)a"em! an" other online re&eren)es6. Sou )an view it at http:FFwww.)hem%.)omFa)a"Fwe9textFvirtualtext9oo*.html. The Ahan A)a"em! has a series o& le)tures on the (irst Gaw o& Thermo"!nami)s, an" 4nternal Energ! at https:FFwww.*hana)a"em!.orgFs)ien)eFph!si)sFthermo"!nami)sFvF&irst=law=o&= thermo"!nami)s==internal=energ!. The We9 site also has extensive )overage o& man! s)ien)e= 9ase" 5an" other6 topi)s.

4h3 Cold 7oesn8t *,ist

)a%&groun *n"ormation +tea%her in"ormation,
$ore on the motion of .articles
One important i"ea in the arti)le is that all parti)les are in motion an", there&ore, have thermal energ!. 4n or"er to un"erstan" this )on)ept, stu"ents shoul" &irst un"erstan" the Aineti) :ole)ular :o"el 5A::6. 4n man! )hemistr! text9oo*s this is presente" in a )hapter on gases an" is )alle" the Aineti) Theor! o& @ases. However, the mo"el )an 9e applie" to soli"s an"

63

li<ui"s as well as gases. There are multiple versions o& A:: in )ir)ulation, ea)h with small variations, 9ut the essential )omponents are these: %. All matter )an 9e thought o& as a )olle)tion o& "is)rete parti)les. 2. Ea)h parti)le is too small to 9e seen in"ivi"uall!. ,. There are spa)es 9etween the parti)les. .. The parti)les are in )onstant, ran"om motion. 7. There are &or)es o& attra)tion 9etween the parti)les. 4n an! )hemistr! )ourse stu"ents shoul" have a mental mo"el o& matter that )orrespon"s to these *e! )omponents. 4& !ou lea" stu"ents to ma*e the tentative assumption that all matter is parti)ulate there are a)tivities !ou )an "o to rein&or)e that 9asi) assumption Vthat is, provi"e evi"en)e &or the )on)ept. Hisuals li*e the one at right ma! help stu"ents to thin* a9out soli"s, li<ui"s an" gases as parti)ulate. With that &un"amental i"ea in min" !ou http:HHscienceportfolio'p'.wikispaces.comH$ermO; )an have stu"ents ma*e a series o& o9servations to "evelop the remaining A:: i"eas. (or example, i& !ou "issolve salt in water the salt "isappears. 3ut i& !ou evaporate the water the salt remains, in"i)ating that it was there all along. Sou )an lea" stu"ents to the i"ea that the parti)les ma*ing up the visi9le granular salt separate" into in"ivi"ual parti)les that were invisi9le. To "evelop the i"ea that here are spa)es 9etween the parti)les !ou might )onsi"er "oing the Wshrin*ing li<ui"sX a)tivit! 5see W4n=)lass A)tivitiesX, ^26. Ae! to this arti)le is the parti)le motion )omponent o& the mo"el. Sou )an re&er to the )lassi) 3rownian motion experiment 5see W4n=)lass A)tivitiesX, ^76, an" the wor* that Einstein "i" to )on&irm the motion o& mole)ules. 4t is li*el! that 9a)*groun" on mole)ular motion )an 9e &oun" in )hemistr! text9oo*s un"er topi)s li*e rea)tion me)hanisms, gas laws, )hange o& phase an" other topi)s. The &a)t that parti)les 5atoms an" mole)ules6 are in motion means that the parti)les )olli"e with ea)h other 5an" in the )ase o& li<ui"s an" gases with the walls o& their )ontainer6. As the arti)le "es)ri9es, these )ollisions )hange the "ire)tion an" velo)it! o& parti)les. 4t is also important to note that the )ollisions are "es)ri9e" as 9eing Wper&e)tl! elasti).X That is, when the )ollisions o))ur no energ! is lost. As a si"e note in the )ontext o& this Tea)her$s @ui"eV)ollisions 9etween parti)les is an important )on)ept &or stu"ents to have in or"er to un"erstan" how )hemi)al rea)tions o))ur. The arti)le notes that the motion o& the parti)les means that ea)h parti)le has its own *ineti) energ! an" that some parti)les are moving &aster or slower than others. Sin)e it is not possi9le to measure the *ineti) energ! o& in"ivi"ual parti)les, we use a thermometer to measure the average *ineti) energ! o& the parti)les in a su9stan)e. See W:ore on temperatureX 9elow. The arti)le also "es)ri9es the )hange o& phase &or a melting i)e )u9e. 4n or"er to &ull! un"erstan" )hange o& phase, stu"ents must also *now that there are intermole)ular &or)es o& attra)tion 9etween parti)lesVh!"rogen 9on"s an" van "er Waals &or)es. An" these &or)es )onstrain the motion o& parti)les to var!ing "egrees "epen"ing on whether the su9stan)e is a soli", li<ui" or gas. An" &urther, energ! 5perhaps in the &orm o& heat6 is re<uire" to over)ome the intermole)ular &or)es. (urther "is)ussion o& these i"eas will appear in later se)tions o& this Tea)her$s @ui"e.

64

$ore on heat
Sour stu"ents shoul" *now the law o& Conservation o& Energ!, whi)h sa!s that the total amount o& energ! in the universe is )onstant. That is, energ! )annot 9e )reate" or "estro!e". Energ! )an, however, 9e trans&erre" &rom one su9stan)e 5or s!stem6 to another, or it )an )hange &orm. Examples o& energ! trans&ormations in)lu"e a light 9ul9 5ele)tri)it! to light an" heat6, an exothermi) )hemi)al rea)tion li*e )om9ustion 5)hemi)al potential to heat6, expansion o& gases a))or"ing to Charles$ Gaw 5heat to wor*6 an" man! others. (or the purposes o& this arti)le an" Tea)her$s @ui"e the emphasis will 9e on energ! trans&er 9etween su9stan)es. Heat &low at a ma)ros)opi) level is a well="e&ine" phenomenon whi)h )an 9e "es)ri9e" 9! <uantitative laws. The (irst Gaw o& Thermo"!nami)s is simpl! the Gaw o& Conservation o& Energ! applie" to heat. 4t sa!s that the )hange in internal energ! o& a s!stem is e<ual to the heat a""e" to a s!stem minus the wor* "one 9! the s!stem. The e<uation )an 9e expresse": aU [ ; ] W where U is internal energ!, ; is heat a""e" to or remove" &rom the s!stem an" W is wor* "one on or 9! the s!stem. -ote that aU )an 9e expresse" as Energ!5&inal6 Y Energ!5initial6, a &orm more &amiliar to )hemists. The law is easiest to see i& there is no wor* "one on or 9! the s!stem. 4n that )ase the )hange in internal energ! is e<ual to the heat &low, the situation "es)ri9e" in the arti)le. Also note that in the examples o& heat &low "es)ri9e" in the arti)le, no )hemi)al )hanges ta*e pla)e. The i"eas "es)ri9e" here, however, "o relate to )hemi)al )hanges. Enthalp!, entrop!, Hess$s Gaw, 9on" energies an" )alorimetr! are all )onne)te" to the (irst Gaw. (or a thorough "is)ussion o& these issues, see http:FFwww.)hem%.)omFa)a"Fwe9textFenergeti)sF. So we *now &rom the (irst Gaw that as the internal energies o& su9stan)es )hange, heat &lows. 3ut what "ire)ts the &low' The Se)on" law o& Thermo"!nami)s tells us. 4t sa!s that heat alwa!s &lows &rom the su9stan)e with the higher temperature to the su9stan)e with the lower temperature an" never the other wa! aroun". This is the )entral i"ea o& the arti)le. The energ! &low 9etween two su9stan)es with "i&&erent temperatures is )alle" heat an" we )an pre"i)t its &low 9! loo*ing at the temperatures. (ollow this )on)ept to its logi)al )on)lusion to get the i"ea state" in the arti)le$s title: there is no ph!si)al entit! "e&ine" as )ol". The Se)on" Gaw has a se)on" )onse<uen)e. 4t suggests that we )annot remove all o& the internal energ! &rom a given su9stan)e at a given temperature. Some o& it will 9e WlostX as a result o& heat &low 9etween the su9stan)e an" its surroun"ings. (or example, i& we tr! to remove all the internal energ! &rom %. liter o& water we will see that while we are )on"u)ting the experiment some o& the heat we wish to )apture will inevita9l! &low to the water$s )ontainer an", there&ore, not 9e availa9le &or our use. So, in &a)t, no heat &low is % per )ent e&&i)ient. A )onse<uen)e o& this )on)ept is that the s!stem in our example 9e)omes more "isor"ere". That is, the entrop! 5S6 o& the s!stem 5in this )ase the water an" its )ontainer6 in)reases. So the Se)on" Gaw tells us something a9out entrop! in a""ition to heat &low. -ASA provi"es some a""itional "etails:
We )an imagine thermo"!nami) pro)esses whi)h )onserve energ! 9ut whi)h never o))ur in nature. (or example, i& we 9ring a hot o9?e)t into )onta)t with a )ol" o9?e)t, we o9serve that the hot o9?e)t )ools "own an" the )ol" o9?e)t heats up until an

65

e<uili9rium is rea)he". The trans&er o& heat goes &rom the hot o9?e)t to the )ol" o9?e)t. We )an imagine a s!stem, however, in whi)h the heat is instea" trans&erre" &rom the )ol" o9?e)t to the hot o9?e)t, an" su)h a s!stem "oes not violate the &irst law o& thermo"!nami)s. The )ol" o9?e)t gets )ol"er an" the hot o9?e)t gets hotter, 9ut energ! is )onserve". O9viousl! we "onNt en)ounter su)h a s!stem in nature an" to explain this an" similar o9servations, thermo"!nami)ists propose" a second la" of thermod3namics. Clasius Lsi)M, Aelvin, an" Carnot propose" various &orms o& the se)on" law to "es)ri9e the parti)ular ph!si)s pro9lem that ea)h was stu"!ing. The "es)ription o& the se)on" law state" on this sli"e was ta*en &rom Halli"a! an" +esni)*Ns text9oo*, Z8h!si)sZ. 4t 9egins with the "e&inition o& a new state varia9le )alle" entrop!. Entrop! has a variet! o& ph!si)al interpretations, in)lu"ing the statisti)al "isor"er o& the s!stem, 9ut &or our purposes, let us )onsi"er entrop! to 9e ?ust another propert! o& the s!stem, li*e enthalp! or temperature. The se)on" law states that there exists a use&ul state varia9le )alle" entrop! S. The )hange in entrop! delta S is e<ual to the heat trans&er delta Q "ivi"e" 9! the temperature T. aS [ a;FT (or a given ph!si)al pro)ess, the )om9ine" entrop! o& the s!stem an" the environment remains a )onstant i& the pro)ess )an 9e reverse". 4& we "enote the initial an" &inal states o& the s!stem 9! ZiZ an" Z&Z: S& [ Si 5reversi9le pro)ess6 An example o& a re6ersible .rocess is i"eall! &or)ing a &low through a )onstri)te" pipe. 4"eal means no 9oun"ar! la!er losses. As the &low moves through the )onstri)tion, the pressure, temperature an" velo)it! )hange, 9ut these varia9les return to their original values "ownstream o& the )onstri)tion. The state o& the gas returns to its original )on"itions an" the )hange o& entrop! o& the s!stem is Dero. Engineers )all su)h a pro)ess an isentropi) pro)ess. 4sentropi) means )onstant entrop!. The se)on" law states that i& the ph!si)al pro)ess is irre6ersible, the )om9ine" entrop! o& the s!stem an" the environment must increase. The &inal entrop! must 9e greater than the initial entrop! &or an irreversi9le pro)ess: S& b Si 5irreversi9le pro)ess6 An example o& an irreversi9le pro)ess is the pro9lem "is)usse" in the se)on" paragraph. A hot o9?e)t is put in )onta)t with a )ol" o9?e)t. Eventuall!, the! 9oth a)hieve the same e<uili9rium temperature. 4& we then separate the o9?e)ts the! remain at the e<uili9rium temperature an" "o not naturall! return to their original temperatures. The pro)ess o& 9ringing them to the same temperature is irreversi9le. 5http:FFwww.gr).nasa.govFWWWF*=%2FairplaneFthermo2.html6

O9serving heat &low at the ma)ros)opi) level, then, we see that i"eall! the energ! is )onserve" an" that heat alwa!s &lows &rom higher temperature to lower temperature. 4n other wor"s, cooling down an" warming up o))ur via the same me)hanismVheat trans&er &rom a higher temperature to a lower temperature. The su9stan)e with the initial higher temperature cools down an" the su9stan)e with the initial lower temperature warms up. The en" result o& heat &low is thermal e<uili9rium with 9oth su9stan)es at the same temperature. At this point there will not 9e an! heat &low 9etween them. 4& we measure" the )hange in temperatures "uring the heat &low, we woul" see temperatures loo*ing something li*e this:

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(http:HHwww.physicsclassroom.comHclassHthermal3Hu'Ll'd.cfm#

3oth su9stan)es in the example a9ove will have the same temperature at the en" o& the pro)ess, sin)e the! are at thermal e<uili9rium. Sou ma! wish to note to !our stu"ents that &or simple heat trans&er examples we )an )al)ulate the amount o& heat that &lows in or out o& a su9stan)e using an e<uation that appears in most high s)hool )hemistr! text9oo*s: ;[Cpmat Where ; [ heat trans&er, Cp > the spe)i&i) heat o& the su9stan)e, m [ the mass o& the su9stan)e an" at [ )hange in temperature. Sou ma! have to remin" stu"ents that spe)i&i) heat is "e&ine" to 9e the heat re<uire" to raise the temperature o& one gram o& su9stan)e %oC an" that the units are *BF5g x oC6. $ore on the histor3 of heat S)ien)e "i" not alwa!s 9elieve that heat is relate" to mole)ular motion. The an)ients ha" their views on heat, primaril! as it relate" to &ire. (ire was, o& )ourse, one o& the @ree* elements. The @ree* philosopher Hera)litus suggeste" that, o& the &our elements, &ire was the )ontrolling element sin)e it )ause" )hanges to o))ur in the others. Other an)ients attri9ute" heat to the heart, the sun, &ri)tion an" general motion. When Boseph 3la)* "is)overe" via experimentation that heat )oul" melt i)e without )hanging its temperature, the notions o& heat an" temperature were &irst "istinguishe". -ew)omen an" Watt esta9lishe" a relationship 9etween heat an" wor* an" in the %/ s Bohann 3e)her propose" that heat was asso)iate" with phlogiston. 4n the %0 s, when Gavoisier )onne)te" ox!gen with 9urning, the phlogiston theor! was "is)ar"e". However, Gavoisier repla)e" the heat=phlogiston theor! with the theor! o& the Calori), a su9stan)e with no mass that )oul" enter an" leave other su9stan)es. Carnot a"opte" this )on)ept an" applie" it to his theories a9out heat trans&er. Also in the %0 s, however, 3ernoulli a"van)e" the *ineti) theor! o& gases whi)h le" to the i"ea that the motion o& mole)ules was responsi9le &or the trans&er o& heat 5the i"ea "es)ri9e" in the arti)le6. Clausius &ollowe" 3ernoulli$s i"eas in &ormulating the Gaw o& Conservation o& Energ! whi)h in)lu"e" the )on)ept o& internal energ!, that is, the energ! o& the mole)ules o& the su9stan)e. 4n the mi"=%1 s William Thomson a&&irme" the i"ea that heat was e<uivalent to me)hani)al wor*, an i"ea that was &urther a"van)e" &ort! !ears later 9! 3en?amin Thompson 5Count +um&or"6 when he

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)onne)te" the )on)ept o& heat with the motion o& parti)les. Gater, Boule$s experiments )onsoli"ate" the )onne)tion 9etween heat an" the motion o& parti)les. 4t was the wor* o& Bames Cler* :axwell that &inall! seale" the &ate o& Calori) Theor! when in the late %1 s :axwell pu9lishe" $he $heory of !eat in whi)h he )reate" a &ramewor* &or what we now *now as thermo"!nami)s. :axwell suggeste" that i& two su9stan)es were in )onta)t, separate" onl! 9! a thin wall with a "oor, an" the parti)les o& the two su9stan)es were traveling at "i&&erent velo)ities, then i& a h!potheti)al )hara)ter )alle" :axwell$s "emon were to open the "oor in the wall, &aster=moving parti)les woul" pass through in one "ire)tion an" slower=moving parti)les woul" pass through in the other "ire)tion, eventuall! )reating an e<uili9rium. We *now now that it is not the ex)hange o& parti)les 9ut collisions 9etween parti)les o& "i&&ering velo)ities that allows energ! to 9e trans&erre". However, :axwell$s wor* "ealt a &atal 9low to the Calori) Theor!.

$ore on tem.erature
4n a previous se)tion o& this Tea)her$s @ui"e we )hara)teriDe" matter as 9eing ma"e up o& atoms or mole)ules that are in )onstant ran"om motion. This motion at the mole)ular level gives the su9stan)e most o& its internal energ! in the &orm o& *ineti) energ!. +e)all that *ineti) energ! is "e&ine" to 9e: AE [ \ mv2, where m is the mass o& the o9?e)t an" v is its velo)it!. We measure this *ineti) energ! 9! means o& temperature. Temperature is "e&ine" to 9e a measure o& the average translational 5or linear6 *ineti) energ! o& the atoms or mole)ules o& a su9stan)e. 4t is an average 9e)ause in"ivi"ual parti)les in the su9stan)e are moving at "i&&erent velo)ities. We in)lu"e the term WtranslationalX here 9e)ause, in a""ition to linear motion, parti)les also un"ergo 9oth vi9rational an" rotational motion, 9ut these latter two are not usuall! in)lu"e" in the temperature o& a su9stan)e. 8i)ture a sample o& a su9stan)e. 4t is )ompose" o& mole)ules, ea)h o& whi)h is in motion. 8erhaps !ou )an use a short simulation to help !ou an" !our stu"ents visualiDe this 9ehavior: http:FFwww.!outu9e.)omFwat)h'v[8_A3x"*-%Cs . As note" a9ove, the parti)les have a range o& velo)ities. The "istri9ution at 20 oC 5, A on the graph 9elow6 woul" loo* li*e the )urve with the taller pea*. Even though there is a "istri9ution o& velo)ities, the most pro9a9le velo)it! )orrespon"s to a temperature o& , A. 4& the su9stan)e is heate" to %2 A the most pro9a9le velo)it! moves &urther out the temperature axis, 9ut there is still a range o& mole)ular velo)ities. 4n 9oth )ases some mole)ules are moving &aster an" some are moving slower. The temperatures represent the average *ineti) energ! o& the mole)ules. "http://sholtoainslie.wordpress.com/portfolio/graphs/ma4bolt)cr9/!

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This representation o& mole)ular velo)ities is *nown as the :axwell=3oltDmann "istri9ution. 4n a "is)ussion o& internal energ! an" heat, temperature is important not onl! 9e)ause it measures the internal energ! 9ut 9e)ause it tells us the "ire)tion o& heat &low 9etween two su9stan)es, as "is)usse" in the arti)le. 4& two su9stan)es at "i&&erent temperatures are in )onta)t, heat will &low &rom the su9stan)e at the higher temperature to the su9stan)e at the lower temperature until the two su9stan)es rea)h a thermal e<uili9rium. This is the primar! reason 9ehin" the )entral i"ea in the arti)le that there is no su)h thing as )ol". The W)ol"erX su9stan)e alwa!s re)eives the heat &rom the warmer su9stan)e, not the other wa! aroun". At the mole)ular level the &aster=moving parti)les o& the warmer su9stan)e )olli"e at ran"om with the slower=moving parti)les o& the )ol"er su9stan)e an" in "oing so trans&er some energ!Vheat Vto them. See "iagram 9elow. As a result, the &aster=moving parti)les slow "own an" the slower=moving parti)les spee" up, an" the pro)ess )ontinues until 9oth sets o& parti)les are moving at the same average velo)it!. That is, the su9stan)es are at the same temperature. The! are in thermal e<uili9rium an" no heat &lows.

%%%%%http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/thermo/temper2.html:c2

The relationship 9etween temperature an" the "ire)tion o& heat &low is &ormall! *nown as the Se)on" law o& Thermo"!nami)s. +e)all that the (irst Gaw o& Thermo"!nami)s is the appli)ation o& the Gaw o& Conservation o& Energ! to thermo"!nami)s. Thermometers and tem.erature scalesV4& temperature is a measure o& parti)le velo)it!, how is temperature measure"' As most o& !our stu"ents will *now, temperature is measure" using a

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thermometer. Although there are a variet! o& thermometers, the stan"ar" la9orator! thermometer is essentiall! a seale" glass tu9e with a ver! narrow 9ore an" a reservoir o& li<ui" at one en". 4n or"er to measure the temperature o& a su9stan)e the thermometer is immerse" in the su9stan)e so that the reservoir is )ompletel! surroun"e" 9! the su9stan)e. The li<ui" in the reservoir, li*e all li<ui"s, expan"s an" )ontra)ts as heat is a""e" or remove". The li<ui" reservoir opens into a ver! narrow tu9e that travels the length o& the thermometer so that as the li<ui" expan"s or )ontra)ts the )hanges in the height o& the li<ui" in the tu9e are visi9le to the na*e" e!e. +eservoir narrow tu9e

Garrow &'+e Li6'id

http://home.howstuffworks.com/therm2.htm%

4n or"er to un"erstan" how the thermometer wor*s we nee" to re&er 9a)* to the Aineti) :ole)ular :o"el 5see W:ore on the motion o& mole)ulesX6. The thermometer 5the glass an" the li<ui"6 is ma"e up o& parti)les that are moving with a range o& velo)ities. When the thermometer is immerse" in a su9stan)e, the thermometer an" the su9stan)es are in )onta)t. The arti)le "es)ri9es what will happen next. 8arti)les o& the su9stan)e will )olli"e with parti)les o& the thermometer. 4& the parti)les o& the su9stan)e are moving more rapi"l! than the parti)les ma*ing up the thermometer, heat will 9e trans&erre" to the thermometer, spee"ing up its parti)les. An" i& the parti)les o& the su9stan)e are traveling more slowl! than those o& the thermometer, heat will &low &rom thermometer to the su9stan)e an" the o9serve" temperature will "e)rease. As note" a9ove, when a li<ui" is heate" it expan"s so the li<ui" in the reservoir will expan". 3ut it expan"s into the narrow tu9e ma*ing up the length o& the thermometer. What we see is the li<ui" rising in the tu9e. When the thermometer an" the su9stan)e )ome to thermal e<uili9rium 5when their temperatures are e<ual6 the li<ui" remains at a )ertain level in the tu9e an" we rea" that level as the temperature o& the su9stan)e. An!one, then, )an ma*e a thermometer an" use an! num9ering s!stem the! )hoose. However, &or resulting temperature measurements to 9e )onsistent a)ross multiple users there must 9e a stan"ar" metho" o& )ali9ration. That is, a rea"ing o&, sa!, 2 o on one thermometer must represent the same average mole)ular motion as a 2 o rea"ing on an! other thermometer. There must 9e a stan"ar" set o& )on"itions use" to )ali9rate all thermometers. Suppose we )hoose two )on"itions that are easil! o9taina9le un"er normal )ir)umstan)esVthe &reeDing point o& water an" the 9oiling point o& water. Get$s )ali9rate our thermometers at sea level where atmospheri) pressure e<uals % atm or % % *8a, sin)e we *nown that altitu"e a&&e)ts 9oiling point. We immerse our thermometer in an i)e=water mixture that is at e<uili9rium an" mar* on the thermometer the level o& whatever li<ui" we are using in the thermometer. Then we immerse the thermometer in 9oiling water, allow the thermometer to )ome to thermal e<uili9rium with the 9oiling water, an" again mar* the level o& li<ui" in the thermometer. We now have two stan"ar" points on the thermometer, an" we )an "ivi"e that "istan)e up into whatever num9er o& e<ual parts we )hoose. We )an )all ea)h o& those small "ivisions a W"egreeX or in the )ase o& the Aelvin s)ale, a W*elvinX. 3ut what s)ale an" what num9ers will we use &or the temperature' That "epen"s on whi)h temperature s)ale we )hooseV(ahrenheit, Celsius or Aelvin. @a9riel (ahrenheit "evelope" a temperature s)ale in the earl! %0 s that was 9ase" on two )on"itions. The &irst was a mixture o& i)e, salt an" water whi)h he thought was the lowest possi9le temperature. (ahrenheit )alle" this temperature o. He use" 9o"! temperature an" thought that it was 2/o.

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So o an" 2/o were (ahrenheit$s stan"ar"s. On this s)ale water &roDe at ,2 o( an" water 9oile" at a9out 2%2 o(. Soon a&ter (ahrenheit$s wor*, An"ers Celsius esta9lishe" a temperature s)ale 9ase" on the &reeDing an" 9oiling points o& water with % e<ual "ivisions 9etween 5it was )alle" the W)entigra"eX s)ale 9e)ause o& the % "ivisions6. Originall! Celsius )alle" the &reeDing point % o an" the 9oiling point o, 9ut these were reverse" soon a&ter his "eath in %0.7. 4n the earl! %1 s the relationship 9etween the temperature an" volume o& a gas ha" 9een esta9lishe" 9! Charles an" @a!=Gussa) 5an" 9ase" on the mu)h earlier wor* o& Amontons6. 4& we plot the temperature o& the gas vs. its volume an" "etermine the slope o& the resulting )urve, the !=inter)ept o& the )urve is =20, oC, suggesting that when the gas rea)hes a temperature o& =20, oC it woul" have Dero volume The logi)al explanation &or this is that at this temperature all mole)ular motion woul" )ease, meaning the parti)les o& the gas woul" no longer 9e moving so that the gas )oul"n$t o))up! spa)e via the translation o& the mole)ules. That le" William Thomson, later to 9e *nown as Gor" Aelvin, to theoriDe that =20, oC was the lowest attaina9le temperature, an" to esta9lish a temperature s)ale with =20, oC as the lowest possi9le temperature an" ea)h W"egreeX 5now a W*elvinX6 e<ual to % Co. Using this temperature s)ale we )an sa! that mole)ular motion is "ire)tl! proportional to the Aelvin temperature. See the "iagram at right &or a )omparison o& the three temperature s)ales.
http:HHwww.windows;universe.orgHphysicalPscienceHphysicsHthermalHkelvinPtemperaturePscale.html

There are also other t!pes o& thermometers. To rea" a ChemMatters arti)le on thermometers, see http:FFwww.a)s.orgF)ontentF"amFa)sorgFe"u)ationFresour)esFhighs)hoolF)hemmattersFar)hiv eF"e)em9er=2 /.p"& . (or more on t!pes o& thermometers see W:ore sites on temperature,X 9elow.

$ore on intermolecular forces

The initial example o& thermal energ! ex)hange given in the arti)le involves a""ing an i)e )u9e to a so&t "rin*. These are, in &a)t, two su9stan)es at "i&&erent temperatures an" so &it the mo"el 9eing presente" &or thermal energ! ex)hange. Heat "oes &low out o& the so&t "rin* an" into the i)e )u9e. An" the temperature o& the so&t "rin* "e)reases, 9ut what happens to the temperature o& the i)e )u9e' We *now that its temperature remains )onstant. So the i)e )u9e is 9eing heate" 9ut, as the arti)le states, its temperature remains at oC. We *now that energ! is &lowing into the i)e )u9e. What is happening to that energ!'

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We nee" to )onsi"er two ma?or i"eas a9out the i)e. The &irst is that, as the arti)le mentions, the parti)les o& the i)e 5an" the so&t "rin*6 are moving not onl! in a straight lineV translational motionV9ut the! are also vi9rating an" rotating. +emem9er that temperature measures translational motion onl!. So we ten" to thin* that when the temperature in)reases, the translational motion in)reases. This is true, 9ut vi9ration an" rotation also in)rease with temperature, e&&e)tivel! preparing the soli" to un"ergo a phase )hange. So when energ! &lows into a su9stan)e whi)h is un"ergoing a phase )hange the energ! is )onverte" not to *ineti) energ! 9ut to potential energ! as the vi9ration o& the parti)les in)reases in or"er to over)ome attra)tive &or)es 9etween the mole)ules. The se)on" i"ea that is important here is that those attra)tive &or)es "o, in &a)t, hol" the parti)les o& soli"s 5an" li<ui"s6 together. The &or)es are strongest in soli"s, less so in li<ui"s an" essentiall! negligi9le in gases. 4n or"er to over)ome those stronger &or)es in a soli" an" )onvert the soli" to a li<ui", energ! must 9e a""e" to the soli", not to raise its temperature 9ut to over)ome the attra)tive &or)es. This amount o& energ! &or i)e is /. % *BFmol, the molar heat o& &usion &or i)e. H2O5s6 c H2O5l6 5C TC6 aHm [ ] /. % *BF mol

What, then, are these attra)tive &or)es that *eep the water mole)ules in their )r!stal latti)e as i)e' The ChemMatters O)to9er 2 7 Tea)her$s @ui"e &or the arti)le, +ohrig, 3. The AmaDing #rin*ing 3ir". ChemMatters 200+2 ;& 5,6, pp % Y%%, "es)ri9es them.
There are three t!pes o& intermole)ular &or)es in li<ui"s. The! are 5in or"er o& in)reasing strength6 Gon"on "ispersion &or)es, "ipole="ipole intera)tions, an" h!"rogen 9on"s. The relative energies o& intermole)ular &or)es is mu)h less than )ovalent or ioni) 9on"ing energies. The &ollowing )hart gives an approximation o& the relative strengths in *BFmol: Covalent 9on"s % Y% H!"rogen 9on"s % Y. #ipole="ipole .%Y% Gon"on &or)es .%Y% While )ovalent 9on" energies range &rom %7 to 1 *BFmol, the energ! re<uire" to over)ome intermole)ular attra)tions are usuall! less than . *BFmol. (or example, it ta*es ./. *BFmol to 9rea* the H==O 9on"s within a water mole)ule an" onl! .% *BFmol to 9rea* the 9on"s between water mole)ules. The energ! re<uire" to vaporiDe a li<ui" is the energ! nee"e" to 9rea* these intermole)ular attra)tions. Gon"on "ispersion &or)es 5one o& the three &or)es that are, in aggregate, *nown as van "er Waals &or)es6 arise &rom temporar! )harges that arise in non=polar mole)ules involving atoms with larger num9er o& ele)trons. #ipole="ipole intera)tions 5the se)on" t!pe o& van "er Waals &or)es6 are ele)trostati) &or)es )reate" 9! the partial positive an" negative )harges within neigh9oring mole)ules that exhi9it some "egree o& polarit!. H!"rogen 9on"s 5the last o& van "er Waals &or)es6 are the 9est *nown o& the three an" are the attra)tions 9etween a polar )ovalentl! 9on"e" h!"rogen atom in one mole)ule an" an ele)tronegative atom with one 5or more6 non9on"ing pair5s6 o& valen)e ele)trons in a neigh9oring mole)ule. H!"rogen 9on"ing o))urs most o&ten in )ovalentl! 9on"e" mole)ules involving nitrogen, ox!gen, &luorine an" )hlorine.

>http:FFwww.a)s.orgF)ontentFa)sFenFe"u)ationFresour)esFhighs)hoolF)hemmattersFpast=
issues.html6

4n the water mole)ule it is primaril! h!"rogen 9on"s that )reate i)e$s )r!stal latti)e stru)ture. An" it is the h!"rogen 9on"s that "eman" that WextraX energ! to ena9le the soli" i)e to 9e)ome li<ui" water.

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(or ever! mole o& water melte" we must a"" /. % *B o& thermal energ! ?ust to over)ome the attra)tive &or)es hol"ing the water mole)ules in the hexagonal latti)e stru)ture we asso)iate with i)e 5see "iagram at right6. A""ing this energ! )hanges the arrangement o& the mole)ules an" so )hanges their potential energ!. +emem9er that thermometers "o not respon" to )hanges in potential energ! so while the i)e )u9e is )hanging phase the temperature remains )onstant at oC.
http://www.historyoftheuni9erse.com/;p<ice.htm 4n the arti)le example there is i)e remaining when the s)enario en"s so the &inal temperature is oC, the melting point o& i)e. 4n realit! that is unli*el! to 9e the &inal temperature o& the s!stem 9e)ause while the so&t "rin* is losing thermal energ! to the i)e, it is gaining energ! &rom the air aroun" it. Collisions are ta*ing pla)e 9etween mole)ules o& the air an" the so&t "rin* )ontainer, the air an" the so&t "rin* itsel&, an" sin)e the air temperature is li*el! higher than that o& the so&t "rin*, heat is 9eing a""e" to the so&t "rin*. Ge&t &or some perio" o& time, the i)e will all melt an" the i)e=so&t "rin* energ! ex)hange will )ease, 9ut the air=so&t "rin* ex)hange )ontinues until the! rea)h a thermal e<uili9riumVmost li*el! 9a)* at room temperature unless the so&t "rin* is )onsume" 9e&orehan".

Something similar )an 9e sai" &or the example given at the en" o& the arti)le a9out "ipping a &inger into water an" waving it in the air. 4nstea" o& a soli"=li<ui" phase )hange li*e the i)e=so&t "rin* example earl! in the arti)le, this is a li<ui"=gas phase )hange. 8arti)les in li<ui"s are hel" together 9! intermole)ular &or)es, an" this is espe)iall! true in water where h!"rogen 9on"s exert signi&i)ant attra)tive &or)es 9etween water mole)ules. 4n this )ase some o& the water mole)ulesVthose with higher *ineti) energ!Vare moving rapi"l! enough to over)ome the relativel! strong intermole)ular &or)es hol"ing the water mole)ules together. What we o9serve at a ma)ros)opi) level is that water is evaporating. The water le&t 9ehin" on !our &inger is at a slightl! lower temperature 5remem9er that temperature is a measure o& average *ineti) energ! an" some o& the mole)ules with higher *ineti) energ! have ?ust le&t, resulting in a lower average *ineti) energ!VtemperatureV&or the water le&t 9ehin"?. Sin)e the water an" !our s*in are in )onta)t, energ! is trans&erre" &rom !our warmer s*in to the )ooler water. Again, at a ma)ros)opi) level !our s*in &eels )ooler 9e)ause energ! has 9een remove".

$ore on methods of heat transfer

The arti)le &o)uses on heat trans&er 9etween two su9stan)es that are in )onta)tVthe i)e )u9es an" the so&t "rin*. The trans&er o& energ! "epen"s on the )ollisions 9etween the mole)ules o& warmer so&t "rin* an" the mole)ules o& the )ooler i)e )u9es, an" this re<uires that the two 9e in "ire)t )onta)t. The heat is trans&erre" via )ollisions 9etween mole)ules o& the two su9stan)es in )onta)t. The term applie" to this t!pe o& heat trans&er is )on"u)tion. 4t is the main metho" o& heat trans&er involving soli"s sin)e the parti)les in a soli" are )lose to ea)h other. O& the three phases o& matter, soli"s are the 9est )on"u)tors o& heat. Earlier se)tions o& the Tea)her$s @ui"e explain this metho" o& heat ex)hange.

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3e)ause the parti)les in li<ui"s an" gases are &arther apart, there are &ew )ollisions 9etween the parti)les o& li<ui"s an" gases, ma*ing poor heat )on"u)tors 5an" 9etter insulators6. 3ut heat )an 9e trans&erre" in li<ui"s an" gases 9! )onve)tion. 4n this metho" the li<ui" or gas trans&er heat 9! the 9ul* movement o& the &lui"J that is, a mass o& li<ui" or gas moves &rom pla)e to pla)e )arr!ing energ! with it. Consi"er an exampleVa pot o& water on the stovetop. When the 9urner is turne" on heat is applie" to the pot whi)h )on"u)ts heat &rom its outsi"e sur&a)e to insi"e. The heat is then trans&erre" to the water near the 9ottom o& the pot 9! )on"u)tion. As that 9ottom mass o& water is heate" it expan"s an" )onse<uentl! its "ensit! "e)reases. That 9ul* mass o& water now has a lower "ensit! than the water surroun"ing it. So the heate" water rises towar" the water sur&a)e, while )ooler surroun"ing water "es)en"s to repla)e the now uno))upie" volume. The rising heate" water )arries energ! towar" the water$s sur&a)e, an" )ooler sur&a)e water moves "ownwar" to 9e heate" 9! the 9ottom o& the pot. As this pro)ess )ontinues, )urrents o& water move throughout the sample, "istri9uting heat as its moves. These are )alle" )onve)tion )urrents an" the! are )riti)al &or the movement o& energ! in the atmosphere, the h!"rosphere an" the lithosphere. Conve)tion is the main metho" o& heat trans&er in the environment. This metho" shoul" not 9e )on&use" with the Calori) Theor! o& Heat mentione" earlier in this Tea)her$s @ui"e. 4n the Calori) Theor! it was the Dero=mass &lui" )alle" heat that was thought to move in an" out o& su9stan)es. 4n )onve)tion 9ul* parts o& the &lui" matter itsel& moves )arr!ing heat with it. The thir" metho" o& heat trans&er is ra"iation. 4n this )ase the energ! is trans&erre" 9! means o& ele)tromagneti) waves. All su9stan)es at temperatures a9ove A ra"iate energ! at a range o& wave lengths, 9ut primaril! in the &orm o& in&rare" or heat. Sin)e atoms an" mole)ules an" their ele)trons are in motion, )olli"ing with ea)h other an", there&ore, a))elerating, the! ra"iate ele)tromagneti) energ!. -ote that in the "iagram o& the ele)tromagneti) spe)trum 9elow, as the temperature o& the emitting 9o"! in)reases the &re<uen)! o& the pre"ominating ra"iation also in)reases. (or o9?e)ts at temperatures )ommonl! &oun" on the earth, the ra"iation is in the in&rare" or heat range. So we sa! that all 9o"ies here on Earth ra"iate heat.

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" http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/&ile:$,3=pectrum3-roperties3edit.s9g !

The "iagram 9elow &urther in"i)ates the emission spe)trum &or a 9la)* 9o"! at , A 520 oC6. All o& its ra"iation is in the in&rare" range, whi)h in)lu"es wave lengths &rom % dm to % dm.

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O& )ourse, all o9?e)ts are also a9le to a9sor9 energ!. So, o9?e)ts 5or su9stan)es6 are 9oth ra"iating energ! to their surroun"ings, provi"e" the surroun"ings are at a lower temperature, an" a9sor9ing energ! &rom surroun"ings that are at higher temperatures. The uni<ue aspe)t o& heat trans&er 9! ra"iation is that energ! )an 9e transmitte" through spa)e 5whi)h is essentiall! a va)uum6 in this manner. The energ! &rom the Sun is ra"iate" to Earth via ra"iation. +a"iation "oes not re<uire a material me"ium to trans&er energ!. So although the arti)le emphasiDes heat trans&er 9! )on"u)tion it ma! also 9e trans&erre" 9! )onve)tion or ra"iation.

"http://en.citi)endium.org/wiki/5lack-body3radiation!

Conne%tions to Chemistry Con%epts +"or %orrelation to %ourse %urri%ulum,

%. Thermochemistr3V:u)h o& the thermo"!nami)s presente" in this arti)le provi"es important 9a)*groun" &or man! thermo)hemistr! )on)epts. 2. Tem.eratureVTemperature an" *ineti) energ! are )entral )on)epts in this arti)le. ,. 0inetic ener13VAll three metho"s o& heat trans&er, in)lu"ing )on"u)tion "es)ri9e" in the arti)le, are 9ase" on the *ineti) energ! o& the parti)les o& a su9stan)e. .. %otential ener13VTwo o& the examples use" in the arti)le "epen" on )hange o& phase, an" the energ! ex)hange in )hange o& phase involves potential energ!. 7. 0inetic molecular modelVThe 9asi) )on)ept un"erl!ing this arti)le is that the ran"om motion o& parti)les in a su9stan)e an" the a))ompan!ing internal energ! provi"es the 9asis &or heat &low. /. Antermolecular forcesLThese &or)es hol" mole)ules together an" the! )ome into pla! when )hanges o& phase o))ur.

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0. Chan1e of .haseL4t is important &or stu"ents to un"erstan" the 9asi) i"eas 9ehin" )hange o& phase so that the! )an un"erstan" the examples given in the arti)le.

-ossi.le Stu ent Mis%on%eptions +to ai tea%her in a mis%on%eptions,

%.

ressing

HA thou1ht there "as such a thin1 as cold. The article sa3s there is no such thin1.I $he main point of the article is to dispel this misconception. .f we define internal energy in terms of the motion of atoms and molecules (in addition to the potential energy stored in molecules#, then as particles move faster or slower, the substance has more or less internal energy. -nd when substances with different internal energies (as defined by their respective temperatures# come in contact, heat is transferred from the substance with the higher temperatureGthe warmer substanceGto the substance with the lower temperatureGthe colder substance. 2. H5o" can there be different tem.erature scales9 Aren8t all tem.eratures the same9I $he confusion here results from having several different temperature scales. $he numbers we put on a thermometer are arbitrary. 5o if we place a thermometer in boiling water (at sea level# the molecules of water will always behave the same way. 4hat we call the level of the li2uid in that thermometer is up to us. *ahrenheit called it &;o, but Celsius called it (oG resulting in two different numbers to describe the same conditions. $he two different numbers represent the same conditions in the matterGwater boils.

Anti%ipating Stu ent /uestions +answers to 0uestions stu ents might as& in %lass,
%. H4hat8s the ans"er to the K.o. @ui&8 at the be1innin1 of the article9I $he answer is Ea.F !eat is transferred from the soda to the ice. $he central idea in this article is that heat is always transferred from the substance with the higher temperature to the substance with the lower temperature. 5ince the ice is at the lower temperature, heat flows into it. 6ecause the ice makes the soft drink colder, it may seem like cold is flowing into the soft drank, but in reality there is no such thing as cold. 2. H4hat8s the difference bet"een ;inetic and .otential ener139I Aineti) energ! is energ! possesse" 9! a moving o9?e)t. 4& we are "ealing with atoms an" mole)ules, temperature is "ire)tl! relate" to *ineti) energ!. An in)rease in temperature means an in)rease in the *ineti) energ! o& those parti)les. 8otential energ! is 9est "es)ri9e" as energ! o& position. 4n or"er to in)rease the "istan)e 9etween atoms or mole)ules, energ! must 9e a""e". 4& the "istan)e 9etween parti)les "e)reases, then their potential energ! "e)reases. A use&ul analog! is to thin* o& masses that move awa! &rom or towar" the earth. To move a mass &arther &rom the earth, an input o& energ! is nee"e"Vthere is an in)rease in the potential energ! o& the mass. (or that same mass to move )loser to the earth, the mass gives up some energ! o& position, potential energ!.

*n1%lass A%tivities +lesson i eas, in%lu ing la.s 2 emonstrations,

1.
Stu"ents )an ma*e their own thermometers in )lass using one o& man! pro)e"ures availa9le on the we9, li*e http:FFhome.howstu&&wor*s.)omFtherm%.htm or

77

http:FFwww.hometrainingtools.)omFma*e=thermometer=s)ien)e=pro?e)tFaF%7,,F or http:FFp9s*i"s.orgFDoomFa)tivitiesFs)iFthermometer.html. 2. A simple "emonstration to show stu"ents that there are spa)es 9etween mole)ules is the al)ohol=water mixture a)tivit!. http:FFin&ohost.nmt.e"uFK?altigFEthanolWater:ix.p"& +u99ing al)ohol )an 9e use" as well. This is an alternate pro)e"ure to show spa)es 9etween parti)les: http:FFpu9s.a)s.orgF"oiFa9sF% .% 2%Fe" 0.p%,70.%. 3. Stu"ents )an "etermine the heat o& &usion &or the i)e )u9e 9! "oing this experiment: http:FFwww2.9a*ers&iel")ollege.e"uF"*im9allF8h!si)alP2 S)ien)eF-ewP2 Ga9sFExp P2 .P2 HeatP2 o&P2 (usion=:eltingP2 4)e.p"&. 4. This la9F"emonstration &rom -ASA allows stu"ents to 9etter un"erstan" metho"s o& heat trans&er: http:FFgenesismission.?pl.nasa.govFe"u)ateFs)imo"uleFheatF"evelopO%T@.p"&. 5. Sou )an show this vi"eo as a "emonstration to provi"e stu"ents with evi"en)e o& mole)ular motion. The motion o& the tin! "ots in this vi"eo is the movement o& ver! small mil* &at "roplets as a result o& 9eing 9u&&ete" 9! invisi9le water mole)ules. This is 3rownian motion. 5http:FFprotons&or9rea*&ast.wor"press.)omF2 %2F .F%%F9rownian=motion=o9serve"= in=mil*F6 This animation ma! ma*e the motion )learer: http:FFwww.!outu9e.)omFwat)h' v[,EH;&,H+i#). 6. A "emonstration to show mole)ular motion involves the rea)tion 9etween ammonia an" h!"ro)hlori) a)i" to pro"u)e a white )lou" in a tu9e. A pro)e"ure &or this "emo )an 9e &oun" here: http:FFwww.nu&&iel"&oun"ation.orgFpra)ti)al=)hemistr!F"i&&usion=gases=ammonia=an"= h!"rogen=)hlori"e. 0. This resour)e has a lot o& 9a)*groun" )ontent on intermole)ular &or)es an" also has &ive la9s on these &or)es. The &irst is a la9 on pol!mer )ross=lin*ing, the se)on" is on ele)trostati) &or)es, the thir" is the )lassi) Wwater "rops on a penn!X la9, the &ourth la9 is on rates o& evaporation an" the &i&th is on solu9ilit!. 5http:FFwww.haspi.orgF)urri)ulum= li9rar!F:e"=Chem=lessonsF ,P2 Stan"ar"P2 2P2 Chemi)alP2 3on"sFGa9sP2 an" P2 A)tivitiesF4ntermole)ular(or)es.p"&6 8. This a)tivit! &rom the Ameri)an Chemi)al So)iet! a9out mole)ular motion an" the e&&e)t o& temperature is "esigne" &or mi""le s)hool stu"ents, 9ut )an 9e a"apte" &or high s)hool. 5http:FFwww.mi""les)hool)hemistr!.)omFlessonplansF)hapter%Flesson26 9. Stu"ents )an see the results o& ions in motion in this la9 a)tivit!: http:FFser).)arleton.e"uFspFmnstepFa)tivitiesF2/,2%.html. 10. -ASA provi"es this la9 on metho"s o& heat trans&er: http:FFgenesismission.?pl.nasa.govFe"u)ateFs)imo"uleFheatF"evelopO%T@.p"&. 11. The U.S. #epartment o& Energ! "evelope" a Thermo"!nami)s Stu"! @ui"e )omplete with 9a)*groun" i"eas an" la9s a9out heat, heat trans&er an" relate" )on)epts a9out matter. A Tea)her$s @ui"e is in)lu"e". 5http:FFwww%.eere.energ!.govFe"u)ationFlessonplansFplans.aspx'i"[2%/6 12. This is an interesting "emonstration to illustrate )onve)tion: http:FFwww.atmos.washington.e"uFK"urran"F"emosF)onve)tionO)on"u)tion.htm. %,. This la9 a)tivit! )an 9e "one 9! stu"ents or as a tea)her "emonstration to illustrate heat trans&er 9! )on"u)tion: 5http:FFgalileo.ph!s.virginia.e"uFoutrea)hF1thgra"esolFHeatCon"u)tion(rm.htm6

Out1o"1%lass A%tivities an -ro3e%ts +stu ent resear%h, %lass pro3e%ts,

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%.

Stu"ents )an run the simulations "evelope" at the Universit! o& Oregon to 9etter un"erstan" heat trans&er an" thermo"!nami) e<uili9rium. 5http:FF?erse!.uoregon.e"uFvla9FThermo"!nami)sF6 2. Stu"ents )an also runs this intera)tive simulation on their own to 9etter un"erstan" the three metho"s o& heat trans&er: http:FFwww.wis)=online.)omFO9?e)tsFHiewO9?e)t.aspx' 4#[SCE, .6 ,. Assign stu"ents to ma*e a list o& situations the! see where heat is 9eing trans&erre", noting what t!pe o& trans&er is involve". The! )an )ompare lists or ma*e 9rie& presentations o& the examples. .. 4& there are an! stu"ent photographers in !our )lass, the! ma! 9e a9le an" willing to ta*e in&rare" images an" share them with the rest o& the )lass. Alternatel!, !ou might &in" a pro&essional photographer who has in&rare" photographs to share.

'e"eren%es +non1We.1.ase in"ormation sour%es,

The re&eren)es 9elow )an 9e &oun" on the )*4 ChemMatters 30-3ear C7 5whi)h in)lu"es all arti)les pu9lishe" &rom its in)eption in Septem9er, %21, through April, 2 %,6. The C# is availa9le &rom the Ameri)an Chemi)al So)iet! at www.a)s.org. Sele)te" arti)les an" the )omplete set o& Tea)her$s @ui"es &or all issues &rom the past three !ears are also availa9leV&reeVonline at this same site. (ull ChemMatters arti)les an" Tea)her$s @ui"es are availa9le on the , =!ear C# &or all past issues 5Tea)her$s @ui"es &rom (e9ruar! %22 6, up to 2 %,. Some o& the more re)ent arti)les 52 2 &orwar"6 ma! also 9e availa9le online at the U+G liste" a9ove. Simpl! )li)* on the W8ast 4ssuesX 9utton "ire)tl! 9elow the WMX in the ChemMatters logo at the top o& the page. 4& the arti)le is availa9le online, !ou will &in" it there. +ohrig, 3, Thermometers. ChemMatters 200#, ;= 5.6, pp %.Y%0. This arti)le explains the "i&&eren)e 9etween heat an" temperature, )ompares temperature s)ales, illustrates several t!pes o& thermometers an" "es)ri9es the histor! o& thermometr!. +ohrig, 3. The AmaDing #rin*ing 3ir". ChemMatters 200+2 ;& 5,6, pp % Y%%. 4n this arti)le the author "es)ri9es the wor*ings o& the "rin*ing 9ir" 9ase" on )hange o& phase. The Tea)her$s @ui"e &or this arti)le has a se)tion on the intermole)ular &or)es that hol" mole)ules together.

We. Sites "or A sour%es,

itional *n"ormation +We.1.ase in"ormation

$ore sites on 0inetic $olecular $odel

This site o&&ers an intera)tive simulation loo* at the Aineti) Theor! o& :atter: http:FFpreparator!)hemistr!.)omFA:TO&lash.htm.

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This site provi"es an intro"u)tion to *ineti) theor! an" in)lu"es appli)ations to )hange o& phases: http:FFwww.mentorials.)omFhigh=s)hool=)hemistr!=matter=*ineti)=theor!=o&=matter.htm. Even though this site is not ver! well "esigne", it o&&ers 9asi) "es)riptions o& the )on)epts involve" in the Aineti) :o"el o& :atter: http:FFolevelph!si)s9log.9logspot.)omF2 % F 2F*ineti)=mo"el=o&=matter.html6

$ore sites on heat

The online H!per8h!si)s text9oo* hoste" 9! @eorgia State Universit! has an extensive se)tion on thermo"!nami)s an" provi"es in&ormation &or the general pu9li) an" the experts: http:FFh!perph!si)s.ph!=astr.gsu.e"uFh9aseFh&rame.html. Through the :assa)husetts 4nstitute o& Te)hnolog!$s OpenCourseWare initiative, this text9oo* on heat trans&er is availa9le online. Even though it is written &or )ollege stu"ents, the &irst &ew )hapters are use&ul &or high s)hool stu"ents: http:FFwe9.mit.e"uFlienhar"FwwwFahtt.html. Another online text9oo*, this one &rom Simon (raser Universit!, )ontains ex)ellent 9a)*groun" material on )hemi)al "!nami)s an" the (irst Gaw o& Thermo"!nami)s. 5http:FFwww.)hem%.)omFa)a"Fwe9textFenergeti)sF6 A high s)hool s)ien)e tea)her "evelope" material on heat an" heat trans&er that is help&ul in un"erstan"ing these topi)s. 5http:FFwww.ph!si)s)lassroom.)omF)lassFthermal8Fu%1l%".)&m6 This site &o)uses primaril! on entrop! 9ut also in)lu"es the Se)on" law o& Thermo"!nami)s. The site is aime" at )ollege=level stu"ents an" )onne)ts entrop! an" heat in eas!=to=un"erstan" wa!s that explain the )onventional entrop! e<uations. 5http:FFentrop!site.ox!.e"uFstu"entsOapproa)h.html6 8ur"ue Universit!$s )hemistr! "epartment has a page that explains in some "etail )on)epts li*e thermo"!nami)s, heat an" internal energ!. 5http:FF)heme".)hem.pur"ue.e"uFgen)hemFtopi)reviewF9pF)h2%F)hemi)al.php6

$ore sites on tem.erature

(or more on how thermometers wor* see http:FFwww.energ!<uest.)a.govFhowOitOwor*sFthermometer.html or http:FFhome.howstu&&wor*s.)omFtherm.htm. The latter site in)lu"es "es)riptions o& ele)troni) thermometers, the @alileo thermometer, ear"rum thermometer an" tur*e! timer. (or a 9rie& histor! o& thermometr! &rom Thermowor*s see http:FFthermowor*s.)omFlearningFthermometr!% %OaO9rie&Ohistor!Oo&Othermometr!.html. Another page &rom the tea)her="esigne" 8h!si)s Classroom site explains thermometers an" temperature: http:FFwww.ph!si)s)lassroom.)omFClassFthermal8Fu%1l%9.)&m.

$ore sites on the histor3 of heat theor3

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This online arti)le &rom the Kournal of 8utrition "es)ri9es the histor! o& the )alorie as a unit o& heat: http:FF?n.nutrition.orgF)ontentF%,/F%2F2270.&ull.p"&]html. The 4n&inite Energ! site has a page title" WA 3rie& Histor! o& Hot an" Col".X 5http:FFwww.in&inite=energ!.)omFiemagaDineFissue,0Fm!steries.html6

$ore sites on methods of heat transfer

The 33C in the Unite" Aing"om o&&ers this page on heat trans&er 9! )on"u)tion, )onve)tion an" ra"iation: http:FFwww.99).)o.u*Fs)hoolsFg)se9itesiDeFs)ien)eFa<aFheatingan")oolingFheatingrev2.shtml. Hisual learners will 9ene&it &rom this intera)tive site on the metho"s o& heat trans&er: http:FFwww.wis)=online.)omFO9?e)tsFHiewO9?e)t.aspx'4#[SCE, .. The -ational O)eani) an" Atmospheri) A"ministration applies the metho"s o& heat trans&er to its appli)ations in the atmosphere an" o)eans. 5http:FFwww.srh.noaa.govF?etstreamFatmosFheat.htm6

S.orts Su..lements' 5el.ful or 5armful9

)a%&groun *n"ormation +tea%her in"ormation,
$ore on s.orts su..lements
The term Wsports supplementX might mean "i&&erent things to "i&&erent people. (or some, a sports supplement might in)lu"e the use o& a sports "rin* su)h as @atora"e or 8owera"e or an energ! 9ar su)h as a Cli& 3ar, Gara9ar, or 8ower9ar. However, with the mainstream use o& these pro"u)ts 9! people who are not )ompetitive athletes, others ma! &eel that a sports supplement is a more spe)ialiDe" item that !ou woul"n$t ne)essaril! pi)* up at the gro)er! store. As part o& the stu"! "es)ri9e" in W-utritional Supplement Use Among College Athletes an" Their Sour)es o& 4n&ormation,X WAthletes were as*e" to write their own "e&inition o& a supplement. Thirt!=&our 5,.6 per)ent respon"e" with all or parts o& the &ollowing: that a supplement is a pro"u)t that helps to in)rease per&orman)e, strength, mus)le, an" enhan)e re)over!. Other popular "e&initions in)lu"e"J a multivitamin, something that improves health or the 9o"!, a""itional nutrition a""e" to the "iet, pills, an!thing other than &oo", or something that helps !ou gain or lose weight.X 5(roilan", A., et al. -utritional Supplement Use Among College Athletes an" Their Sour)es o& 4n&ormation. .nt. K. 5port 8utr. 9,erc. Metab. 200!, '=, p % 0J see http:FFwww.un).e"uFK9eresF8ills, 8la)e9os, 8ana)easFsports supplements.p"&6 4n the same stu"!, athletes reporte" their reasons &or ta*ing supplements. +easons in)lu"e": W(or m! healthJ strengthFpowerJ in)rease energ!J weightFmus)le gainJ prevent in?ur!FillnessJ spee"Fagilit!J 4 &elt 4 nee"e" toJ ina"e<uate "ietJ weightF&at lossJ help heal in?ur!FillnessJ it ma*es me &eel 9etterX 5p %%.6. A )hapter in the text9oo* Clinical 5ports 8utrition that &o)uses on sports supplements "es)ri9es possi9le )lassi&i)ations &or sports supplements an" "e&ines the text9oo*$s meaning o& a supplement.

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e#ietar! supplements$, enutritional ergogeni) ai"s$, esports supplements$, esports &oo"s$ an" etherapeuti) nutritional supplements$Vthese are some o& the terms use" to "es)ri9e the range o& pro"u)ts that )olle)tivel! &orm the sports supplement in"ustr!. Bust as there are a variet! o& names &or these pro"u)ts, there are a variet! o& "e&initions or )lassi&i)ation s!stems. Chara)teristi)s that )an 9e use" to )ategorise supplements in)lu"e: &un)tion 5&or example, mus)le 9uil"ing, immune 9oosting, &uel provi"ing6 &orm 5&or example, pills, pow"ers, &oo"s or "rin*s6 availa9ilit! 5&or example, over=the=)ounter, mail or"er, 4nternet, multi=level mar*eting6, an" s)ienti&i) merit &or )laims 5&or example, well=supporte", unsupporte", un"e)i"e"6. f

(or the purposes o& this )hapter we will "is)uss supplements an" sports &oo"s that meet one or more o& the &ollowing "e&initions: The! provi"e a )onvenient an" pra)ti)al means o& meeting a *nown nutrient re<uirement to optimise "ail! training or )ompetition per&orman)e 5&or example, a li<ui" meal supplement, sports "rin*, )ar9oh!"rate gel, sports 9ar6. The! )ontain nutrients in large <uantities in or"er to treat a *nown nutritional "e&i)ien)! 5&or example, an iron supplement6.

The! )ontain nutrients or other )omponents in amounts that "ire)tl! enhan)e sports per&orman)e or maintainFrestore health an" immune &un)tionVs)ienti&i)all! supporte" or otherwise 5&or example, )a&&eine, )reatine, gl!)erol, ginseng6. 53ur*e, G., et al. Ch. %/ Supplements an" sports &oo"s. Clinical 5ports 8utrition. E"s. 3ur*e, G.J #ea*in, B. :)@raw=Hill 3oo* Compan! Australia, 2 /, pp .17Y.1/J see http:FFwww.ausport.gov.auFOO"ataFassetsFp"&O&ileF % F%./7,2F%/Complete.p"&6

4n terms o& regulation, &rom the viewpoint o& the U.S. government, sports supplements are in)lu"e" in the )ategor! W"ietar! supplement.X The U.S. (oo" an" #rug A"ministration 5(#A6 We9 site answers the <uestion WWhat is a "ietar! supplement'X 9elow.
Congress "e&ine" the term Z"ietar! supplementZ in the #ietar! Supplement Health an" E"u)ation A)t 5#SHEA6 o& %22.. A "ietar! supplement is a pro"u)t ta*en 9! mouth that )ontains a Z"ietar! ingre"ientZ inten"e" to supplement the "iet. The Z"ietar! ingre"ientsZ in these pro"u)ts ma! in)lu"e: vitamins, minerals, her9s or other 9otani)als, amino a)i"s, an" su9stan)es su)h as enD!mes, organ tissues, glan"ulars, an" meta9olites. #ietar! supplements )an also 9e extra)ts or )on)entrates, an" ma! 9e &oun" in man! &orms su)h as ta9lets, )apsules, so&tgels, gel)aps, li<ui"s, or pow"ers. The! )an also 9e in other &orms, su)h as a 9ar, 9ut i& the! are, in&ormation on their la9el must not represent the pro"u)t as a )onventional &oo" or a sole item o& a meal or "iet. Whatever their &orm ma! 9e, #SHEA pla)es "ietar! supplements in a spe)ial )ategor! un"er the general um9rella o& Z&oo"s,Z not "rugs, an" re<uires that ever! supplement 9e la9ele" a "ietar! supplement. 5http:FFwww.&"a.govF(oo"F#ietar!SupplementsF;A#ietar!SupplementsF"e&ault.htm6

Using some &orm o& supplement to enhan)e one$s sports per&orman)e exten"s &ar 9a)* into histor!. The 2 / arti)le W8opular Ergogeni) #rugs an" Supplements in Soung AthletesX states, W#rug use 9! athletes to improve per&orman)e is not a new pra)ti)e. As earl! as 3C 00/, the @ree* Ol!mpians were reporte" to use su9stan)es su)h as "rie" &igs, mushrooms, an" str!)hnine to per&orm 9etter.X 5Cal&ee, +.J (a"ale, 8. 8opular Ergogeni) #rugs an" Supplements in Soung Athletes.

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3ediatrics 200#, '')5,6, p e701J see http:FFpe"iatri)s.aappu9li)ations.orgF)ontentF%%0F,Fe700.&ull.p"&6 Over the !ears the use o& sports supplements has greatl! in)rease". The mar*et &or their sale has grown to "iDD!ing sumsJ supplements )an easil! 9e pur)hase" at lo)al stores as well as the internet. The same arti)le shares statisti)s: W-utritional supplements )an 9e pur)hase" legall! at an! health store. Searl! sales in the Unite" States approa)h E%2 9illion to E%7 9illion, with sport supplements 9eing responsi9le &or E1 million. 4nvestigators at % universit! &oun" that 11P o& athletes use" nutritional supplements, an" among a high s)hool )ohort o& 20 athletes, 71P ha" use" some &orm o& supplementation.X 5p e71,6 Although the use o& sports supplements is wi"esprea", the -ational (e"eration o& State High S)hool Asso)iations 5-(HS6 has a position statement on supplements that strongl! opposes their use 9! teenagers. The -(HS$s 2 %2 Supplements 8osition Statement is <uote" here:
The -(HS Sports :e"i)ine A"visor! Committee 5S:AC6 strongl! opposes the use o& "ietar! supplements &or the purpose o& o9taining a )ompetitive a"vantage. +esear)h shows that there )ontinues to 9e wi"esprea" use o& "ietar! supplements 9! a"oles)ent an" high s)hool athletes, "espite )onsi"era9le sa&et! )on)erns. #ietar! supplements are mar*ete" as an eas! wa! to enhan)e athleti) per&orman)e, in)rease energ! levels, lose weight, an" &eel 9etter. A"oles)ents are more sus)epti9le to peer pressure an" these a"vertising messages, whi)h ma! in)rease the in)i"en)e o& "ietar! supplement usage an" rein&or)e a )ulture more )on)erne" a9out short=term per&orman)e rather than overall long=term athleti) "evelopment an" goo" health. The #ietar! Supplement Health an" E"u)ation A)t 5#SHEA6 o& %22. removes "ietar! supplements &rom pre=mar*et regulation 9! the (oo" an" #rug A"ministration 5(#A6. Un"er #SHEA, a manu&a)turing &irm is responsi9le &or "etermining that the "ietar! supplements it manu&a)tures or "istri9utes are sa&e an" that an! representations or )laims ma"e a9out them are su9stantiate" 9! a"e<uate evi"en)e to show that the! are not &alse or mislea"ing. This essentiall! )lassi&ies "ietar! supplements as a &oo" an" not a "rug, an" as su)h, the! are not su9?e)t to the same stri)t tests an" regulations as pres)ription an" Wover=the=)ounterX me"i)ations 9! the (#A. Onl! the )ompanies that pro"u)e "ietar! supplements are responsi9le &or ensuring that their pro"u)ts are pure, sa&e an" e&&e)tive &or their inten"e" use. As the (#A has limite" resour)es to anal!De the )omposition o& "ietar! supplements, there is o&ten no guarantee )on)erning the true amount, )on)entration or purit! o& the ingre"ients as liste" on the la9el. 4n &a)t, the (#A )annot remove a "ietar! supplement &rom the mar*etpla)e unless the supplement has 9een shown to 9e Wunsa&e.X The -(HS S:AC strongl! opposes the use o& supplements 9! high s)hool athletes &or per&orman)e enhan)ement, "ue to the la)* o& pu9lishe", repro"u)i9le s)ienti&i) resear)h "o)umenting the 9ene&its o& their use an" )on&irming no potential long= term a"verse health e&&e)ts with their use, parti)ularl! in the a"oles)ent age group. #ietar! supplements shoul" 9e use" onl! upon the a"vi)e o& one$s health )are provi"er &or health=relate" reasons Y not &or the purpose o& gaining a possi9le )ompetitive a"vantage. S)hool personnel an" )oa)hes shoul" never re)ommen", en"orse or en)ourage the use o& an! "ietar! supplement, "rug, or me"i)ation &or per&orman)e enhan)ement. We re)ommen" that )oa)hes, athleti) "ire)tors, an" other s)hool personnel "evelop strategies that a""ress the prevalen)e an" growing )on)erns o& using "ietar! supplements. Su)h strategies ma! in)lu"e )onversations with athletes an" their parents

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a9out the potential "angers o& "ietar! supplement use. Athletes shoul" 9e en)ourage" to pursue their athleti) goals through har" wor*, appropriate rest an" goo" nutrition, not unsu9stantiate" "ietar! short)uts. 4n or"er to "is)ourage "ietar! supplement use &or athleti) per&orman)e: S)hool personnel, )oa)hes, an" parents shoul" allow &or open "is)ussion a9out "ietar! supplement use, an" strongl! en)ourage o9taining optimal nutrition through a well=9alan)e" "iet. +emin" athletes that no supplement is harmless or &ree &rom )onse<uen)es an" that there are no short )uts to improve athleti) per&orman)e. 3e)ause the! are not stri)tl! regulate", "ietar! supplements ma! )ontain impurities an" 9anne" su9stan)es not liste" on the la9el.

5http:FFwww.mshsaa.orgFresour)esFp"&Fsupplements.p"&6

A""itional groups have ta*en positions against the use o& supplements 9! !oung people. Other groups an" a 9rie& summar! o& their reasons &or these positions are in Clinical 5ports 8utrition:
Su))ess in sports involves o9taining an We"geX over the )ompetition, an" )hil"ren an" a"oles)ents ma! 9e uni<uel! vulnera9le to the lure o& supplements. The pressure to Wwin at all )ostsX, extensive )overage in la! pu9li)ations, an" h!pe &rom manu&a)turers with ex)iting an" emotive )laims all pla! a role in the use o& supplements 9! !oung athletes. The *nowle"ge that &amous athletes an" other role mo"els use or promote supplements an" sports &oo"s a""s to the allure. f The la)* o& in&ormation a9out the longterm sa&et! o& ingesting various )ompoun"s on a growing or "eveloping 9o"! is a spe)ial )on)ern. Harious expert groups have ma"e strong statements against the use o& supplements 9! !oung athletes. The Ameri)an A)a"em! o& 8e"iatri)s poli)! statement on the use o& per&orman)e enhan)ing su9stan)es 52 76 )on"emns the use o& ergogeni) ai"s, in)lu"ing various "ietar! supplements, 9! )hil"ren an" a"oles)ents. The Ameri)an College o& Sports :e"i)ine re)ommen"s that )reatine not 9e use" 9! people un"er %1 !ears o& age 5Ameri)an College o& Sports :e"i)ine 2 6. These poli)ies are 9ase" on the un*nown 9ut potentiall! a"verse health )onse<uen)es o& some supplements an" the impli)ations o& supplement use on the morals o& a !oung athlete. :an! people )onsi"er supplements to 9e an Wentr! pointX to the "e)ision to ta*e more serious )ompoun"s, in)lu"ing prohi9ite" "rugs. 53ur*e, G., et al. Ch. %/ Supplements an" sports &oo"s. Clinical 5ports 8utrition. E"s. 3ur*e, G.J #ea*in, B. :)@raw=Hill 3oo* Compan! Australia, 2 /, p .22J see http:FFwww.ausport.gov.auFOO"ataFassetsFp"&O&ileF % F%./7,2F%/Complete.p"&6

As mentione" a9ove, the U.S. (#A has the power to remove a "ietar! supplement &rom the mar*et i& it has 9een shown to 9e unsa&e. (or example, this was the )ase with supplements )ontaining "imeth!lam!lamine 5#:AA6, a su9stan)e mentione" in the #e Antonis arti)le. However, pur)hasers o& supplements ma! ta*e this to mean that the pro"u)ts have gone through rigorous testing an" approval pro)e"ures similar to those un"ergone 9! new "rugs )oming to mar*et. This is not true. (or "ietar! supplements, the manu&a)turers themselves are responsi9le &or ensuring that their pro"u)ts are sa&e to use an" that )laims the! ma*e a9out the pro"u)t are true. This "oes have a 9ene&it in that the expensive trials an" testing that "rugs un"ergo are not ne)essar!J i& the! were, the )ost o& supplements woul" in)rease to o&&set the )ost or pro"u)ts woul" not )ome to mar*et in the &irst pla)e. The (#A We9 site "is)usses the responsi9ilities )onne)te" with regulating, manu&a)turing, an" selling sports supplements:

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4hat is (7A's role in re1ulatin1 dietar3 su..lements 6ersus the manufacturer's res.onsibilit3 for mar;etin1 them9 4n O)to9er %22., the #ietar! Supplement Health an" E"u)ation A)t 5#SHEA6 was signe" into law 9! 8resi"ent Clinton. 3e&ore this time, "ietar! supplements were su9?e)t to the same regulator! re<uirements as were other &oo"s. This new law, whi)h amen"e" the (e"eral (oo", #rug, an" Cosmeti) A)t, )reate" a new regulator! &ramewor* &or the sa&et! an" la9eling o& "ietar! supplements. Un"er #SHEA, a &irm is responsi9le &or "etermining that the "ietar! supplements it manu&a)tures or "istri9utes are sa&e an" that an! representations or )laims ma"e a9out them are su9stantiate" 9! a"e<uate evi"en)e to show that the! are not &alse or mislea"ing. This means that "ietar! supplements "o not nee" approval &rom (#A 9e&ore the! are mar*ete". 4ho has the res.onsibilit3 for ensurin1 that a dietar3 su..lement is safe9 3! law 5#SHEA6, the manu&a)turer is responsi9le &or ensuring that its "ietar! supplement pro"u)ts are sa&e 9e&ore the! are mar*ete". Unli*e "rug pro"u)ts that must 9e proven sa&e an" e&&e)tive &or their inten"e" use 9e&ore mar*eting, there are no provisions in the law &or (#A to ZapproveZ "ietar! supplements &or sa&et! or e&&e)tiveness 9e&ore the! rea)h the )onsumer. Un"er #SHEA, on)e the pro"u)t is mar*ete", (#A has the responsi9ilit! &or showing that a "ietar! supplement is Zunsa&e,Z 9e&ore it )an ta*e a)tion to restri)t the pro"u)tNs use or removal &rom the mar*etpla)e. However, manu&a)turers an" "istri9utors o& "ietar! supplements must re)or", investigate an" &orwar" to (#A an! reports the! re)eive o& serious a"verse events asso)iate" with the use o& their pro"u)ts that are reporte" to them "ire)tl!. (#A is a9le to evaluate these reports an" an! other a"verse event in&ormation reporte" "ire)tl! to us 9! health)are provi"ers or )onsumers to i"enti&! earl! signals that a pro"u)t ma! present sa&et! ris*s to )onsumers. 4ho 6alidates claims and "hat ;inds of claims can be made on dietar3 su..lement labels9 (#A re)eives man! )onsumer in<uiries a9out the vali"it! o& )laims &or "ietar! supplements, in)lu"ing pro"u)t la9els, a"vertisements, me"ia, an" printe" materials. The responsi9ilit! &or ensuring the vali"it! o& these )laims rests with the manu&a)turer, (#A, an", in the )ase o& a"vertising, with the (e"eral Tra"e Commission. 3! law, manu&a)turers ma! ma*e three t!pes o& )laims &or their "ietar! supplement pro"u)ts: health )laims, stru)tureF&un)tion )laims, an" nutrient )ontent )laims. Some o& these )laims "es)ri9e: the lin* 9etween a &oo" su9stan)e an" "isease or a health=relate" )on"itionJ the inten"e" 9ene&its o& using the pro"u)tJ or the amount o& a nutrient or "ietar! su9stan)e in a pro"u)t. #i&&erent re<uirements generall! appl! to ea)h t!pe o& )laim f 5http:FFwww.&"a.govF(oo"F#ietar!SupplementsF;A#ietar!SupplementsF6

Claims ma"e 9! manu&a)turers o& sports supplements o&ten )enter aroun" the i"ea that loa"ing the 9o"! with su9stan)es one alrea"! )onsumes in or"inar! &oo"s or pro"u)es normall! in the 9o"! )an 9ene&it the user. The three supplement examples "is)usse" in the #e Antonis arti)le woul" &it this "es)ription. The text9oo* Clinical 5ports 8utrition "is)usses these t!pes o& )laims ma"e 9! manu&a)turers, along with other te)hni<ues &or en)ouraging )onsumers to 9u!.
Although manu&a)turers are not meant to ma*e unsupporte" )laims a9out health or per&orman)e 9ene&its eli)ite" 9! supplements, pro"u)t a"vertisements an" testimonials show ample evi"en)e that this aspe)t o& supplement mar*eting is unregulate" an" exploite". (or example, a surve! o& &ive issues o& 9o"!=9uil"ing magaDines &oun" 1 in"ivi"ual per&orman)e )laims &or /2. "i&&erent pro"u)ts within a"vertisements 5@runewal" > 3aile! %22,6. 4t is eas! to see how enthusiasti) an" emotive )laims provi"e a &alse sense o& )on&i"en)e a9out the pro"u)ts. :ost )onsumers are unaware that the regulation o& su)h a"vertising is generall! not en&or)e". There&ore,

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athletes are li*el! to 9elieve that )laims a9out supplements are me"i)all! an" s)ienti&i)all! supporte", simpl! 9e)ause the! 9elieve that untrue )laims woul" not 9e allowe" to exist. f The )urrent &o)us o& the sports supplement in"ustr! is on )ompoun"s an" nutrients that a)t as )o&a)tors, interme"iar! meta9olites or stimulants o& *e! rea)tions in exer)ise meta9olism. The rationale 9ehin" supplementation is that i& the s!stem is esuper)harge"$ with a""itional amounts o& these )ompoun"s, meta9oli) pro)esses will pro)ee" &aster or &or longer time, thus enhan)ing sports per&orman)e. The mar*eting o& man! )ontemporar! supplements is a))ompanie" 9! sophisti)ate" "es)riptions o& meta9oli) pathwa!s an" 9io)hemi)al rea)tions, with )laims that enhan)ement o& these will lea" to athleti) su))ess. 53ur*e, G., et al. Ch. %/ Supplements an" sports &oo"s. Clinical 5ports 8utrition. E"s. 3ur*e, G.J #ea*in, B. :)@raw=Hill 3oo* Compan! Australia, 2 /, pp .10, .2,J see http:FFwww.ausport.gov.auFOO"ataFassetsFp"&O&ileF % F%./7,2F%/Complete.p"&6

:a*ing in&orme" "e)isions a9out "e)i"ing whether or not to use sports supplements is important. However, &in"ing a))essi9le an" truste" in&ormation )an 9e "i&&i)ult. There are man! stu"ies a9out "i&&erent t!pes o& supplements an" their e&&i)a)!. However, man! ?ournals onl! allow pai" su9s)ri9ers to rea" their arti)les. T!pi)al personal sour)es o& in&ormation teenagers have easier a))ess to are parents, peers, )oa)hes, an" their own "o)tors. However, even sour)es one might )onsi"er as trustworth! "on$t ne)essaril! have the whole pi)ture. The ?ournal arti)le WSupplement Use in Sport: 4s There a 8otentiall! #angerous 4n)ongruen)e 3etween +ationale an" 8ra)ti)e'X states:
-umerous &a)tors )an 9e involve" in athletesN "e)isions to use supplements in)lu"ing "esire" en" points su)h as in)reasing strength, en"uran)e, training "uration an" over)oming in?ur! as well as avoi"ing si)*ness an" )ompensating &or poor "iet. Un&ortunatel!, la)* o& *nowle"ge an"For mis)on)eptions regar"ing supplements within athlete populations have 9een "o)umente" &or more than a "e)a"e. +e)ent resear)h also shows that athletes are willing to ta*e supplements 9ase" on personal re)ommen"ation without gathering relia9le in&ormation a9out the su9stan)es, o&ten o9taining them "ire)tl! &rom retailers an" internet sites. A"oles)ents are more willing to ta*e supplements o9e"ientl! i& the! are in&orme" 9! their parentsFguar"ians, as oppose" to 9! )oa)hes or resulting &rom pu9lishe" resear)h. Con&li)ting reports on *nowle"ge levels within health )are pro&essions "emonstrate a wi"e variation in pra)ti)e. 4n one stu"!, ph!si)ians an" me"i)al stu"ents were teste" to "etermine the level o& their *nowle"ge regar"ing e&&i)a)! an" toxi)it!, an" "rug intera)tions with her9al reme"ies, an" it was &oun" that the mean test s)ores were onl! slightl! higher than s)ores o9taine" &rom ran"om guessing. On the )ontrar!, re)ent resear)h among ph!si)ians, nurses, nutritionists an" pharma)ists showe" a"e<uate *nowle"ge 5average //P on the *nowle"ge test6, less )on&i"en)e 577P6 9ut note" a serious la)* o& )ommuni)ation s*ills 5average 2.2 out o& % 6 regar"ing her9s an" nutritional supplements. Athleti) trainers an" )oa)hes were &oun" to 9e reasona9l! *nowle"gea9le, espe)iall! those wor*ing with &emale athletes an"For having more than %7 !ears o& experien)e. 58etrg)Di, A.J -aughton, #. 8. Supplement Use in Sport: 4s There a 8otentiall! #angerous 4n)ongruen)e 3etween +ationale an" 8ra)ti)e' K. Occup. Med. $o,icol. 200G, ;:.J see http:FFwww.n)9i.nlm.nih.govFpm)Farti)lesF8:C%2 ..77F6

To help gui"e in&orme" "e)ision=ma*ing, a )hil"ren$s health We9 site o&&ers the &ollowing tips:
En)ourage teens to thin* )riti)all! a9out an! supplement that is re)ommen"e" to

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them, whether 9! a &rien", a )oa)h, a health &oo" store emplo!ee, or a training magaDine or we9site. 4t$s their 9o"ies an" their athleti) per&orman)e that are at sta*e, an" o&ten their wallets as well. The supplement in"ustr! ma*es millions o& "ollars a !ear promoting unproven pro"u)ts. Teens "on$t have to a"" to those pro&its at the expense o& their health. 3e&ore ta*ing an! nutrition supplement, !our teen shoul" )onsi"er the &ollowing: *fficac3 What e&&e)t is the pro"u)t suppose" to have' Who is ma*ing the )laim' #oes the pro"u)t reall! have that e&&e)t' What evi"en)e is there' #o the )laims )ome &rom testimonials, or &rom s)ienti&i) stu"ies' #o the results o& the stu"! appl! to athletes li*e !our teen' #oes the pro"u)t have an a)tual e&&e)t on athleti) per&orman)e, or are the e&&e)ts onl! measura9le in the la9' Was the pro"u)t teste" at the "ose that is re)ommen"e" on the la9el' Safet3 Has an!one evaluate" the sa&et! o& the pro"u)t' #oes it have si"e e&&e)ts' What are the!' Has the pro"u)t 9een stu"ie" over the long term, or onl! &or short perio"s 5wee*s or months6' Has it 9een 9anne" 9! an! athleti) organiDation or government 9o"!' %roduct @ualit3 #o !ou *now what !ou$re getting' 4s the pa)*age properl! la9elle" an" seale"' Are the manu&a)turer an" the retailer trustworth!, an" )an !ou )onta)t them' #oes the pa)*age )ontain the "ose that it )laims' Where "i" it )ome &rom' Can !ou trust the sour)e' Coul" it 9e )ontaminate" with heav! metals or other "rugs' Cost How mu)h "oes the pro"u)t )ost' 4s it worth ta*ing' Coul" !ou get the same results &rom a properl! 9alan)e" "iet an" training program' 5http:FFwww.a9out*i"shealth.)aFEnF-ewsFColumnsF8ae"iatri)iansCornerF8agesFEnerg!= "rin*s=whe!=protein=an"=more=#ietar!=supplements=an"=teen=athletes.aspx6

A ma?or sour)e o& in&ormation &or teenagers these "a!s is the internet. However, ?ust 9e)ause something is on the internet "oesn$t mean it$s true. The U.S. (#A o&&ers tips &or sear)hing the we9 &or in&ormation on supplements.
When sear)hing on the We9, tr! using "ire)tor! sites o& respe)te" organiDations, rather than "oing 9lin" sear)hes with a sear)h engine. As* !oursel& the &ollowing <uestions: 4ho o.erates the site94s the site run 9! the government, a universit!, or a reputa9le me"i)al or health=relate" asso)iation 5e.g., Ameri)an :e"i)al Asso)iation, Ameri)an #ia9etes Asso)iation, Ameri)an Heart Asso)iation, -ational 4nstitutes o& Health, -ational A)a"emies o& S)ien)e, or U.S. (oo" an" #rug A"ministration6' 4s the in&ormation written or reviewe" 9! <uali&ie" health pro&essionals, experts in the &iel", a)a"emia, government or the me"i)al )ommunit!' 4hat is the .ur.ose of the site9 4s the purpose o& the site to o9?e)tivel! e"u)ate the pu9li) or ?ust to sell a pro"u)t' 3e aware o& pra)titioners or organiDations whose main interest is in mar*eting pro"u)ts, either "ire)tl! or through sites with whi)h the! are lin*e". Commer)ial sites shoul" )learl! "istinguish s)ienti&i) in&ormation &rom a"vertisements. :ost nonpro&it an" government sites )ontain no a"vertisingJ an" a))ess to the site an" materials o&&ere" are usuall! &ree. 4hat is the source of the information and does it ha6e an3 references9 Has the stu"! 9een reviewe" 9! re)ogniDe" s)ienti&i) experts an" pu9lishe" in reputa9le

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peer=reviewe" s)ienti&i) ?ournals, li*e the -ew Englan" Bournal o& :e"i)ine' #oes the in&ormation sa! Zsome stu"ies show...Z or "oes it state where the stu"! is liste" so that !ou )an )he)* the authenti)it! o& the re&eren)es' As the information current9 Che)* the "ate when the material was poste" or up"ate". O&ten new resear)h or other &in"ings are not re&le)te" in ol" material, e.g., si"e e&&e)ts or intera)tions with other pro"u)ts or new evi"en)e that might have )hange" earlier thin*ing. 4"eall!, health an" me"i)al sites shoul" 9e up"ate" &re<uentl!. 5o" reliable is the Anternet or e-mail solicitations9 While the 4nternet is a ri)h sour)e o& health in&ormation, it is also an eas! vehi)le &or sprea"ing m!ths, hoaxes an" rumors a9out allege" news, stu"ies, pro"u)ts or &in"ings.

5http:FFwww.&"a.govF(oo"F#ietar!SupplementsFUsing#ietar!SupplementsFu)m%% 7/0.ht m6

$ore on "he3 .rotein .o"der

The i"ea o& whe! protein pow"er is pro9a9l! more &amiliar than other sports supplements, sin)e more people have pro9a9l! hear" o& whe! 5ma!9e even through the nurser! rh!me WGittle :iss :u&&ettX as she eats her W)ur"s an" whe!X6, an" *now its )onne)tion with mil* an" )heese. WWhe! is a natural 9!pro"u)t o& the )heese=ma*ing pro)ess an" represents 2 P o& the protein &oun" in "air! mil*.X 5http:FFhpr)=online.orgF"ietar!=supplementsFhpr)=arti)lesFis=whe!= protein=help&ul=to=optimiDe=per&orman)e6 The pro)ess is "es)ri9e": W#uring the manu&a)ture o& )heese, mil* is )ur"le" 9! means o& rennet. The mil* )oagulates an" a har" part 5)asein6 an" a li<ui" part 5whe!, also )alle" la)toserum6 appear. Whe! is there&ore the li<ui" that es)apes &rom the )ur" when it is le&t to "rain. 4t is transparent, !ellowish=green in )olor, an" possesses a slightl! tart &lavor that is &airl! pleasant.X 5Hase!, C. $he 4hey 3rescription: $he !ealing Miracle in Milk. Trans. B. E. @raham. +o)hester, HA: Healing Arts 8ress, 2 /, p 0J see http:FF9oo*s.google.)omF9oo*s'is9n[%72.00%2016 An evaluation o& the protein in whe! an" a "es)ription o& three "i&&erent &orms o& whe! protein that are availa9le are:
The protein "erive" &rom whe! is high <ualit! 9e)ause it has all 2 amino a)i"s, in)lu"ing the three 9ran)he"=)hain amino a)i"s 53CAA: leu)ine, isoleu)ine, an" valine6, whi)h )an 9e oxi"iDe" 9! mus)les "uring exer)ise. Although &in"ings are mixe" as to the impa)t o& amino a)i"s on per&orman)e an" mus)le 9uil"ing, whe! protein remains appealing &or athletes "ue to preliminar! evi"en)e that 3CAA ma! have "esira9le e&&e)ts. On)e the whe! &ra)tion has 9een o9taine", it is )on)entrate" into a pow"er, whi)h )an pro"u)e three t!pes o& whe! protein supplements: )on)entrate, isolate, an" h!"rol!sate. These )ategories "i&&er in the wa!s the! are pro)esse" an" the amount o& protein le&t in the &inal &ormulation. 5http:FFhpr)=online.orgF"ietar!=supplementsFhpr)=arti)lesFis=whe!=protein=help&ul=to= optimiDe=per&orman)e6

The si"e9ar in the #e Antonis arti)le "es)ri9es ea)h o& the three "i&&erent &orms. The ta9le 9elow provi"es &urther in&ormation on the )omponents o& ea)h. One interesting point is the use o& h!"rol!De" whe! protein in in&ant &ormula, 9e)ause it is alrea"! partiall! 9ro*en "own an" easier to "igest. T3.e Whe! 8rotein %rotein 27Y12P =actose .Y7.2P (at %Y2P Common A..lication 8rotein 9everages an" 9ars, )on&e)tioner! an" 9a*er! pro"u)ts, in&ant &ormula an" other

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Con)entrate Whe! 8rotein 4solate H!"rol!De" Whe! 8rotein

2 Y27P 1 Y2 P

.7Y%P .7Y% P

.7Y%P .7Y1P

nutritional &oo" pro"u)ts 8rotein supplementation pro"u)ts, protein 9everages, protein 9ars an" other nutritional &oo" pro"u)ts 4n&ant &ormula an" sports an" me"i)al nutrition pro"u)ts

5http:FFwww.whe!o&li&e.orgFproteint!pes6 Whe! protein has 9een use" as a 9ene&i)ial supplement earlier in histor!. A patient in SwitDerlan" in %0.2 is "es)ri9e" as ta*ing a Wwhe! )ureX, "rin*ing whe! "ail! to treat a me"i)al )on"ition. Even earlier than that, WHippo)rates 5.//Y,00 3CE6, the &ather o& me"i)ine, re)ommen"e" whe! to his patients. (ollowing him, @alen 5%,%Y2 CE6, another &oun"ing &ather o& me"i)ine, a"vise" his patients a9out the whe! )ure. f Whe! )ures were also re)ommen"e" 9! other &amous names &rom the histor! o& me"i)ine fX 5Hase!, C. $he 4hey 3rescription: $he !ealing Miracle in Milk. Trans. B. E. @raham. +o)hester, HT: Healing Arts 8ress, 2 /, pp %Y2J see http:FF9oo*s.google.)omF9oo*s' is9n[%72.00%2016 Currentl!, the use o& whe! protein to 9ene&it one$s health an" athleti) per&orman)e has mixe" results:
However, while there is no <uestion that whe! is a highl! "igesti9le an" ri)h protein sour)e, there is no meaning&ul supporting evi"en)e that it provi"es an! spe)i&i) health 9ene&its. f There is some evi"en)e that whe! )an raise levels o& glutathione. @lutathione is an antioxi"ant that the 9o"! manu&a)tures to "e&en" itsel& against &ree ra"i)als. 4n )ertain "iseases, glutathione levels ma! &all to 9elow=normal levels. These )on"itions in)lu"e )atara)ts, H4H, liver "isease, "ia9etes, an" various t!pes o& )an)er. This re"u)tion o& glutathione might in turn )ontri9ute to the s!mptoms or progression o& the "isease. To solve this pro9lem, glutathione supplements have 9een re)ommen"e", 9ut glutathione is essentiall! not a9sor9e" at all when it is ta*en 9! mouth. Whe! protein ma! 9e a 9etter solution. The 9o"! uses )!steine to ma*e glutathione, an" whe! is ri)h in )!steine. :eaning&ul preliminar! evi"en)e suggests that whe! )an raise glutathione levels in people with )an)er, hepatitis, or H4H. However, while these are promising &in"ings, one essential pie)e o& evi"en)e is la)*ing: there is no evi"en)e as !et that this rise in glutathione pro"u)es an! meaning&ul health 9ene&its. Whe! protein has also 9een propose" as a 9o"!9uil"ing ai", 9ase" partl! on its high )ontent o& 3CAAs. However, there is no more than minimal evi"en)e that whe! protein helps a))elerate mus)le mass "evelopment. (urthermore, there is little evi"en)e that whe! protein is more e&&e)tive &or this purpose than an! other protein. (or example, one small "ou9le=9lin" stu"! &oun" evi"en)e that 9oth )asein an" whe! protein were more e&&e)tive than pla)e9o at promoting mus)le growth a&ter exer)ise, 9ut whe! was no more e&&e)tive than the &ar less expensive )asein. However, a single small stu"! "i" &in" ergogeni) 9ene&its with whe! as )ompare" to )asein. One stu"! loo*e" at whether whe! protein )oul" help women with H4H 9uil" mus)le mass. 8arti)ipants were "ivi"e" into three groups: those who un"ertoo* a )ourse o& resistan)e exer)ise 5weight li&ting6, those who too* whe!, an" those who "i" 9oth.

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+esistan)e exer)ise alone was ?ust as e&&e)tive as resistan)e exer)ise plus whe!, while whe! alone was not e&&e)tive. 5http:FFwww.tu&tsme"i)al)enter.orgFappsFHealthgateFArti)le.aspx')hun*ii"[%%%1%/6

A2

/ ?ournal arti)le summariDes stu"ies o& its use:

Some 9ut not all stu"ies in"i)ate that a higher protein inta*e 5approximatel! %.7 to 2 times the )urrent +e)ommen"e" #ail! Allowan)e6 is a"vantageous &or mus)le an" strength "evelopment "uring resistan)e training. 3o"!9uil"ers an" other strength athletes wi"el! use protein supplements to a)hieve high protein inta*es 5up to , times the +#A6. Asi"e &rom <uantit!, )ertain t!pes o& protein a&&e)t whole 9o"! protein ana9olism an" a))retion an" there&ore, have the potential to a&&e)t mus)le an" strength "evelopment "uring resistan)e training. The t!pe o& protein )onsume" ma! in&luen)e results &rom resistan)e training "ue to varia9le spee"s o& a9sorption, "i&&eren)es in amino a)i" pro&iles, uni<ue hormonal response, or positive e&&e)ts on antioxi"ant "e&ense. 5Cri99, 8. B., et al. The E&&e)t o& Whe! 4solate an" +esistan)e Training on Strength, 3o"! Composition, an" 8lasma @lutamine. .nt. K. 5port 8utr. 9,erc. Metab. 200#, 'B, pp .2.Y .27J see http:FF)hua2.&iu.e"uF&a)ult!F*alman"FHU-/2.1FpppF4BS-E: Whe! vs Casein ] +T Cri99 % =2 /.p"&6

The stu"! "es)ri9e" in the same 2 / arti)le )ompare" the use o& whe! isolate an" )asein in re)reational 9o"!9uil"ers, &in"ing that Wf whe! isolate 5W46 provi"e" signi&i)antl! greater gains in strength, G3: Llean 9o"! massM, an" a "e)rease in &at mass )ompare" to supplementation with )asein 5C6 "uring an intense % w* resistan)e training programX 5p 7 ,6. A 2 0 summar! o& the 4nternational So)iet! o& Sports -utrition$s position on protein an" exer)ise is summariDe" 9elow. 4t "oes appl! to other protein sour)es in a""ition to whe! protein pow"er.
The &ollowing seven points relate" to the inta*e o& protein &or health!, exer)ising in"ivi"uals )onstitute the position stan" o& the So)iet!. The! have 9een approve" 9! the +esear)h Committee o& the So)iet!. %6 Hast resear)h supports the )ontention that in"ivi"uals engage" in regular exer)ise training re<uire more "ietar! protein than se"entar! in"ivi"uals. 26 8rotein inta*es o& %.. Y 2. gF*gF"a! &or ph!si)all! a)tive in"ivi"uals are not onl! sa&e, 9ut ma! improve the training a"aptations to exer)ise training. ,6 When part o& a 9alan)e", nutrient="ense "iet, protein inta*es at this level are not "etrimental to *i"ne! &un)tion or 9one meta9olism in health!, a)tive persons. .6 While it is possi9le &or ph!si)all! a)tive in"ivi"uals to o9tain their "ail! protein re<uirements through a varie", regular "iet, supplemental protein in various &orms are a pra)ti)al wa! o& ensuring a"e<uate an" <ualit! protein inta*e &or athletes. 76 #i&&erent t!pes an" <ualit! o& protein )an a&&e)t amino a)i" 9ioavaila9ilit! &ollowing protein supplementation. The superiorit! o& one protein t!pe over another in terms o& optimiDing re)over! an"For training a"aptations remains to 9e )onvin)ingl! "emonstrate". /6 Appropriatel! time" protein inta*e is an important )omponent o& an overall exer)ise training program, essential &or proper re)over!, immune &un)tion, an" the growth an" maintenan)e o& lean 9o"! mass. 06 Un"er )ertain )ir)umstan)es, spe)i&i) amino a)i" supplements, su)h as 9ran)he"= )hain amino a)i"s 53CAANs6, ma! improve exer)ise per&orman)e an" re)over! &rom exer)ise.

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5Camp9ell, 3., et al. 4nternational So)iet! o& Sports -utrition 8osition Stan": 8rotein an" Exer)ise. K. .nt. 5oc. 5ports 8utr. 200G, .:1J see http:FFwww.?issn.)omF)ontentFp"&F%77 = 201,=.=1.p"&6

$ore on creatine
As mentione" in the #e Antonis arti)le, )reatine )an 9e &oun" in man! &oo"s an" )an also 9e pro"u)e" 9! the 9o"!. (oo"s with )reatine in)lu"e meat, &ish, an" eggs. 4n the 9o"!, WCreatine is &orme" &rom gl!)ine, arginine, an" methionine an" is naturall! pro"u)e" 9! the liver, *i"ne!s, an" pan)reas. A&ter pro"u)tion, )reatine is transporte" to mus)le, heart, an" 9rain, with 27P o& 9o"il! stores remaining in mus)le.X 5Cal&ee, +.J (a"ale, 8. 8opular Ergogeni) #rugs an" Supplements in Soung Athletes. 3ediatrics 200#, '')5,6, p e71.J see http:FFpe"iatri)s.aappu9li)ations.orgF)ontentF%%0F,Fe700.&ull.p"&6 The 9o"!$s )reatine re<uirement o& % to 2 grams per "a! )an easil! 9e met through a )om9ination o& pro"u)tion 9! the 9o"! an" through a non=vegetarian "iet. 4& a""itional )reatine is )onsume" through the "iet or supplements, this Wtemporaril! suppressLesM en"ogenous )reatine pro"u)tion.X 53ur*e, G., et al. Ch. %/ Supplements an" sports &oo"s. Clinical 5ports 8utrition. E"s. 3ur*e, G.J #ea*in, B. :)@raw=Hill 3oo* Compan! Australia, 2 /, p 7%,J see http:FFwww.ausport.gov.auFOO"ataFassetsFp"&O&ileF % F%./7,2F%/Complete.p"&6 (or )reatine supplements, W4n re)ent !ears, )reatine has 9een s!nthesiDe", mainl! as )reatine monoh!"rate, an" has 9een mar*ete" to athletes at all levels. Creatine supplements )ome in various &orms 5pow"er, pills, )an"!, )hews, gels, serum, mi)roniDe"6 &or 9oth strength an" en"uran)e athletes, in)lu"ing pro"u)ts mar*ete" spe)i&i)all! &or males, &emales, an" a"oles)ents.X 5Williams, :. #ietar! Supplements an" Sports 8er&orman)e: :eta9olites, Constituents, an" Extra)ts. K. .nt. 5oc. 5ports 8utr. 200#, &:%=7J see http:FFwww.?issn.)omF)ontentF,F2F%6 Creatine "oes appear to )ause improvement in athleti) per&orman)e &or man! users. The 2 / 3ediatrics ?ournal arti)le W8opular Ergogeni) #rugs an" Supplements in Soung AthletesX states, W4nvestigations into the tissue level e&&e)ts o& oral )reatine seem to show several )hanges. Supplementation )an )ause an K2 P in)rease in mus)le phospho)reatine stores, <ui)*en the replenishment o& phospho)reatine "uring re)over!, an" 9u&&er la)ti) a)i" as h!"rogen ions are )onsume" "uring the "ephosphor!lation o& phospho)reatine, whi)h potentiall! "ela!s &atigue onset.X 5Cal&ee, +.J (a"ale, 8. 8opular Ergogeni) #rugs an" Supplements in Soung Athletes. 3ediatrics 200#, '')5,6, p e71.J see http:FFpe"iatri)s.aappu9li)ations.orgF)ontentF%%0F,Fe700.&ull.p"&6 At the same time, there is a signi&i)ant per)entage &or whom there is no e&&e)t: WHowever, nearl! , P o& athletes "o not see 9ene&its with )reatine use, there9! &alling into a )ategor! o& Wnonrespon"ersX who are theoriDe" to have alrea"! maximal phospho)reatine stores.X 5p e7176 The rise in popularit! o& )reatine is an interesting phenomenon. The #e Antonis arti)le mentions the use o& )reatine 9! athletes &or the %222 Summer Ol!mpi) @ames an" 9! a Cam9ri"ge Universit! rowing team. Creatine has not onl! 9een popular among athletes, 9ut among s)ienti&i) resear)hers as well. The 2 / ?ournal arti)le W#ietar! Supplements an" Sports 8er&orman)e: :eta9olites, Constituents, an" Extra)tsX states, WCreatine is one o& the most resear)he" sports supplements, as literall! hun"re"s o& stu"ies have evaluate" its e&&e)ts on

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various t!pes o& sport per&orman)e. :ost o& the resear)h has &o)use" on the a9ilit! o& )reatine supplementation to in)rease mus)le mass an" relate" mus)ular strength an" power appli)a9le to per&orman)e in ver!=high=intensit! sports, su)h as sprinting in tra)* events.X 5Williams, :. #ietar! Supplements an" Sports 8er&orman)e: :eta9olites, Constituents, an" Extra)ts. K. .nt. 5oc. 5ports 8utr. 200#, &:%=7J see http:FFwww.?issn.)omF)ontentF,F2F%6 The text9oo* Clinical 5ports 8utrition summariDes a sele)tion o& resear)h literature:
fwe o&&er the &ollowing summar! o& this literature, an" o& re)ent reviews 5Buhn>Tarnopols*! %221a, %2219J Araemer > Hole* %222J 3ran)h 2 ,J +awson > Hole* 2 ,J 3em9en > Gamont 2 76: The ma?or 9ene&it o& )reatine supplementation appears to 9e an in)rease in the rate o& )reatine phosphate res!nthesis "uring the re)over! 9etween 9outs o& high= intensit! exer)ise, pro"u)ing higher )reatine phosphate levels at the start o& the su9se<uent exer)ise 9out. Creatine supplementation )an enhan)e the per&orman)e o& repeate" /Y, s 9outs o& maximal exer)ise, intersperse" with short re)over! intervals 52 s to 7 minutes6, where it )an attenuate the normal "e)rease in &or)e or power pro"u)tion that o))urs over the )ourse o& the session. f The exer)ise situations that have 9een most )onsistentl! "emonstrate" to 9ene&it &rom )reatine supplementation are la9orator! proto)ols o& repeate" high intensit! intervals, involving isolate" mus)ular e&&orts or weight=supporte" a)tivities su)h as )!)ling. 4n theor!, a)ute )reatine supplementation might 9e 9ene&i)ial &or a single )ompetitive event in sports involving repeate" high=intensit! intervals with 9rie& re)over! perio"s. This "es)ription in)lu"es team games an" ra)<uet sports. Similarl!, )hroni) )reatine supplementation ma! allow the athlete to train har"er at exer)ise programs 9ase" on repeate" high=intensit! exer)ise, an" ma*e greater per&orman)e gains. These 9ene&its ma! appl! to the a)ross=season per&orman)e o& athletes in team an" ra)<uet sports, as well as the preparation o& athletes who un"erta*e interval training an" resistan)e training 5&or example, swimmers an" sprinters6. f

Evi"en)e that )reatine supplementation is o& 9ene&it to en"uran)e exer)ise is a9sent or in)onsistent although it ma! enhan)e mus)le gl!)ogen storage. 53ur*e, G., et al. Ch. %/ Supplements an" sports &oo"s. Clinical 5ports 8utrition. E"s. 3ur*e, G.J #ea*in, B. :)@raw=Hill 3oo* Compan! Australia, 2 /, pp 7%.Y7%7J see http:FFwww.ausport.gov.auFOO"ataFassetsFp"&O&ileF % F%./7,2F%/Complete.p"&6

There is the possi9ilit! o& )reatine 9eing use" in situations other than athleti)s:
+esear)hers are stu"!ing whether )reatine might also 9e use&ul &or treating )ertain health )on"itions )ause" 9! wea*ene" mus)les, in)lu"ing: Heart &ailure an" heart atta)* HuntingtonNs "isease -euromus)ular "isor"ers, in)lu"ing mus)ular "!stroph! an" am!otrophi) lateral s)lerosis 5AGS or Gou @ehrigNs "isease6

Creatine is also 9eing stu"ie" as a wa! to lower )holesterol in people with a9normall! high levels. Although earl! resear)h has 9een promising, itNs too earl! to sa! &or sure whether )reatine is e&&e)tive &or an! o& these )on"itions. 5http:FFmen.we9m".)omF)reatine6

Statisti)s &rom a 2 / ?ournal arti)le show )reatine usage rates that agree with those share" in the #e Antonis arti)le:

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;uestioning !ounger populations, % stu"! &oun" 1.2P o& %.= to %1=!ear=ol"s using the supplement, with 07P o& those users either unaware o& how mu)h )reatine the! )onsume" or ta*ing more than the re)ommen"e" amounts. :eanwhile, loo*ing at % = to %1=!ear=ol"s, :etDl et al. reporte" that 7./P o& that age group use" )reatine, with ever! gra"e &rom / to %2 involve". 4t was also note" that %2th=gra"ers use" )reatine mu)h li*e their )ollegiate )ounterparts, with that gra"e reporting ..P use. Current estimates o& )ollegiate )reatine use var! &rom 27P to 01P o& athletes. 5Cal&ee, +.J (a"ale, 8. 8opular Ergogeni) #rugs an" Supplements in Soung Athletes. 3ediatrics 200#, '')5,6, p e717J see http:FFpe"iatri)s.aappu9li)ations.orgF)ontentF%%0F,Fe700.&ull.p"&6

As state" earlier in the W:ore on sports supplementsX se)tion, the -(HS$s 2 %2 Supplements 8osition Statement opposes the use o& supplements 9! those %1 !ears ol" an" !ounger &or athleti) a"vantage. However, use 9! !outh )ontinues. One pro"u)t, Teen A"vantage Creatine Serum, is even targete" spe)i&i)all! at those ages %% to %2. Ex)erpts &rom an online a"vertisement are: W#evelope" espe)iall! &or !oung aspiring athletes %%=%2 !ears o& age. fa spe)ial &ormulation &or teens. f Teen A"vantage &ormula is sa&e f 3ut note, most stu"ies "one on the e&&e)t o& )reatine involve" a"ult athletes.X 5http:FFwww.netrition.)omFteenOa"vantageOpage.html6 Con)erns with )reatine use are summariDe" in the text9oo* Clinical 5ports 8utrition:
Whether there are si"e e&&e)ts &rom long=term use o& )reatine, parti)ularl! with the large "oses asso)iate" with rapi" loa"ing, remains to 9e "etermine". To "ate, there are ane)"otal reports o& nausea, gastrointestinal upset, hea"a)hes an" mus)le )rampingFstrains lin*e" to some )reatine supplementation proto)ols. Some o& these a"verse e&&e)ts are plausi9le, parti)ularl! in light o& in)rease" water retention within s*eletal mus)le 5an" perhaps 9rain6 )ells. At this time, however, stu"ies have &aile" to &in" evi"en)e o& an in)rease" prevalen)e or ris* o& these pro9lems among )reatine users 5@reenwoo" et al. 2 ,, 2 .J Arei"er et al. 2 ,96. f Although it is )ommonl! suggeste" that )reatine supplementation ma! )ause renal impairments, these are limite" to )ase reports in a &ew patients with pre=existing renal "!s&un)tion. Gongitu"inal stu"ies have reporte" that )reatine inta*e ha" no "etrimental e&&e)ts on renal responses in various athleti) populations 58oortmans et al. %220J :a!hew et al. 2 26. f Creatine supplementation shoul" 9e limite" to well="evelope" athletes. Soung athletes are a9le to ma*e su9stantial gains in per&orman)e through maturation in age an" training, without the nee" to expose themselves to the expense or small potential &or long=term )onse<uen)es o& )reatine use. 53ur*e, G., et al. Ch. %/ Supplements an" sports &oo"s. Clinical 5ports 8utrition. E"s. 3ur*e, G.J #ea*in, B. :)@raw=Hill 3oo* Compan! Australia, 2 /, pp 7%7Y7%/J see http:FFwww.ausport.gov.auFOO"ataFassetsFp"&O&ileF % F%./7,2F%/Complete.p"&6

$ore on =-ar1inine
G=arginine is mentione" in the #e Antonis arti)le as a nonessential amino a)i", meaning that it )an 9e ma"e 9! the 9o"!. A re&inement o& this statement )oul" 9e that it is Wsemi= essential.X +easoning &or this is "es)ri9e": WArginine is a semi=essential amino a)i" involve" in multiple areas o& human ph!siolog! an" meta9olism. 4t is not )onsi"ere" essential 9e)ause humans )an s!nthesiDe it de novo &rom glutamine, glutamate, an" proline. However, "ietar! inta*e remains the primar! "eterminant o& plasma arginine levels, sin)e the rate o& arginine 9ios!nthesis "oes not in)rease to )ompensate &or "epletion or ina"e<uate suppl!.X 5http:FFwww.altme"rev.)omFpu9li)ationsF0F/F7%2.p"&6 The :a!o Clini) We9 site o&&ers a list o&

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some "ietar! sour)es o& arginine: WAlmon"s, 9arle!, 3raDil nuts, 9rown ri)e, 9u)*wheat, )ashews, )ereals, )hi)*en, )ho)olate, )o)onut, )orn, "air! pro"u)ts, &il9erts, gelatin, meats, oats, peanuts, pe)ans, raisins, sesame see"s, sun&lower see"s, walnuts.X 5http:FFwww.ma!o)lini).)omFhealthFl=arginineF-SOpatient=arginineF#SECT4O-[relate"=terms6 The earl! histor! o& G=arginine$s "is)over! an" resear)h is "es)ri9e" in the ?ournal Circulation: W(irst i"enti&ie" in extra)ts o& etiolate" lupine see"lings 9! S)hultD an" Steiger in %11/, G=arginine was shown to 9e a pro"u)t o& protein h!"rol!sis 9! He"in nine !ears laterJ its stru)ture was not proven until %2% 9! Sorenson.X 5Gos)alDo, B. What We Anow an" #on$t Anow A9out G=Arginine an" -O. Circulation 2000, '(':2%2/Y2%22J see http:FF)ir).aha?ournals.orgF)ontentF% %F%1F2%2/.&ull6 The potential 9ene&it o& G=arginine to the 9o"! is relate" to the &a)t that G=arginine is a pre)ursor to the pro"u)tion o& nitri) oxi"e 5-O6. The pro)ess re<uires the enD!me -itri) Oxi"e S!nthase 5-OS6, whi)h )atal!Des the )onversion o& G=arginine to G=)itrulline, pro"u)ing -O. -O &un)tions as a vaso"ilator, meaning that it wi"ens, or "ilates, 9loo" vessels. Haso"ilators Wwor* 9! relaxing the smooth mus)les that line the walls o& 9loo" vesselsV)ausing the 9loo" vessels to in)rease in "iameter an" allow 9loo" to &low through more easil!.X 5http:FFhealth.howstu&&wor*s.)omFme"i)ineFme"i)ationFvaso"ilator="rug.htm6 3e)ause o& this a)tion, it has appli)ations in the 9o"! &ar 9e!on" the i"ea o& it potentiall! in)reasing athleti) per&orman)e. These relate to )on"itions that )oul" improve with in)rease" vaso"ilation &rom the pro"u)tion o& -O an" )on"itions that )oul" 9ene&it &rom in)rease" protein pro"u)tion or the release o& growth hormone or insulin. 5http:FFwww.ma!o)lini).)omFhealthFl=arginineF-SOpatient= arginineJ http:FFwww.nlm.nih.govFme"lineplusF"rugin&oFnaturalF107.html6 However, the list o& potential si"e e&&e)ts is long 5see W:ore sites on G=arginineX6, an" G=arginine )an intera)t with man! other supplements an" me"i)ations. The e&&e)tiveness o& G=arginine on "i&&erent )on"itionsFsituations is summariDe" at :e"line8lus:
8atural Medicines Comprehensive Database rates e&&e)tiveness 9ase" on s)ienti&i) evi"en)e a))or"ing to the &ollowing s)ale: E&&e)tive, Gi*el! E&&e)tive, 8ossi9l! E&&e)tive, 8ossi9l! 4ne&&e)tive, Gi*el! 4ne&&e)tive, 4ne&&e)tive, an" 4nsu&&i)ient Evi"en)e to +ate. The e&&e)tiveness ratings &or =-A<GA)A)* are as &ollows: %ossibl3 effecti6e for... Am.ro6in1 reco6er3 after sur1er3. Ta*ing G=arginine with ri9onu)lei) a)i" 5+-A6 an" ei)osapentaenoi) a)i" 5E8A6 9e&ore surger! or a&terwar"s seems to help re"u)e the re)over! time, re"u)e the num9er o& in&e)tions, an" improve woun" healing a&ter surger!. Con1esti6e heart failure. Ta*ing G=arginine along with usual treatment seems to help eliminate extra &lui"s that are a pro9lem in )ongestive heart &ailure. 3ut ta*ing G= arginine "oesn$t alwa!s improve exer)ise toleran)e or <ualit! o& li&e. G=arginine shoul" not 9e use" instea" o& the usual treatments or"ere" 9! a health)are provi"er. Chest .ain associated "ith coronar3 arter3 disease (an1ina .ectoris . Ta*ing G= arginine seems to "e)rease s!mptoms an" improve exer)ise toleran)e an" <ualit! o& li&e in people with angina. 3ut G=arginine "oesn$t seem to improve the "isease itsel&. Dladder inflammation. Ta*ing G=arginine seems to improve s!mptoms, 9ut it ma!

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ta*e up to three months o& treatment to see improvement. 4astin1 and "ei1ht loss in .eo.le "ith 5AB?AA7S2 "hen used "ith h3dro,3meth3lbut3rate (5$D and 1lutamine. This )om9ination seems to in)rease 9o"! weight, parti)ularl! lean 9o"! mass, an" improve the immune s!stem. %re6entin1 loss of effect of nitro1l3cerin in .eo.le "ith an1ina .ectoris . %roblems "ith erections of the .enis (erectile d3sfunction . Am.ro6in1 ;idne3 function in ;idne3 trans.lant .atients ta;in1 c3clos.orine . %re6entin1 inflammation of the di1esti6e tract in .remature infants . Cram.in1 .ain and "ea;ness in the le1s associated "ith bloc;ed arteries (intermittent claudication .

%ossibl3 ineffecti6e for... 5eart attac;. Ta*ing G=arginine "oes not seem to help prevent a heart atta)*. 4t also "oesn$t seem to 9e 9ene&i)ial &or treating a heart atta)* a&ter it has o))urre". 4n &a)t, there is )on)ern that G=arginine might 9e harm&ul &or people a&ter a re)ent heart atta)*. #onNt ta*e G=arginine i& !ou have ha" a re)ent heart atta)*. %re-eclam.sia2 an increase in blood .ressure durin1 .re1nanc3. Ta*ing G= arginine "oesnNt seem to lower "iastoli) 9loo" pressure 5the se)on" num9er6 in women with pre=e)lampsia in their 21th to ,/th wee* o& pregnan)!.

Ansufficient e6idence to rate effecti6eness for... $i1raine headache. Ta*ing G=arginine 9! mouth along with the pain*iller i9upro&en seems to 9e e&&e)tive &or treating migraine hea"a)he. This )om9ination sometimes starts to wor* within , minutes. 3ut it$s har" to *now how mu)h o& the pain relie& is "ue to G=arginine, sin)e i9upro&en )an relieve migraine pain on its own. 7ecreased mental function in the elderl3 (senile dementia . Gimite" resear)h suggests that G=arginine might improve senile "ementia. Am.ro6in1 healin1 of diabetic foot ulcers. There is interest in using G=arginine &or preventing "ia9eti) &oot ul)ers. Appl!ing G=arginine to the &eet seems to improve )ir)ulation in people with "ia9etes, whi)h might 9e help&ul in preventing ul)ers. 3ut i& there is alrea"! an ul)er on the &oot, in?e)ting G=arginine un"er the s*in near the ul)er "oesn$t seem to shorten healing time 9! mu)h or lower the )han)e o& nee"ing an amputation in the &uture. 5i1h blood .ressure. There is some evi"en)e that ta*ing G=arginine )an slightl! lower 9loo" pressure in health! people an" in people with t!pe 2 "ia9etes who have mil" high 9loo" pressure. $ale infertilit3. %re6ention of the common cold. Am.ro6in1 athletic .erformance. Dreast cancer "hen used in combination "ith chemothera.3 . 4ound healin1. (emale se,ual .roblems. Sic;le cell disease. Am.ro6in1 the immune s3stem in .eo.le "ith head and nec; cancer .

:ore evi"en)e is nee"e" to rate G=arginine &or these uses. 5http:FFwww.nlm.nih.govFme"lineplusF"rugin&oFnaturalF107.html6

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A loo* at past stu"ies o& arginine supplementation show mixe" results. (or example, the 2 1 review arti)le WThe 4n&luen)e o& Arginine Supplementation on 8er&orman)e an" :eta9olism in AthletesX )ompares earl! resear)h o& arginine with resear)h )urrent at that time:
-o a9solute )on)lusions )an 9e "rawn &rom this review o& the literature on e&&e)ts o& arginine aspartate on meta9olism an" per&orman)e. On the one han", ol"er stu"ies show, in some )ases, positive e&&e)ts on parameters o& meta9olism an" per&orman)e as a result o& supplementation, 9ut more re)ent stu"ies = per&orme" as ran"omiDe", "ou9le= 9lin" an" pla)e9o=)ontrolle" trials = suggest no spe)i&i) e&&e)ts on various meta9oli) parameters an" per&orman)e. #osages an" exer)ise proto)ols &rom earlier stu"ies are not )ompara9le with re)ent stu"ies. The e&&e)ts on meta9oli) an" en"o)rine parameters "o not suggest the potential &or improvement in athleti) per&orman)e. Although the intravenous in&usion o& arginine appeare" to in&luen)e h@H Len"ogenous growth hormoneM, intense ph!si)al exer)ise has the same e&&e)t. The positive e&&e)t on per&orman)e shown in earlier stu"ies has not 9een "emonstrate" in re)ent stu"ies, per&orme" as ran"omise", "ou9le=9lin" an" pla)e9o= )ontrolle" trials, with larger su9?e)t num9ers. 5Ane)htle, 3.J 3os)h, A. The 4n&luen)e o& Arginine Supplementation on 8er&orman)e an" :eta9olism in Athletes. .nternational 5portMed Kournal 200:, %5%6, p 21J see http:FFwww.ism?.)omF&ilesF,%%.%0%0,Fism? p"&sFHolO2O-oO%O2 1F4n&luen)e=arginine= supplementation.p"&6

The 2 % resear)h arti)le WArginine an" Antioxi"ant Supplement on 8er&orman)e in El"erl! :ale C!)lists: A +an"omiDe" Controlle" TrialX agrees on the in)on)lusiveness an" summariDes several stu"ies:
The role o& nitri) oxi"e in )ar"iovas)ular health has 9een well "es)ri9e" in literature. The e&&e)t o& nitri) oxi"e on exer)ise per&orman)e, however, has not 9een )learl! elu)i"ate". #uring a 7 wee* progressive strength training program, volunteers were given a supplement )ontaining % g arginine an" % g ornithine, or a pla)e9o, ea)h "a!. The results suggest that the )om9ination o& arginine an" ornithine ta*en in )on?un)tion with a high intensit! strength training program )an signi&i)antl! in)rease mus)le strength an" lean 9o"! mass. Camp9ell et al o9serve" that arginine an" h= *etoglutarate positivel! in&luen)e" % +: 9en)h press an" Wingate pea* power per&orman)e in traine" a"ult men. Arginine was also reporte" to improve pea* power signi&i)antl! in non=athlete men. Conversel!, a num9er o& stu"ies have &aile" to i"enti&! an! 9ene&i)ial e&&e)t o& arginine supplementation. Giu et al investigate" the e&&e)t o& three "a! supplementation o& / gram o& arginine on per&orman)e in intermittent exer)ise in well=traine" male )ollege ?u"o athletes an" &oun" the supplementation ha" no e&&e)t on per&orman)e. Similarl!, it has 9een shown that supplementation o& arginine aspartate &or %. "a!s prior to marathon run "i" not a&&e)t the su9se<uent per&orman)e in traine" runners. 5Chen, S. et al. Arginine an" Antioxi"ant Supplement on 8er&orman)e in El"erl! :ale C!)lists: A +an"omiDe" Controlle" Trial. K. .nt. 5oc. 5ports 8utr. 2010, )5%,6J see http:FFwww.?issn.)omF)ontentFp"&F%77 =201,=0=%,.p"&6

The stu"! "es)ri9e" in the 2 % Chen arti)le &o)use" on the per&orman)e o& men 9etween the ages o& 7 an" 0, who 9elonge" to a )!)ling )lu9. Their results showe", WAn arginine an" antioxi"ant=)ontaining supplement in)rease" the anaero9i) threshol" an" the wor* at anaero9i) threshol" at 9oth wee* one an" wee* three in el"erl! )!)lists. -o e&&e)t on HO2max was o9serve". This stu"! in"i)ates a potential role o& G=arginine an" antioxi"ant supplementation in improving exer)ise per&orman)e in el"erl!.X 5Chen, S. et al. Arginine an" Antioxi"ant

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Supplement on 8er&orman)e in El"erl! :ale C!)lists: A +an"omiDe" Controlle" Trial. K. .nt. 5oc. 5ports 8utr. 2010, ) 5%,6J see http:FFwww.?issn.)omF)ontentFp"&F%77 =201,=0=%,.p"&6 The authors explain the possi9le "i&&eren)e in results 9etween !ounger an" ol"er in"ivi"uals:
South&ul, health!, athleti) in"ivi"uals generall! have a healthier -O s!stem, )ompare" with aging, unhealth!, se"entar! in"ivi"uals. 4n humans, exer)ise )apa)it! "e)lines with a"van)ing age an" man! in"ivi"uals lose the in)lination to parti)ipate in regular ph!si)al a)tivit!. 4n health! a"ults, arginine )an 9e s!nthesiDe" in su&&i)ient <uantities to meet most normal ph!siologi)al "eman"s with the rate o& "e novo s!nthesis remaining una&&e)te" 9! several "a!s o& an arginine &ree "iet. Our stu"! su9?e)ts ha" an average age b77 !ears, while other stu"ies in)lu"e" !oung athletes. This "i&&eren)e ma! explain the signi&i)ant improvement on AT Lanaero9i) threshol"M in our stu"!. 5Chen, S. et al. Arginine an" Antioxi"ant Supplement on 8er&orman)e in El"erl! :ale C!)lists: A +an"omiDe" Controlle" Trial. K. .nt. 5oc. 5ports 8utr. 2010, )5%,6J see http:FFwww.?issn.)omF)ontentFp"&F%77 =201,=0=%,.p"&6

The 2 %2 resear)h arti)le WA)ute G=Arginine Alpha Aetoglutarate Supplementation (ails To 4mprove :us)ular 8er&orman)e in +esistan)e Traine" an" Untraine" :enX also agrees there is mixe" evi"en)e regar"ing G=arginine$s use to improve sports per&orman)e. The stu"! loo*s at the use o& re)entl! "evelope" supplements that have G=arginine )om9ine" with alpha *etoglutarate.
+e)entl!, )ommer)iall! availa9le G=arginine supplements have 9een )om9ine" with alpha *etoglutarate, in an e&&ort to &urther improve exer)ise per&orman)e 9! in)reasing a"enosine triphosphate pro"u)tion through the ele)tron transport )hain. Spe)i&i)all!, alpha *etoglutarate is a meta9olite pro"u)e" 9! the oxi"ative "e)ar9ox!lation o& iso)itrateJ a pro)ess that o))urs in the Are9s )!)le. An exogenous suppl! o& alpha *etoglutarate through a supplement su)h as G=arginine alpha= *etoglutarate 5AAA@6 )oul" in)rease Are9s )!)le &lux thus in)reasing the rate o& a)et!l= CoA oxi"ation. (urthermore, supplementation with alpha *etoglutarate ma! have a glutamate sparing e&&e)t in the 9o"!. This is important as alpha *etoglutarate )an 9e replenishe" through the transamination o& glutamate, whi)h is an amino a)i" ne)essar! &or protein ana9olism an" it is also *nown to 9e a ver! important ex)itator! nervous s!stem neurotransmitter. Thus, supplementation with alpha *etoglutarate ma! have 9oth neurologi)al an" meta9oli) ergogeni) properties. fin the )urrent stu"!, a)ute AAA@ supplementation provi"e" no ergogeni) 9ene&it, regar"less o& the su9?e)ts$ training status. 3ase" on the )urrent stu"! an a)ute ingestion o& AAA@ is not re)ommen"e" &or health! in"ivi"uals to in)rease maximal strength an" mus)ular en"uran)e &or resistan)e training exer)ises. 5Wax, 3., et al. A)ute G=Arginine Alpha Aetoglutarate Supplementation (ails To 4mprove :us)ular 8er&orman)e in +esistan)e Traine" an" Untraine" :en. K. .nt. 5oc. 5ports 8utr. 2012, %5%06J see http:FFwww.?issn.)omF)ontentF2F%F%06

Conne%tions to Chemistry Con%epts +"or %orrelation to %ourse %urri%ulum,

%. )utritional chemistr3VThe use o& sports supplements an" the e&&e)ts the! ma! or ma! not have on the 9o"! an" its health relate to nutritional )hemistr!. 2. Diochemical .rocessesVAll three o& the sports supplements in the arti)le relate in some wa! to 9io)hemi)al pro)esses. (or example, the inta*e o& too mu)h protein, su)h as in the

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&orm o& whe! protein pow"er, )an trigger a 9uil"up o& *etones in the 9loo". Creatine pla!s a role in energ! pro"u)tion in the 9o"!, through the AT8FA#8 )!)le. G=arginine is )onverte" in the 9o"! to nitri) oxi"e. ,. Amino Acids?%roteinsVThe three sports supplements "is)usse" in the arti)le all have some relation to amino a)i"s an"For proteins. The supplement G=arginine is an amino a)i". Amino a)i"s are the 9uil"ing 9lo)*s that ma*e up proteins, su)h as that &oun" in whe! protein pow"er. Creatine, an organi) a)i", is ma"e &rom amino a)i"s in the 9o"!. The i"ea o& essential versus non=essential amino a)i"s 5those the 9o"! )annot ma*e versus those the 9o"! )an ma*e6 )an also 9e "is)usse". .. Chemical reactionsNh3drol3sisVThe si"e9ar o& the #e Antonis arti)le allu"es to a h!"rol!sis rea)tion. Whe! protein h!"rol!sate, one o& the t!pes o& whe! protein pow"er, is &orme" through this rea)tion.

-ossi.le Stu ent Mis%on%eptions +to ai tea%her in a mis%on%eptions,

%.

ressing

HA can use a su..lement because2 e6en if it doesn8t hel. m3 s.orts .erformance2 it "on8t harm me.I $he De -ntonis articleDs descriptions of three different sports supplements illustrate that this is not necessarily true. -ll three have potential side effects, some of them serious, that may or may not affect users. .n addition, supplements are not sub7ected to the same rigorous tests that drugs must go through before being placed on the .5. market, so there may not be complete information about their effects, particularly on youth. 2. HAf a .roduct sa3s it is Knatural28 it is 1ood for me.I $he term EnaturalF on a product label is somewhat ambiguous. .t is not well defined but can lead the consumer to think that it is beneficial, safe, and healthy to use. $his is not necessarily the case. (http:HHwww.fda.govH*oodHDietary5upplementsH singDietary5upplementsHucm''(CB).htm# ,. HAf A see a .roduct on the shelf in the store2 it "ill do e,actl3 "hat the label .romises it "ill do.I Dietary supplements, including the sports supplements described in the article, are not sub7ect to the same regulations as drugs. 5upplements do not undergo the same rigorous testing and trials that drugs do to get to market. $he manufacturers are responsible for ensuring their claims are true, but often information on the effect of supplements is mi,ed.

Anti%ipating Stu ent /uestions +answers to 0uestions stu ents might as& in %lass,
%. H4h3 are s.orts su..lements not intended for teena1ers9I One organi+ation that takes a stand against the use of sports supplements by teenagers is the 8ational *ederation of 5tate !igh 5chool -ssociations. $heir position statement says it is Edue to the lack of published, reproducible scientific research documenting the benefits of their use and confirming no potential long/term adverse health effects with their use, particularly in the adolescent age group.F .nstead, they say, E-thletes should be encouraged to pursue their athletic goals through hard work, appropriate rest and good nutrition, not unsubstantiated dietary shortcuts.F (http:HHwww.mshsaa.orgHresourcesHpdfHsupplements.pdf# 2. H4hat does it mean "hen a su..lement label sa3s2 KThis statement has not been e6aluated b3 the (7A. This .roduct is not intended to dia1nose2 treat2 cure2 or .re6ent an3 disease89I $he .5. *ood and Drug -dministration (*D-# 4eb site e,plains, E$his statement or JdisclaimerD is re2uired by law when a manufacturer makes a structureHfunction

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claim on a dietary supplement label. .n general, these claims describe the role of a nutrient or dietary ingredient intended to affect the structure or function of the body. $he manufacturer is responsible for ensuring the accuracy and truthfulness of these claims1 they are not approved by *D-. *or this reason, the law says that if a dietary supplement label includes such a claim, it must state in a JdisclaimerD that *D- has not evaluated this claim. $he disclaimer must also state that this product is not intended to Jdiagnose, treat, cure or prevent any disease,D because only a drug can legally make such a claim.5 (http:HHwww.fda.govH*oodHDietary5upplementsHQ-Dietary5upplementsHdefault.htm#

*n1%lass A%tivities +lesson i eas, in%lu ing la.s 2 emonstrations,

%. Stu"ents )oul" explore how sports supplement a"vertisements en)ourage teenagers to pur)hase the pro"u)ts. Te)hni<ues might in)lu"e things li*e 9e&ore an" a&ter photos, s)ienti&i) "iagrams, an" en"orsements 9! pro&essional athletes. Stu"ents )oul" also "is)uss reasons teenagers might &eel the! nee" to use sports supplements. These might in)lu"e &a)tors su)h as gaining an e"ge in )ompeting &or )ollege athleti) s)holarships, emulating pro&essional athletes, an" having a <ui)* &ix &or "issatis&a)tion with one$s 9o"! an" health. 2. Stu"ents )an ma*e glue &rom mil*. The! &irst a"" vinegar an" heat a mil* mixture to &orm )ur"s, an" then &ilter it to remove the whe!. 3a*ing so"a is a""e" to neutraliDe remaining vinegar. The remain"er is usa9le as glue. The #e)em9er %22, ChemMatters Tea)her$s @ui"e has a one=page experiment han"out. At least one su)h experiment is availa9le online. 5http:FFwww.rs).orgFlearn=)hemistr!Fresour)eFres .72Fglue=&rom=mil*' )mpi"[C:8 7226 ,. Small amounts o& two spe)ialiDe" )hemi)als 5)!anami"e an" sar)osine6 are nee"e", 9ut stu"ents )an s!nthesiDe )reatine using the pro)e"ure in WS!nthesis o& CreatineVA High S)hool 8ro)e"ure.X The authors state: WThe pro)e"ure is well optimiDe", an" to our *nowle"ge represents the greenest route to )reatineX an" also suggest that the )reatine )an 9e use" to "emonstrate the e&&e)t o& temperature on solu9ilit! in water. 5http:FFgreen)hem.uoregon.e"uF8#(sF@E:s4#%.2.p"&6

Out1o"1%lass A%tivities an -ro3e%ts +stu ent resear%h, %lass pro3e%ts,

%. Stu"ents )oul" resear)h the use o& sports supplements throughout histor!. (or example, the 3a)*groun" 4n&ormation se)tion W:ore on sports supplementsX mentione" the use o& "rie" &igs, mushrooms, an" str!)hnine 9! @ree* Ol!mpians in 3C 00/. 2. Stu"ents )oul" surve! an"For interview stu"ent athletes an" )oa)hes a9out their views an" experien)es with sports supplements. ,. Someone involve" in sports me"i)ine, su)h as a sports "ieti)ian, )oul" 9e invite" to spea* to the )lass.

'e"eren%es +non1We.1.ase in"ormation sour%es,

99

The re&eren)es 9elow )an 9e &oun" on the )*4 ChemMatters 30-3ear C7 5whi)h in)lu"es all arti)les pu9lishe" &rom its in)eption in Septem9er, %21, through April, 2 %,6. The C# is availa9le &rom the Ameri)an Chemi)al So)iet! at www.a)s.org. Sele)te" arti)les an" the )omplete set o& Tea)her$s @ui"es &or all issues &rom the past three !ears are also availa9leV&reeVonline at this same site. (ull ChemMatters arti)les an" Tea)her$s @ui"es are availa9le on the , =!ear C# &or all past issues 5Tea)her$s @ui"es &rom (e9ruar! %22 6, up to 2 %,. Some o& the more re)ent arti)les 52 2 &orwar"6 ma! also 9e availa9le online at the U+G liste" a9ove. Simpl! )li)* on the W8ast 4ssuesX 9utton "ire)tl! 9elow the WMX in the ChemMatters logo at the top o& the page. 4& the arti)le is availa9le online, !ou will &in" it there. The ChemMatters arti)le WAna9oli) Steroi"sVThe #ownsi"e o& 3ul*ing UpX "is)usses the use an" ris*s o& ana9oli) steroi"s, another su9stan)e )onne)te" with athleti)s. 5@raham, T. Ana9oli) Steroi"sVThe #ownsi"e o& 3ul*ing Up. ChemMatters 2000, 'L 526, pp %2Y%,6 The ChemMatters arti)le W#rug #ete)tion at the Ol!mpi)sVA Team E&&ortX "es)ri9es testing athletes &or prohi9ite" su9stan)es at the 2 Summer Ol!mpi) @ames. 5:orton, +. #rug #ete)tion at the Ol!mpi)sVA Team E&&ort. ChemMatters 2000, 'L 5.6, pp 0Y26 The ChemMatters arti)le WSports #rin*s: #on$t Sweat the Small Stu&&X "es)ri9es what happens to the 9o"! "uring an" a&ter exer)ise, how sports "rin*s )an help, an" how to )hoose a "rin* wisel!. 5@raham, T. Sports #rin*s: #on$t Sweat the Small Stu&&. ChemMatters 1///, ') 5%6, pp %%Y%,6 The ChemMatters arti)le WSa! CheeseX provi"es 9a)*groun" on the )omponents o& mil*, in)lu"ing whe!. 4t also in)lu"es a re)ipe to ma*e a so&t )heese, whi)h has a step to separate the )ur" &rom the whe!. 53axter, +. Sa! Cheese. ChemMatters 1//+, '& 5%6, pp .Y06 The ChemMatters arti)le W#istan)e +unningX outlines the 9o"!$s pro)ess o& using a"enosine triphosphate 5AT86 to provi"e energ!J the pro)ess in)lu"es )reatine. 5Smith, T. #istan)e +unning. ChemMatters 1/:/, ) 5%6, pp .Y06

We. Sites "or A sour%es,

itional *n"ormation +We.1.ase in"ormation

$ore sites on s.orts su..lements

The su9stan)e "imeth!lam!lamine 5#:AA6 is mentione" in the #e Antonis arti)le as an example o& a harm&ul ingre"ient in sports supplements. The U.S. (oo" an" #rug A"ministration 5(#A6 We9 site has a page that summariDes the "angers o& this ingre"ient an" what (#A an" manu&a)turers are "oing with pro"u)ts that )ontain it. 5http:FFwww.&"a.govF(oo"F#ietar!SupplementsFUsing#ietar!SupplementsFu)m%% 7/0.htm6

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The (e9ruar! 2, 2 %2, arti)le WArm! Stu"ies Wor*out Supplements A&ter #eathsX in $he 8ew Rork $imes "is)usses investigations into the "eaths o& two sol"iers, whi)h ma! have ha" a )onne)tion to supplements )ontaining #:AA. 5http:FFwww.n!times.)omF2 %2F 2F ,F9usinessFarm!=stu"ies=wor*out=supplements=a&ter=2= "eaths.html'Or[,>6 The 2 / 3ediatrics ?ournal arti)le W8opular Ergogeni) #rugs an" Supplements in Soung AthletesX has in&ormation a9out )ommonl! use" "rugs an" supplements 5in)lu"ing )reatine6, with se)tions on ph!siolog!, e&&e)ts, a"verse e&&e)ts, legalFsports aspe)ts, an" the in)i"en)e o& use. 5http:FFpe"iatri)s.aappu9li)ations.orgF)ontentF%%0F,Fe700.&ull.p"&6 A "ieti)ian at 3oston College aims to ma*e )ollege stu"ents more aware o& what is )ontaine" in "i&&erent sports supplements an" how to ma*e in&orme" )hoi)es. 5http:FFwww.9).e"uFo&&i)esF"iningFnutritionFtopi)sFsupplements.html6 Sports, Car"iovas)ular, an" Wellness -utrition 5SCA-6 is a group o& the A)a"em! o& -utrition an" #ieteti)sJ its We9 site has a )olle)tion o& SCA- (a)t Sheets with in&ormation &or sports nutrition, those in the per&orming arts, general wellness an" )ar"iovas)ular health, an" eating "isor"ers. 5http:FFwww.s)an"pg.orgF&a)t=sheetsF6 The O)to9er %2, 2 %%, 0incoln Kournal 5tar arti)le W#o Sou Anow What Sour Ai" 4s Ta*ing' (a)ts A9out Sports SupplementsX ni)el! summariDes overall issues an" <uestions surroun"ing the use o& sports supplements 9! !outh. 5http:FF?ournalstar.)omFli&est!lesFhealth= me"=&itF"o=!ou=*now=what=!our=*i"=is=ta*ing=&a)ts=a9outFarti)leO&2)0/"2/= 9"=7%0)=901%= ,%%, 0)/92).html6

$ore sites on "he3 .rotein .o"der

This report pro"u)e" 9! the -ational #air! Coun)il in 2 0 summariDes an" )ites several resear)h stu"ies relate" to the 9ene&its o& whe! protein. 4t )oul" 9e an interesting "o)ument to show to stu"ents to as* them to evaluate a sour)e o& in&ormationV"oes the -ational #air! Coun)il have an interest in people using more whe! protein' 5http:FFwww.a"a").)omFWhe!+esear)h(A;.p"&6 The #is)over! Health We9 site shares WWhe! 8rotein: What Sou -ee" To Anow,X in)lu"ing what it "oes in !our 9o"!, an" potential 9ene&its an" si"e e&&e)ts. 5http:FFhealth.howstu&&wor*s.)omFwellnessFnatural=me"i)ineFalternativeFwhe!=protein.htm6

$ore sites on creatine

An ele)troni) )op! o& the Kournal of the .nternational 5ociety of 5ports 8utrition 2 / review arti)le W#ietar! Supplements an" Sports 8er&orman)e: :eta9olites, Constituents, an" Extra)tsX 9rie&l! summariDes various stu"ies an" reviews o& )reatine use in athletes. 5http:FFwww.?issn.)omF)ontentF,F2F%6 This SouTu9e vi"eo &rom Axis Ga9s, a manu&a)turer o& sports supplements, is an a"vertisement &or )reatine monoh!"rate. Stu"ents )oul" anal!De how it presents the pro"u)t an" some o& the s)ien)e 9ehin" it. 5http:FFwww.!outu9e.)omFwat)h'v[3+,"#O%SD E6

$ore sites on =-ar1inine 101

The #e Antonis arti)le mentions a long list o& potential si"e e&&e)ts )onne)te" with G= arginine use. The :a!o Clini) We9 site has a list o& si"e e&&e)ts an" warnings. 5http:FFwww.ma!o)lini).)omFhealthFl=arginineF-SOpatient=arginineF#SECT4O-[sa&et!6 A press release &rom Cana"ian S)ien)e 8u9lishing summariDes a 2 %% ?ournal arti)le on G=arginine supplementation. 5http:FFwww.nr)resear)hpress.)omFuserimagesFContentE"itorF%,2,%% %0/ /FA8-: Uo&A press releaseO en.p"&6

More We. sites on Tea%her *n"ormation an 4esson -lans +sites geare spe%i"i%ally to tea%hers,
The #is)over! E"u)ation We9 site in)lu"es intera)tive )urri)ula aime" at the mi""le s)hool an" high s)hool levels. The! "es)ri9e their aim as supporting ethi)s an" "e)ision ma*ing, an" ta*e an anti="oping viewpoint, as part o& the U.S. Anti=#oping Agen)!. 5http:FFusa"a."is)over!e"u)ation.)omF)urri)ulum.)&m6 The )urri)ulum pa)*et WSports -utrition Ait &or High S)hool ClassesX is pro"u)e" 9! (raser Health, a Cana"ian Whealth authorit!.X 4t states, WThe *it is inten"e" &or high s)hool tea)hers or )oa)hes who wish to tea)h their stu"ents a9out the important role nutrition pla!s in ph!si)al a)tivit!.X 5http:FFwww.&raserhealth.)aFme"iaFSports-utritionAit.p"&6

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The (rac;in1 <e6olution

)a%&groun *n"ormation +tea%her in"ormation,
$ore on frac;in1 and natural 1as ener13 source
Supplies o& natural gas re)overa9le &rom shale in the USA )oul" provi"e more than a hun"re" !ears=worth o& &uel &or "omesti) )onsumption. Although natural gas is )onsi"ere" a )leaner &uel than )oal &or ele)tri)it! generation 5in terms o& the amount o& )ar9on "ioxi"e pro"u)e" &rom )om9ustion &or the same amount o& usa9le energ! pro"u)e"6, extra)tion o& the gas poses signi&i)ant environmental ris*s in terms o& potential "amage to air <ualit! an" essential water resour)es. One o& the )on)erns has to "o with the es)ape o& the methane, a greenhouse gas, 9oth in the extra)tion pro)ess as well as in its transport. 4roni)all!, )heap natural gas "ela!s the national goal o& 9e)oming )ar9on=&ree, rel!ing on solar an" win" energ! supplies to re"u)e the in)reasing haDar"s o& glo9al warming "ue to in)rease" levels o& greenhouse gases, parti)ularl! in terms o& )ar9on "ioxi"e, a )om9ustion pro"u)t o& &ossil &uels. The &ra)*ing pro)ess &or extra)ting natural gas in the USA 9egan a reversal o& importing nee"e" natural gas &rom Cana"a 5via pipeline6 aroun" 2 0, a))ounting &or a9out % P o& US pro"u)tion, rising to , P 9! 2 % . The rapi" in)rease in the amount o& natural gas 5almost a glut6 has "epresse" the mar*et pri)e &or the gas. At the same time, the amount o& gas has ma"e it possi9le &or the US to 9egin exporting the pro"u)t to other )ountries, )ompeting against +ussia 5the 9iggest supplier to Europe6 an" the :i""le East. 3! 2 %%, natural gas provi"e" a9out one <uarter o& the primar! energ! 5)oal, gas, oil, an" nu)lear6 )onsume" in the Unite" States. Ele)tri)it! generation a))ounte" &or ,%P o& total natural gas "eman", &ollowe" 9! in"ustrial 521P6, resi"ential 5%2P6, an" )ommer)ial 5%,P6. Shi&ting &rom )oal to natural gas &or ele)tri)it! generation has ma"e a signi&i)ant impa)t on the pro"u)tion o& greenhouse gases 5primaril! )ar9on "ioxi"e6, essentiall! )utting in hal& the amount o& )ar9on "ioxi"e generate" per unit o& ele)tri)it! pro"u)e". -earl! / P o& the ele)tri)it! pro"u)e" through )oal )om9ustion in 2 7 was re"u)e" to ,.P 9! 2 %2Va signi&i)ant an" unpre)e"ente" low. The E8A has reporte" that "omesti) emissions o& CO2 in earl! 2 %2 &ell to the lowest level re)or"e" sin)e %222. Another 9ene&it o& re"u)ing )oal )om9ustion has 9een the re"u)tion o& sul&ur "ioxi"e an" mer)ur! in the air 9e)ause the ol" power plants, une<uippe" to remove these pollutants, were i"le" when the nee" &or )oal was re"u)e". An" less sul&ur "ioxi"e means less a)i" rain. 5Some o& these statisti)s )an 9e &oun" at http:FFharvar"magaDine.)omF2 %,F %F&ra)*ings=&uture6 (or )ontrast to the use o& &ra)*ing to extra)t &ossil &uels, &ra)*ing )an 9e e&&e)tivel! use" &or alternative energ! extra)tion su)h as geothermal. The &ra)*ing pro)ess )reates more &issures "eep in the earth to allow &or the intro"u)tion o& water that in turn is )onverte" to steam. 4t wor*s 9! in?e)ting water into ro)*s, )reating )ra)*s in hot ro)*s whi)h allows &or more o& the heat to )onvert water to steam that then exits to the sur&a)e. The steam that vents &rom these &issures is use" to turn ele)tri)it!=generating tur9ines.

$ore on "hat is in6ol6ed "ith frac;in1

103

When &ra)*ing is "is)usse", it is o&ten 9ase" on a narrow &o)us in its "es)ription, i.e. horiDontal "rilling, in?e)tion o& &lui"s, an" re)over! o& gas. 4n )ommon parlan)e, the term en)ompasses the entire pro)ess o& shale gas extra)tion, in)lu"ing these steps:
leasing an" )learing a prospe)tive well siteJ 9uil"ing a well pa" that )an a))ommo"ate eight or more in"ivi"ual wellsJ "igging )ontainment pits an" pon"s &or "rilling an" &ra)* &lui"sJ "rilling the verti)al portion o& ea)h well, whi)h in southwestern 8enns!lvania )an 9e /, 0, &eet "eepJ "rilling the wellNs horiDontal leg, up to a mile longJ installing )asing an" )ement in the well sha&t to inhi9it gas an" )hemi)als &rom &lowing &reel! into soil, streams, an" a<ui&ersJ tru)*ing or piping in millions o& gallons o& water &or ea)h wellJ ringing the well with %2 to %1 high=pressure "iesel pumps on &lat9e" tru)*sJ &ra)turing the shale to release the methane 9! using explosives an" then in?e)ting &ra)*ing &lui"s at pressures o& up to 2, poun"s per s<uare in)h 5a9out nine times the pressure nee"e" to )rush the U.S. -av!Ns 9est su9marine on its "eepest "ive6, along with san" an" )erami) ZproppantsZ to *eep the &ra)tures openJ )apturing an" removing or re)!)ling the Z&low9a)*Z o& 9rine, h!"ro)ar9ons, san", an" toxi) &ra)*ing )hemi)alsJ an" )ontrolling, pro)essing, measuring, pressuriDing, an" piping the gas awa! &rom the )omplete" wellhea"s. to

5http:FFwww.sierra)lu9.orgFsierraF2 %2 0Fpenns!lvania=&ra)*ing=shale=gas=%22=2.aspx6

$ore on the "hole ener13 .ictureLfossil fuels 6s. alternati6es

Goo*ing at a )ar9on=&ree &uture, re)ent stu"ies 9! the -ational +enewa9le Energ! Ga9orator! 5-+EG6 suggest that with the right targete" investments in the )ommer)ial mar*et, emissions &rom CO2 )oul" 9e re"u)e" 9! as mu)h as 1 P 9! 2 7 . 4n this s)enario, the "ominant sour)e o& ele)tri)it! woul" )ome &rom a )om9ination o& win" an" solar. @as=&ire" ele)tri)it! generators woul" provi"e 9a)*up sin)e the win" an" solar are varia9le in their output an" woul" pro9a9l! not meet some pea* seasonal 5thin* summer6 "eman"s. An" o& )ourse, in realisti) terms, progress in this transition is "epen"ent on mar*et pri)es &or the pro"u)tion o& ele)tri)it! through an! o& these generatorsVwin" an" solar. Goo*ing at these pri)e &a)tors, )oal$s )ost &or ele)tri)it! pro"u)tion is 7.2 )ents per *ilowatt hour. @as )urrentl! )an mat)h that pri)e an" repla)es )oal. Win"=generate" ele)tri)it! at this point is a9out 1. )ents per *ilowatt hour 9ut en?o!s a tax )re"it o& 2.2 )ents a *ilowatt hour an" there&ore is )ompetitive with gas. Shoul" gas pri)es in)rease, win" energ! woul" 9e )heaper, even without the tax )re"its. There are several s)enarios &or the role o& solar in the &uture o& a low= to non=&ossil &uel e)onom!. Consi"era9le investment in solar energ! &or ele)tri)it! generation envisions solar plants provi"ing nearl! 0 P o& the ele)tri)it! 9! 2 7 . The ma?orit! o& the photovoltai)s woul" 9e in the Southwest Unite" States. Ex)ess "a!time energ! woul" 9e store" as )ompresse" air un"ergroun", to 9e use" at nighttime. A more e&&i)ient transmission gri" woul" 9e 9uilt that relies on #C )urrent rather than AC to )arr! the ele)tri)it! a)ross the )ountr!. 4n a""ition to the photovoltai) arra!s woul" 9e the use o& large solar )on)entrator power plants 5using para9oli) re&le)tors, alrea"! in use to"a! in the Southwest6. All *in"s o& "ata, in)lu"ing )osts &or these solar="riven ele)tri)al generators, as well as lan" nee"s &or an" pri)e o& the ele)tri)it! generate", )an 9e &oun" at the &ollowing sour)e:

104

Swei9el, A.J :ason, B.J Ethena*is, H. A Solar @ran" 8lan. 5cientific -merican, Banuar! 200:, ;%L ('#, pp. //Y0,. The graphi)al "ata &rom the re&eren)e a9ove )ompares 2 0 to the pro?e)te" target "ate o& 2 7 . Also, there are goo" illustrations o& the e<uipment that woul" 9e use"Vsolar panels, solar )on)entrators, )ompresse" air storage an" the e<uipment use" to generate ele)tri)it!.

$ore on Daa;en oil field frac;in1

3esi"es the :ar)ellus Shale gas, the 3aa*en oil &iel"s o& -orth #a*ota represent the other ma?or area o& interest &or petroleum with its atten"ant environmental issues. The 3aa*en &iel"s 5whi)h exten" into the Cana"ian provin)es o& :anito9a an" Sas*at)hewan6 present an oil suppl! that is 9eing harveste" 9! &ra)*ing. There is natural gas to 9e &oun" here 9ut the area is )onsi"ere" to 9e gas poor 9ut oil ri)h. -orth #a*ota is se)on" to Texas in oil pro"u)tionJ Texas is ran*e" as the top oil=pro"u)ing state. Water=assiste" &ra)turing as a te)hni<ue &or oil extra)tion has 9een in use sin)e the %2. s. Onl! sin)e the earl! %22 s has the horiDontal te)hni<ue o& &ra)turing 9een a"opte" to re)over oil &rom what were thought to 9e "eplete" oil &iel"s in Texas. The term W&ra)*ingX is the )urrent ?argon &or this mo"i&ie" 5horiDontal6 &ra)turing te)hni<ue, 9oth &or gas an" oil re)over!. The 9oom in oil extra)tion in -orth #a*ota has )reate" a num9er o& pro9lems, 9oth so)iologi)al as well as environmental. The oil pro"u)tion 9usiness has su""enl! )reate" 9oom towns an" times &or 9oth lo)al resi"ents an" a large in&lux o& migrant wor*ers &rom all over the U.S. Supporting in"ustries have move" in to meet the nee"s o& the new wor*ersVever!thing &rom housing to shopping malls, transport servi)es to "rilling e<uipment. 8eople who have 9een a9le to sell mineral rights an" lan" leases to oil )ompanies are su""enl! earning a""itional in)ome that o&ten supplements what the! were earning &rom &arming. However, the oil extra)tion 9usiness ta*es a toll on the environment, parti)ularl! with regar" to the use o& un"ergroun" water supplies &or the &ra)*ing pro)ess. The western part o& -orth #a*ota 5where oil &ra)*ing is ta*ing pla)e6 is prone to "rought. So there is )on)ern a9out the "raw"own an" )ontamination o& a<ui&ers. A )orollar! to the water use pro9lem is the "i&&i)ult! o& properl! "isposing o& the use" &ra)*ing li<ui", whi)h is )ontaminate" with a variet! o& in"ustrial )hemi)als an" earth=sour)e" )hemi)alsVin)lu"ing oil, h!"rogen sul&i"e, salts, an" heav! metals su)h as mer)ur! an" arseni). There are also ra"ioa)tive elements in the re)overe" &ra)*ing &lui"s. Storage a9ove groun" also has its own pro9lems, in)lu"ing over&low &rom heav! rains an" lea*age into the soil. The alternative "isposal te)hni<ue is to in?e)t the &lui" "eep into the groun". However there is the )on)ern 5an" there is some evi"en)e &or the )on)ern6 that in?e)ting li<ui"s into "eep un"ergroun" wells )an )ause earth<ua*es.

$ore on methane h3drates

While the 9oom in methane &rom un"ergroun" shale "eposits has put the Unite" States into a potential oil=in"epen"en)e status, a new sour)e o& methane is )ausing ex)itement &or not onl! the U.S. 9ut also &or man! other )ountries who have a))ess to what are *nown as methane h!"rates, most o&ten &oun" in )oastal waters an" in tun"ra, in pla)es li*e Alas*a an" +ussia. :ethane h!"rates are stru)tures ma"e up o& a mole)ule o& methane en)ase" in i)e )r!stals 5water6 that are pentagonal "o"e)ahe"ra. 4n what is *nown as Stru)ture 4 gas h!"rate, ./ water mole)ules in the i)e )r!stal )an &orm spa)es &or 1 methane mole)ules. There are other stru)tures that )an &orm more spa)es than eight &or the methane mole)ules.

105

"http://woodshole.er.usgs.go9/pro>ect-pages/hydrates/primer.html!

:ethane h!"rates exist un"er )on"itions o& high pressure an" low temperatures, t!pi)all! &oun" in o)ean se"iments along a )oast at "epths o& some 7 &eet.

Anown an" in&erre" lo)ations o& gas h!"rate o))urren)e. :ap )ompile" 9! the US@S.
"http://woodshole.er.usgs.go9/pro>ect-pages/hydrates/primer.html!

106

The h!"rate resour)e p!rami" showing the relative amounts o& gas h!"rate in the glo9al s!stem. The h!"rates at the top o& the p!rami" are most li*el! to 9e exploite" as energ! resour)es 9e)ause the! are not in the o)ean "epths 5Ar)ti) tun"ra o& Alas*a an" +ussia6. A&ter 3oswell an" Collett.
"http://woodshole.er.usgs.go9/pro>ectpages/hydrates/primer.html!

The estimates o& methane h!"rate reserves are rather astronomi)alVtwi)e as a9un"ant as all other &ossil &uels )om9ine"I Two "i&&erent te)hni<ues &or extra)ting the methane &rom the h!"rate stru)ture 5the )r!stalline stru)ture o& water mole)ules6 are 9eing teste". The Bapanese have &oun" that the methane )an 9e release" 9! lowering the pressure aroun" the h!"rates. The Unite" States resear)h has shown some su))ess 9! in?e)ting )ar9on "ioxi"e into the h!"rates, releasing the methane. The main <uestion that arises is, WWill these extra)tion te)hni<ues )ause enough insta9ilit! in the h!"rate &iel"s to )ause release o& methane 9e&ore it )an 9e )apture" an" "ire)te" into pipelines'X

$ore on determinin1 the true cost of fuels

When it )omes to "e)i"ing on extra)ting a parti)ular &ossil &uel, it is more than te)hnolog! that "etermines i& that &uel is to 9e extra)te". A relate" issue is "etermining the real )ost o& that &uel, &rom extra)tion )osts to transport to re&iningFpro)essing site or "ire)t utiliDation site. The <uanti&i)ation o& &in"ing, extra)ting, transporting an" pro)essing a parti)ular &uel has 9een s!stematiDe" into what is *nown as the Wenerg! return on investmentX or E+O4 whi)h is a ratio that shows the num9er o& energ! units provi"e" 9! a parti)ular &uel per unit o& energ! expen"e" to ma*e that &uel availa9le. The higher the E+O4 value, the more energ! is availa9le to "o use&ul wor*. 4t is almost li*e an e&&i)ien)! )al)ulation. 4t "oes not ta*e into a))ount the environmental )osts o& greenhouse gas emissions or the suppl! issues su)h as the intermitten)e o& win" or o& solar power. The E+O4 simpl! states how mu)h energ! is availa9le &rom a parti)ular energ! sour)e. 4t is assume" that the minimum E+O4 re<uire" &or the 9asi) &un)tions o& an in"ustrial so)iet! is in the range o& 7 to 2.

107

Some representative E+O4 num9ers in)lu"e the &ollowing: %/ 2 7 . )onventional oil ethanol &rom sugar )ane tar san"s heav! oil &rom Cali&ornia

The E+O4 num9ers &or "i&&erent sour)es o& ele)tri) power in)lu"e: . ] h!"roele)tri) 2 %1 0 / 7 win" )oal natural gas photoele)tri) 5solar6 nu)lear

7.7 9io"iesel &rom so!9eans

%.. ethanol &rom )orn

54nman, :. The True Cost o& (uels. 5cientific -merican 2013, &(L 5.6, pp / Y/%6

Comparing the two sets o& num9ers, it is apparent that man! renewa9le energ! sour)es are ver! )ompetitive with &ossil &uels &or ele)tri)it! generation. The issue 9e)omes the )ost &or ma*ing ea)h energ! sour)e availa9le. High <ualit! &ossil &uels are 9e)oming more expensive to extra)t. Currentl!, the worl" "erives 17P o& its energ! &rom &ossil &uels. What will 9e the E+O4 &or methane h!"rates i& an" when an a))epta9le te)hni<ue &or extra)tion is "evelope"'

$ore on the en6ironmental costs for continued use of fossil fuels

:ost experts agree that the long term goal &or energ! utiliDation has to 9e severe re"u)tion o& &ossil &uels &or transport an" ele)tri)it! generation 9e)ause o& greenhouse gases 5)ar9on "ioxi"e an" methane6. Although &ossil &uels will pro9a9l! not 9e eliminate" altogether, the i"ea is that renewa9les will repla)e more than 1 P o& present "a! usage o& &ossil &uels 9! the !ear 2 7 . These renewa9les will 9e use" primaril! &or ele)tri)it! pro"u)tion. +e&erring to the E+O4 num9ers mentione" earlier, man! o& the renewa9les &or ele)tri) power have goo" num9ers )ompare" with &ossil &uels. The <uestion remains how pra)ti)al will it 9e to ma*e ele)tri) power availa9le &or transport. 4t is expe)te" that the use o& ele)tri)=powere" vehi)les &or all &orms o& lan" transportation will noti)ea9l! in)rease. When "i&&erent &uels use" to power automo9iles are )ompare" in terms o& miles "riven per @iga?oule o& energ! investe" in the pro"u)tion o& the &uel, )ars using ele)tri)it! &rom the power gri" )an 9e powere" &or /7 miles, &ollowe" 9! ,/ miles 9! gasoline 5&rom )onventional oil6, then ethanol 5&rom sugar )ane6 &or 2 miles. 4t is apparent that ele)tri)it! is a winner &or transport nee"s. (or the US an" the worl" in general to )ontinue to ma*e &ossil &uel the energ! sour)e o& )hoi)e, there will have to 9e a ma?or investment in te)hnologies to eliminate )ar9on "ioxi"e &rom its &uel sour)e or its "isposal a&ter 9eing pro"u)e" in the )om9ustion pro)ess. There is some te)hnolog! availa9le to"a! &or removing )ar9on "ioxi"e a&ter )om9ustion an" in?e)ting the gas into un"ergroun" wells, su)h as expire" oil wells &or removing even more oil. 3ut this te)hnolog! is still not use" on a wi"e s)ale, primaril! 9e)ause o& )osts. There is also the thought that )ar9on "ioxi"e )oul" 9e extra)te" &rom the atmosphere. The te)hnolog! use" woul" 9e the same as is )urrentl! availa9le &or removing )ar9on "ioxi"e &rom in"ustrial )om9ustion pro"u)ts. The 9ig "i&&eren)e is that the atmosphere$s )ar9on "ioxi"e is not nearl! as )on)entrate" as that )oming out o& a smo*e sta)*. The interesting &a)t is that the )ost &or "oing air )apture o& )ar9on "ioxi"e is in the same range as that &or )hanging the worl"$s use o& &ossil &uels into primaril! utiliDing renewa9le energ! resour)esI Whi)h wa! to goV)ar9on "ioxi"e )apture &rom the air or

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re"u)ing "epen"en)e on &ossil &uels )lose to Dero' A )omprehensive in&ormation resour)e 5US @eologi)al Surve! LUS@SM6 on the se<uestration o& )ar9on "ioxi"e is &oun" at http:FFwww.usgs.govF9logsF&eaturesFusgsOtopOstor!Fthe=gigaton=<uestion=how=mu)h=geologi)= )ar9on=storage=potential="oes=the=unite"=states=haveF. This site provi"es geologi)al "ata relate" to the lea" <uestion, WHow :u)h @eologi) Car9on Storage 8otential #oes the Unite" States Have'X 4n)lu"e" in this arti)le is a )omprehensive illustration o& where an" how )ar9on "ioxi"e se<uestration ta*es pla)e. +elate" to this pro)ess is a map o& the USA showing all the pla)es where the se<uestration )oul" ta*e pla)e. The -+EG has summariDe" its &in"ings a9out ma*ing renewa9le ele)tri)it! generation a primar! goal to re"u)e our "epen"en)! on &ossil &uels in that parti)ular energ! use se)tor.
0e3 (indin1s +enewa9le ele)tri)it! generation &rom te)hnologies that are )ommer)iall! availa9le to"a!, in )om9ination with a more &lexi9le ele)tri) s!stem, is more than a"e<uate to suppl! 1 P o& total U.S. ele)tri)it! generation in 2 7 while meeting ele)tri)it! "eman" on an hourl! 9asis in ever! region o& the )ountr!. 4n)rease" ele)tri) s!stem &lexi9ilit!, nee"e" to ena9le ele)tri)it! suppl! an" "eman" 9alan)e with high levels o& renewa9le generation, )an )ome &rom a port&olio o& suppl!= an" "eman"=si"e options, in)lu"ing &lexi9le )onventional generation, gri" storage, new transmission, more responsive loa"s, an" )hanges in power s!stem operations. The a9un"an)e an" "iversit! o& U.S. renewa9le energ! resour)es )an support multiple )om9inations o& renewa9le te)hnologies that result in "eep re"u)tions in ele)tri) se)tor greenhouse gas emissions an" water use.

The "ire)t in)remental )ost asso)iate" with high renewa9le generation is )ompara9le to pu9lishe" )ost estimates o& other )lean energ! s)enarios. 4mprovement in the )ost an" per&orman)e o& renewa9le te)hnologies is the most impa)t&ul lever &or re"u)ing this in)remental )ost. 5http:FFwww.nrel.govFanal!sisFreO&uturesF6

3elow are maps o& the U.S. showing the geographi)al "istri9ution o& alternative renewa9le energ! resour)es are shown 9elow. 4t )an 9e seen &rom these maps that there are man! areas o& the Unite" States that )an 9e use" &or non=&ossil &uele" 5renewa9le6 ele)tri)it! generation. +e&er to the re&eren)e atta)he" to the maps &or the exe)utive summar! o& &uture plans &or ele)tri)it! generation &rom renewa9les.

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"http://www.nrel.go9/docs/fy23osti/52409-$=.pdf?%p%22!

5initial 9asi) re&eren)e &or -+EG site at http:FFwww.nrel.govFanal!sisFreO&uturesFJ exe)utive summar! o& report on &uture plans &or ele)tri)it! &rom renewa9les at http:FFwww.nrel.govF"o)sF&!%,ostiF72. 2=ES.p"&6

Conne%tions to Chemistry Con%epts +"or %orrelation to %ourse %urri%ulum,

%. 53drocarbonsVH!"ro)ar9ons su)h as methane 5natural gas6 an" o)tane is an important )lass o& &ossil &uelsJ other h!"ro)ar9ons isolate" 5&ra)tional "istillation6 &rom oil in)lu"e *erosene 5?et &uel6, mineral oil an" "iesel &uel. A""itionall!, some o& these h!"ro)ar9ons )an 9e use" to s!nthesiDe other )lasses o& organi) mole)ules in)lu"ing al)ohols. 2. CombustionVCom9ustion is an important )ategor! o& )hemi)al rea)tion whi)h )an involve h!"ro)ar9ons su)h as methane an" propane. The pro"u)tion o& heat in the rea)tion means that wor* )an 9e "one. (or example heat )an 9e use" to )onvert water to steam whi)h pro"u)es motion in a tur9ine that ma*es ele)tri)it!. Another result o& the )om9ustion o& h!"ro)ar9ons, however, is the pro"u)tion o& greenhouse gases su)h as )ar9on "ioxi"e. ,. Asoto.esVThe &a)t that man! elements exist in several &orms ph!si)all! 5"i&&eren)e in atomi) mass6 means the! )an 9e i"enti&ie" or "istinguishe" through their mass "i&&eren)es. This is a use&ul tool in sorting out "i&&erent sour)es o& methane that ma! 9e &oun" in a<ui&er

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water near a &ra)*ing well$s 9ore hole. This methane has a mix o& mole)ules, some o& whi)h )ontain )ar9on=%2J others )ontain )ar9on=%, along with h!"rogen=% an" h!"rogen=2. :ethane mole)ules &rom soil 9a)terial a)tion have &ewer )ar9on=%, an" h!"rogen=2 atoms in the mix than those that )ome &rom the &ra)*ing wells. .. 5ea63 metalsVThis serious )ontaminant that is &oun" in the waste water that )omes &rom the &ra)*ing pro)ess means that the waste water must 9e prevente" &rom entering "rin*ing water supplies in)lu"ing un"ergroun" wells as well as rivers an" streams. Some heav! metals su)h as lea", mer)ur!, an" )hromium are *nown to a"versel! a&&e)t the human nervous s!stem i& the! a))umulate in ex)essive amounts.

-ossi.le Stu ent Mis%on%eptions +to ai tea%her in a mis%on%eptions,

%.

ressing

HCnder1round frac;in1 can .roduce e,.losions dee. in the earth.I nderground e,plosions cannot occur because there is no air (o,ygen# for combustion and e,plosion. -bove ground is a different story" Methane e,plosions in coal mines do occur because there is more than enough air to fuel the combustion (e,plosion#. 2. HA86e heard that frac;in1 results in "ater that can burn comin1 out of home faucetsOI $here have been some accounts of Eflammable waterF coming from faucets in areas where fracking is occurring, but that is not the water itself that is burning, but the methane that sometimes escapes from the well and enters the ground water. -lso, the evidence is not yet all in regarding the source of the methane. .n some instances, the methane was actually leaking to the surface prior to the fracking process occurring.

Anti%ipating Stu ent /uestions +answers to 0uestions stu ents might as& in %lass,
%. H5o" can the 1as in the roc; cre6ices actuall3 .ass into a .i.e9 And if it can .ass into a .i.e2 "on8t it lea; out a1ain on its "a3 to the surface9I $he pipe (hori+ontal# that is inserted into the shale area where gas is found is perforated with holes using an e,plosive device that is inserted into the pipe prior to in7ecting the fracking fluid that e,its the perforated pipe into the gas/containing shale rock. $he pressure of the gas from the shale is greater than that from the gas that travels through the pipe to the ground surface. $he vertical delivery pipes are encased in steel and cement, with no perforations through which gas could escape. 2. H4h3 does burnin1 coal for electricit3 1eneration .roduce more carbon dio,ide than burnin1 methane (natural 1as9I $o produce the same amount of energy to generate electricity by burning a fuel to convert water to steam, (found in steam produced from heating water with a fuel#, you would have to burn '.) times as much coal as methane to produce the same amount of heat energy needed to convert water to steam for turning an electricity/generating turbine. .n the process, you would be generating '.) times as much carbon dio,ide, based on the chemical e2uations (one carbon dio,ide molecule per ' molecule of either methane or coal Sassume CT# ,. H4h3 does burnin1 coal for electricit3 1eneration .roduce more carbon dio,ide than burnin1 methane (natural 1as9I 6oth processes burn the fuel to produce heat, which is then used to heat water hot enough to change it to steam. $he steam then turns the turbines to generate electricity. $o produce the same amount of energy from each fuel, you would have to burn '.) times as much coal as methane. .n the process, you would be generating

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'.) times as much carbon dio,ide, based on the chemical e2uations below that both show one mole of carbon dio,ide produce per one mole of fuel. coal burning: C O O; CO; U! > / &;.C kKHg methane burning: C!= O ; O; CO; O ; !;O U! > / CC kKHg (http:HHen.wikipedia.orgHwikiH!eatPofPcombustion# 8ote: these values are the high/end values given for both combustion reactions. H4h3 is methane 1as found in shale roc; but not in other t3.es of roc;9I 8atural gas and oil were formed from microscopic marine organisms in sea basins. $hese organisms sank to the bottom of the sea after they died. $hey were buried with sand and silt deposits. $he resultant pressure (and heat# of sand and silt deposits converted the biomass into oil and methane gas. 5hale rock formed from the sand and silt deposits trapping the hydrocarbons. 4hen oil prospectors are looking for possible oil and gas deposits, they sample rock and e,amine for microscopic fossils of marine organisms. More often these days they use seismic data to locate rock of a particular density that matches shale formations. More information about the geology of and the techni2ues for e,ploring for oil and gas can be found at http:HHwww.s7vgeology.orgHoilHe,ploration.html. H4hich is "orse as a 1reenhouse 1asLcarbon dio,ide or methane9I Methane gas is the more EpotentF greenhouse gas, which means it is able to absorb more infrared in the atmosphere which is related to thermal energy or heat. $he comparison factor that is often 2uoted for methane is twenty times the EpotencyF of carbon dio,ide in terms of infrared absorption. On the other hand, carbon dio,ide emissions are B)< of total greenhouse emissions vs. '=< for methane. H5o" does in>ectin1 li@uids into the earth .roduce earth@ua;es9I $he best e,planation for this to occur is that the in7ected fluids create enough pressure in the rock crevices to push opposing plates (rock# far enough apart to be then able to slip past each other, which is the essence of an earth2uake. HAs it true that co"s and shee. .roduce methane that contributes to 1reenhouse 1ases "hen it is released into the atmos.here9I :uminants such as cows, goats, and sheep process their food (primarily grass# through bacterial fermentation in their multiple stomachs. 6ecause this is an anaerobic process, o,ygen is not available to convert some of the carbon (from sugars of the grass# into carbon dio,ide. :ather, the carbon is linked to hydrogen in the energy/generating process (for the bacteria#, producing methane that is eventually released by the cow, either as a EburpF or as flatus. CO; O L !O O L e'/ V C!= O ; !;O ($he carbon dio,ide in the e2uation comes from other non/methane fermenting bacteria (processing under aerobic conditions# in the ruminantDs stomachs.# 5ome universities have actually monitored how much methane is released by these animals in an attempt to determine if they are contributing critical amounts of this greenhouse gas. $he *ood and -griculture Organi+ation (*-O# of the nited 8ations estimates that ruminant animals (sheep, goats, cows# are responsible for roughly ;(< of global methane emissions. H5o" can solar ener13 (for electricit3 1eneration be a reliable source of ener13 if the solar 1enerators ha6e irre1ular out.ut2 due to intermittent solar radiation (includin1 ni1ht timeO 9I $he idea is to store some of the solar energy, to be used during those periods of non/generation. 5torage is done in two different ways, depending on the type of solar/based generation. (0arge scale battery storage is too e,pensive#. *or photovoltaics, some of the energy is used to run compressors for putting air into storage tanks at high pressure. 0ater, this compressed air is used to run electricity generators (turbines#. *or solar power that is used to heat salts to a high temperature molten state (and used to convert water to steam for turbine/generated electricity#, storage of some of the very hot salts in insulated conditions can be used later to again convert water to steam for turbine/generated electricity.

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*n1%lass A%tivities +lesson i eas, in%lu ing la.s 2 emonstrations,

%. 2. A <uiD that )an 9e use" as an intro"u)tion to the stu"! o& methane an" the &ra)*ing pro)ess 5whi)h also e"u)ates the stu"ents through the <uestions themselves6 is &oun" at http:FFenvironment.nationalgeographi).)omFenerg!Fgreat=energ!=)hallengeFnatural=gas=<uiDF. Here is an intera)tive graphi), whi)h )oul" 9e use" in )lass as part o& a )lass "is)ussion, that illustrates the &ra)*ing pro)ess: http:FFnews.nationalgeographi).)omFnewsF2 % F% F% % 22=9rea*ing=&uel=&rom=the=ro)*F. A vi"eo that also illustrates the &ra)*ing pro)ess is &oun" at http:FFwww.energ!&romshale.orgFh!"rauli)=&ra)turing. A relate" vi"eo sour)e on various aspe)ts o& &ra)*ing )an 9e &oun" at http:FFwww.energ!&romshale.orgFh!"rauli)= &ra)turingFhow=h!"rauli)=&ra)turing=wor*s. An arti)le an" vi"eo le)ture that )onne)ts un"ergroun" in?e)tion o& water an" other li<ui"s to earth<ua*es is &oun" at http:FFwww.s)ienti&i)ameri)an.)omFarti)le.)&m'i"["rilling= an"=pumping=wells=spawn=power&ul=earth<ua*es. The vi"eo )learl! shows wh! in?e)ting li<ui"s into "eep wells )an trigger earth<ua*es. (re<uentl! as*e" <uestions a9out in?e)tion= in"u)e" earth<ua*es 5that the tea)her )oul" &irst as* the )lass6 )an 9e &oun" at two o& the US@S we9sites= http:FFearth<ua*es.usgs.gov an" http:FFwww.usgs.govF&a<F' <[taxonom!FtermF21,,. A ver! ni)e )olle)tion o& photos asso)iate" with various aspe)ts o& methane gas that )oul" 9e use" in the )lassroom is &oun" at http:FFngm.nationalgeographi).)omF2 %2F%2FmethaneFthiessen=photograph!^Fen"=sli"e.?pg. Among other things is a photo o& a )ross se)tion o& shale ro)* that shows its porosit!. Another illustration shows a ,=# )omposite seismi) pro&ile o& the earth that )ontains the "eep seate" shale la!ers. 4& !ou woul" li*e to 9u! sample sets o& "i&&erent )ru"e oils 5"i&&erent geographi) sour)es6, oil ro)* o& "i&&erent t!pes, an" )oal &or stu"ents to see, the! )an 9e pur)hase" at http:FFwww.onta.)omFin"ex.html. A ver! )omprehensive loo* at the &ra)*ing pro)ess in terms o& environmental issues is an hour long vi"eo ta*en &rom a )ollo<uium organiDe" 9! the US @eologi)al Surve! &eaturing experts in the &iel". 4t )an 9e a))esse" at http:FFgaller!.usgs.govFvi"eosF7,,. This )oul" 9e shown in )lass &or stu"ents to see how s)ientists W"e9ateX the issues as well as provi"ing relevant in&ormation 5resear)h "ata6 a9out the various environmental issues asso)iate" with &ra)*ing. Another in=)lass expert panel "is)ussion )an 9e use" 5vi"eo presentation6 to show stu"ents how experts in the &iel" sort through the environmental issues o& &ra)*ing. What resear)h "ata is availa9le, what is ane)"otal in&ormation' +e&er to http:FFwww.ni)holas."u*e.e"uFh!"ro&ra)*ingwor*shop2 %2Fvi"eo. #o stu"ents nee" some )hemistr! 9a)*groun" a9out greenhouse gases an" how these )hemi)als pro"u)e glo9al warming' The E8A we9site, http:FFepa.govF)limate)hangeFs)ien)eF)auses.html provi"es the 9asi)s a9out glo9al warming an" the role o& greenhouse gases. This in&ormation, parti)ularl! the pi)torial, )oul" 9e pro?e)te" in )lass when tea)hing the 9asi)s o& how glo9al warming ta*es pla)e. A )omplementar! sour)e o& E8A in&ormation on glo9al greenhouse gas emissions "ata 5numeri)al an" graphi)al6 on spe)i&i) gasesV9! t!pe an" sour)eV)an 9e &oun" at http:FFepa.govF)limate)hangeFghgemissionsFglo9al.html. There is also a graph o& glo9al )ar9on "ioxi"e emissions starting with the !ear %2 . 4t ma*es &or a use&ul han"out in )lass.

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4& !ou thin* !our stu"ents )oul" use some e"i&i)ation a9out all the "i&&erent pro"u)ts o& the mo"ern worl" that are ma"e &rom oil, a ver! extensive list is availa9le as a )lass han"out. Consult the &ollowing we9site: http:FFwww= t).p9s.orgFin"epen"entlensF)lassroomFwwoFpetroleum.p"&. 10. A we9site that in)lu"es all the "etails 5an" illustrations6 a9out ph!si)all! lo)ating oil an" gas un"ergroun" is &oun" at http:FFwww.s?vgeolog!.orgFoilFexploration.html. This )oul" 9e use" as either rea"ing material &or stu"ents or as a pro?e)tion in )lass to illustrate the te)hni<ues &or lo)ating gas an" oil "eposits an" the relate" geologi) parameters o& oil= an" gas=)ontaining ro)*s. %%. A goo" sour)e o& 9a)*groun" in&ormation an" photos &or )lass "is)ussion )an 9e &oun" at this #epartment o& Energ! -ational Energ! Te)hnolog! Ga9orator! )omprehensive we9site a9out shale gas. 4t in)lu"es a page o& lin*e" re&eren)es. 5http:FFwww.netl."oe.govFte)hnologiesFoil= gasFpu9li)ationsF9ro)huresFShaleO@asO:ar)hO2 %%.p"&6

Out1o"1%lass A%tivities an -ro3e%ts +stu ent resear%h, %lass pro3e%ts,

%.
A ma?or resear)h pro?e)t &or the )lass woul" 9e to evaluate the state o& a&&airs &or the environmental issues asso)iate" with the &ra)*ing pro)ess, parti)ularl! with regar" to the )ontamination o& a<ui&ers 5sour)e o& "rin*ing water6 an" the "isposal o& &ra)*ing &lui"s re)overe" &rom "rilling. What are the regulations 9! in"ivi"ual states as well as the &e"eral regulations 5an" en&or)ement6 o& the Environmental 8rote)tion Agen)! 5E8A6. One o& the pro9lems in evaluating the state o& health o& "rin*ing water in &ra)*ing lo)ations is the la)* o& a 9ase line &or the water$s <ualit!F)on"ition 3E(O+E "rilling that )an 9e use" &or )omparison. The interesting thing is that the "rilling )ompanies "i" sample a<ui&er water 9e&ore "rilling 9ut evi"entl! the "ata is not availa9le to the regulator! agen)iesI Sin)e the earl! "a!s, however, the various agen)ies have now "one water sampling 9e&ore &ra)*ing ta*es pla)e. There are several universit! stu"ies 9eing "one on the issue, in)lu"ing those &rom #u*e Univ. an" 8enn State. Their pu9li)ations )an 9e &oun" at http:FFwww.ni)holas."u*e.e"uF"u*environmentF&%%Fin=the=mi"st=o&=a=&ra)*ing=&irestorm an" http:FFexploreshale.orgF. The latter re&eren)e &rom 8enn State has an ex)ellent )ross se)tion o& the Earth at "i&&erent "epths, "own to the &ra)*ing level. This )oul" also 9e pro?e)te" in )lass &or tea)hing purposes. A list o& health <uestions relate" to &ra)*ing, "evelope" 9! the state o& -ew Sor*, )an 9e &oun" at http:FFnews.nationalgeographi).)omFnewsFenerg!F2 %,F .F%, . %=new=!or*= &ra)*ing=health=<uestionsF. +ules &or the &ra)*ing in"ustr! as "rawn up 9! the -atural +esour)es #e&ense Coun)il 5http:FFwww.nr").orgFenerg!F&ra)*ing=wastewater.asp6 ma*e a goo" re&eren)e point &or stu"ent resear)h into what is a)tuall! 9eing "one 9! the gas "rilling )ompanies. An interim report 9! the E8A lists pro9lem areas that nee" to 9e a""resse", again a goo" re&eren)e point &or stu"ents in their resear)h to "etermine the extent to whi)h the "rilling in"ustr! has "ealt with these issues. The so)ial impa)t o& &ra)*ing on )ommunities is extensivel! illustrate" with )ase stu"ies "one 9! the Sierra Clu9 at http:FFwww.sierra)lu9.orgFsierraF2 %2 0Fpenns!lvania=&ra)*ing= shale=gas=%22=2.aspx. (or a""itional resear)h, stu"ents )oul" view a TH program 5W/ :inutesX6 in whi)h the investigating reporter interviews people &rom the gas &ra)*ing in"ustr!

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along with )itiDens who have "i&&erent views o& the impa)t o& the &ra)*ing in"ustr! on their lives 5an" propert!6. See http:FFwww.)9snews.)omFvi"eoFwat)hF'i"[0 7.2% n. (or alternative views on &ra)*ing &rom a nationall! respe)te" environmental group, the -atural +esour)es #e&ense Coun)il 5-+#C6, stu"ents shoul" )onsult the &ollowing resour)e= http:FFwww.nr").orgFenerg!Fgas"rillingF'g)li"[CGA2<S#T=GgC(;!*.Ao"-;sAO;. 2. 4& &ra)*ing is o))urring near !our stu"ents$ )ommunit!, the! shoul" resear)h what is going on through lo)al newspaper arti)les, )it!Ftown government re)or"s &or "rilling leases, extra)tion &ees an" tax rates 5state'6, environmental regulations 5state, E8A'6, re)or"e" violations an" "rillingFpro)essing a))i"ents. ,. Stu"ents )oul" 9e )hallenge" to evaluate a ver! "i&&erent an" re)ent proposal to re"u)e glo9al warming 9! a general Wte)hni<ueX )alle" solar geoengineering. 4t is a proposal &or a)tivel! )ountering solar ra"iation to Earth though a num9er o& te)hni<ues whi)h &all un"er two )ategoriesVre"u)ing solar transmission through a t!pe o& permanent )lou" )over or re&le)ting 9a)* into spa)e some o& the solar ra"iation using massive spa)e shiel"s. There are man! <uestions relate" to the tri)*! 9usiness o& tr!ing to manipulate glo9al weather )on"itions. A )omprehensive view a9out solar geoengineering &rom one o& its proponents, a Harvar" pro&essor, is &oun" at http:FFharvar"magaDine.)omF2 %,F 0F9u&&ering=the=sun. A )omplementar! arti)le that explains more a9out solar engineering )an 9e &oun" in 5cientific -merican magaDine at http:FFwww.s)ienti&i)ameri)an.)omFarti)le.)&m' i"[geoengineering=an"=)limate=)hange. An" the nee" &or gui"elines &or solar geoengineering )an 9e &oun" at http:FFwww.s)ienti&i)ameri)an.)omFarti)le.)&m'i"[woul"=9e= geoengineers=)all=&or=resear)h=gui"elines. These last two arti)les woul" 9e help&ul to stu"ents in their <uest to un"erstan" the issues.

'e"eren%es +non1We.1.ase in"ormation sour%es,

4nman, :. The True Cost o& (ossil (uels. 5cientific -merican April 2013, &(L 5.6, pp 71Y /%. This is a ver! important )on)ept in the worl" o& energ! an" e)onomi)s an" is explaine" ver! well with various )harts an" "iagrams plus )al)ulate" E+O4$s 5energ! return on investment6. The "evelopment o& )ost e&&e)tive te)hnolog! un"ers)ores the resultant true value o& a parti)ular energ! sour)e. :ann, C. What 4& We -ever +un Out o& Oil' $he -tlantic :a! 2013, &'' 5.6, pp .1Y/,. This arti)le provi"es a ver! )omprehensive view o& the total energ! situation 9oth present an" into the &uture. The author explains wh! we ma! never run out o& oil, although that "oes not mean that we shoul" remain "epen"ent on various &ossil &uels, in)lu"ing methane gas &rom un"ergroun" "eposits an" methane gas trappe" in i)e )r!stals *nown as methane h!"rates. The e)onomi)s 9ehin" the histor! o& &ossil &uel exploitation is explaine" 5again, E+O4 values are site"6 an" the arguments &or expan"ing alternative energ! sour)es 5win", solar, h!"ro, even nu)lear6 are "is)usse". 4& methane gas an" other &ossil &uels )ontinue to 9e use" in the &uture, te)hnolog! must 9e "evelope" to se<uester 9oth methane an" )ar9on "ioxi"e emissions in or"er to re"u)e greenhouse gases. _wei9el,AJ :ason, BJ (thena*is, HJ A Solar @ran" 8lan. 5cientific -merican Banuar! 200:, 221 5%6, pp /.Y0,. The arguments in this arti)le in)lu"e the &a)t that swit)hing &rom )oal, oil, natural gas an" nu)lear power to solar plants 5photovoltai)s, )on)entrate" solar6 )oul" suppl! 0 P o& the US$s ele)tri)it! 9! 2 7 . Some other more re)ent stu"ies pre"i)t 1 P o& this t!pe o& ele)tri)it! pro"u)tion 9! 2 7 . The arti)le provi"es goo" "etail on the "i&&erent t!pes o& solar=9ase" ele)tri)it! with some novel storage i"eas 5)ompresse" air6 &or the energ!. 4n)lu"e"

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in the stu"! is the "evelopment o& #C transmission lines to repla)e )urrent ine&&i)ient AC power lines. The arti)le is well illustrate", in)lu"ing a solar ra"iation map o& the USA to show all the potential &or "eveloping solar=9ase" ele)tri)it!. An" there is some spe)i&i) num9er )run)hing &or pre"i)ting the theoreti)al possi9ilities. #o99, E. Ameri)an Stri*es -ew Oil. 8ational Neographic :ar)h 2013, ;&& 5,6, pp 21Y 72. This arti)le is a goo" re&eren)e &or un"erstan"ing the human impa)t o& the &ra)*ing in"ustr! in parts o& the U.S. Harious environmental aspe)ts o& the &ra)*ing operations are photographi)all! "o)umente" as well. The re&eren)e has less s)ienti&i) )ontent 9ut there is ver! goo" narrative a9out the people involve" in all aspe)ts o& this in"ustr!. OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO The re&eren)es 9elow )an 9e &oun" on the )*4 ChemMatters 30-3ear C7 5whi)h in)lu"es all arti)les pu9lishe" &rom its in)eption in Septem9er, %21, through April, 2 %,6. The C# is availa9le &rom the Ameri)an Chemi)al So)iet! at www.a)s.org. Sele)te" arti)les an" the )omplete set o& Tea)her$s @ui"es &or all issues &rom the past three !ears are also availa9leV&reeVonline at this same site. (ull ChemMatters arti)les an" Tea)her$s @ui"es are availa9le on the , =!ear C# &or all past issues 5Tea)her$s @ui"es &rom (e9ruar! %22 6, up to 2 %,. Some o& the more re)ent arti)les 52 2 &orwar"6 ma! also 9e availa9le online at the U+G liste" a9ove. Simpl! )li)* on the W8ast 4ssuesX 9utton "ire)tl! 9elow the WMX in the ChemMatters logo at the top o& the page. 4& the arti)le is availa9le online, !ou will &in" it there. Herlo)*er, H. Gi&e in a @reenhouse. ChemMatters 20032 ;' 5,6, pp. %1Y2%. This arti)le provi"es a )omprehensive )overage o& greenhouse gases an" all aspe)ts o& the atmosphere. 4t is part o& a single issue "evote" to all aspe)ts o& the atmosphere. The illustrations o& the atmosphere an" the greenhouse gases will 9e use&ul in )lass 5visual pro?e)tion6 i& a "is)ussion a9out glo9al warming is anti)ipate". Tinnesan", :. What$s So E<ual A9out E<uili9rium' ChemMatters 200+, ;& 5,6, p %,. Author Tinnesan" presents a )omplementar! "is)ussion o& greenhouse gases an" the )on)ept o& e<uili9rium.

We. Sites "or A sour%es,

itional *n"ormation +We.1.ase in"ormation

$ore sites on 6arious as.ects of frac;in1

An ex)ellent vi"eo on the me)hani)s o& &ra)ture "rilling )an 9e &oun" at http:FFwww.energ!&romshale.orgFh!"rauli)=&ra)turingFhow=h!"rauli)=&ra)turing=wor*s. There is also other in&ormation on the )omposition o& &ra)*ing &lui"s, logisti)s o& shale pro"u)tion, the 9asi)s o& what shale gas is, an" the &ra)*ing pro)ess itsel&.

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Another )omprehensive vi"eo on all aspe)ts o& &ra)*ing 5&rom the US @eologi)al Surve!, US@S6 is &oun" at http:FFgaller!.usgs.govFvi"eosF7,,. 5also re&eren)e" in the W4n=Class A)tivitiesX se)tion o& the Tea)her$s @ui"e6 This 7, minute vi"eo gives emphasis to all aspe)ts o& water use an" its "isposal in the &ra)*ing operation, one o& the ma?or environmental )on)erns &or &ra)*ing. Here is a )omprehensive we9site a9out shale gas an" &ra)*ing, with photos, &rom the US #epartment o& Energ! that in)lu"es a list o& re&eren)es: http:FFwww.netl."oe.govFte)hnologiesFoil= gasFpu9li)ationsF9ro)huresFShaleO@asO:ar)hO2 %%.p"&. Another we9site that provi"es stri*ing intera)tive visuals o& the geolog! o& shale gas with explanations o& ea)h geologi)al la!er as !ou s)roll "own to the &ra)*ing areas is &oun" at http:FFexploreshale.orgF^. This site &rom 8enn State also in)lu"es some other se)tions &or e"u)ators 5"ownloa"a9le 8#( han"out6 an" stu"ents 5WAs* a ;uestionX6. 3ut the intera)tive geologi)al pro&ile is "!nami) an" woul" 9e ver! use&ul in )lass as a pro?e)te" item or &or stu"ent intera)tion.

$ore sites on the 6arious .arameters of frac;in1L.olitical2 economic2 en6ironmental

A ver! )omprehensive )olle)tion o& arti)les &rom the 8R $imes )alle" W#rilling #ownX )overs all aspe)ts o& the &ra)*ing in"ustr! an" its so)ietal impa)t. 4t )an 9e &oun" at http:FFwww.n!times.)omFintera)tiveFusF#+4GG4-@O#OW-OSE+4ES.html'Or[%>.

$ore sites on the histor3 of oil

A use&ul time line an" short "es)riptions 5plus pi)tures6 o& the histor! o& oilF gas exploration an" utiliDation, 9eginning as &ar 9a)* as ,.0 A#, are &oun" at http:FFwww.s?vgeolog!.orgFhistor!Fin"ex.html. Oil an" natural gas have 9een seeping out o& the groun" in 3a*u, ADer9ai?an sin)e 9e&ore :ar)o 8olo visite" in %2/.. Some o& this es)aping gas was in)orporate" into a WTemple o& (ire WorshipersX an" )ontinues to 9urn at the site to this "a!.

$ore sites on the future of natural 1as and the de6elo.ment of =i@uid )atural Gas (=)G
An a)a"emi) stu"! &rom :4T loo*s at the &uture o& natural gas in the worl" )ontext. The 2 page Overview an" Con)lusions portion o& the "o)ument is a use&ul an" un"erstan"a9le re&eren)e. 4t "oes not ta*e into a))ount &uture CO2 poli)ies whi)h will a&&e)t the &uture o& natural gas suppl! an" "eman". Two "o)uments &rom the :4T a)a"emi) stu"! )an 9e o9taine" &rom these two sites: http:FFmitei.mit.e"uFs!stemF&ilesF-atural@asOExe)utiveSummar!.p"& an" http:FFmitei.mit.e"uFpu9li)ationsFreports=stu"iesF&uture=natural=gas.

$ore sites on meth3l h3drates

The &uture is now &or meth!l h!"rates. Several use&ul we9sites that expan" on the potential o& this sour)e o& methane an" the te)hnologi)al )onstraints in retrieving the h!"rates in)lu"e: http:FFwww.s)ienti&i)ameri)an.)omFarti)le.)&m'i"[methane=h!"rates=the=next=natural=g whi)h provi"es 9asi) in&ormation in a ver! rea"a9le arti)le an"

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http:FFwoo"shole.er.usgs.govFpro?e)t=pagesFh!"ratesFprimer.html whi)h provi"es ver! "etaile" s)ienti&i) in&ormation in)lu"ing pi)tures o& methane as a mole)ular mo"el, as an image &rom a s)anning ele)tron mi)ros)ope, an" as a 9u99le emitte" at a sea&loor seep. Another important part o& the re&eren)e "es)ri9es the "i&&erent metho"s &or lo)ating meth!l h!"rates, primaril! at o)eani) sites. A re)ent arti)le &rom the 4ashington 3ost up"ates the wor* o& the Bapanese on h!"rates. 4t )an 9e a))esse" at http:FFwww.washingtonpost.)omF9logsFwon*9logFwpF2 %,F ,F%2F?apan=tries=to=unlo)*=the= worl"s=9iggest=sour)e=o&=)ar9on=9ase"=&uelF.

$ore sites on the use of frac;in1 techni@ues to ca.ture 1eothermal ener13

3e)ause the sour)e o& geothermal energ! is reasona9l! "eep in the earth, a more 9enign version o& &ra)*ing )an 9e use" to )apture more o& the heat "eep in the ro)*s. Water 5onl!6 is in?e)te"J it is )onverte" "eep un"ergroun" to steam that powers ele)tri)it!=generating tur9ines. 4t wor*s 9! in?e)ting water into ro)*s, )reating )ra)*s in hot ro)*s whi)h allows &or more o& the heat to )onvert water to steam that then exits to the sur&a)e &or tur9ine a)tivit!. (or a "es)ription o& the te)hni<ue an" the pro?e)te" energ! pro"u)tion, )onsult the we9site, http:FFwww.s)ienti&i)ameri)an.)omFarti)le.)&m'i"[&ra)*ing=&or=renewa9le=power=geothermal.

$ore sites on the .ros and cons of increased oil and 1as .roduction
As mentione" 9e&ore, "eveloping US natural gas reserves ma*es &or more energ! se)urit! 9ut "ela!s, primaril! 9e)ause o& pri)e, the more extensive "evelopment o& alternate 5renewa9le6 energies whi)h must 9e "one 9e)ause o& the )ontinue" in)rease in glo9al warming. +e&er to a "e9ate 5an eleven minute vi"eo &rom 83SYThe -ewshour6 at http:FFvi"eo.p9s.orgFvi"eoF22//%1712.F a9out the issue.

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)uclear (usion' The )e,t *ner13 (rontier9

)a%&groun *n"ormation +tea%her in"ormation,
$ore on .ast fusion research
The &ollowing is a 9rie& histor! in somewhat )hronologi)al or"er o& &usion resear)h 9ase" on sele)te" areas o& resear)h. 4t "is)usses onl! ver! well=*nown resear)h e&&orts. :an! smaller resear)h e&&orts are not mentione" here. Also, although this sele)te" histor! ma! give the rea"er the i"ea that &usion resear)h onl! an" alwa!s move" &orwar", nothing )oul" 9e &urther &rom the truth. :an! resear)h attempts met with &ailureVeven in the pro?e)ts still wor*ing to"a!. S)ienti&i) "is)over! "oes not move straight &orwar"J its path is unpre"i)ta9le. (usion resear)h 9egan in the late %22 s when +o9ert At*inson o& +utgers Universit! an" (ritD Houtermans o& the Se)on" 4nstitute &or Experimental 8h!si)s at the Universit! o& @ittingen ma"e ver! pre)ise measurements o& light=nu)lei elements an" use" Einstein$s e<uation to )al)ulate the huge energ! availa9le in the &usion o& these light nu)lei into heavier elements. Their wor* was 9ase" on pro)esses o))urring in stars. At*inson also propose" that stars a)tuall! pro"u)e" heavier elements 9! &using su))essivel! heav! elements. 4n %2,2 :ar* Oliphant, a 3ritish s)ientist at Cam9ri"ge, "is)overe" helium=, an" tritium. Using a parti)le a))elerator, he also &oun" that heav! h!"rogen nu)lei )oul" 9e &or)e" to rea)t with ea)h other, an" that when that happene", more energ! was pro"u)e" than the parti)les ha" at the 9eginning o& the experiment. 4n %2,2, Hans 3ethe won the -o9el 8riDe &or his seminal wor* showing that &usion is the "riving &or)e 9ehin" star &ormation an" propagation. An" in %2.% Enri)o (ermi propose" using a &ission rea)tion 5whi)h itsel& ha" !et to 9e proven6 to initiate a &usion rea)tion. #uring the late %2, s an" . s, most resear)h )entere" on &ission, &inall! resulting in the "evelopment o& the atomi) 9om9 5a &ission rea)tion6, although &usion resear)h was still in the mix. Using (ermi$s i"ea to utiliDe a &ission 9om9 to initiate a &usion 9om9, the U.S. "etonate" the &irst H=9om9, the &irst man=ma"e &usion rea)tionVa % =megaton 9last, in %272. The to*ama* plasma )ontainment s!stem was "evelope" in +ussia 9! %27/. The +ussians share" this in&ormation, along with other news that in"i)ate" the! were in"ee" wor*ing on &usion resear)h. This opening up on the part o& +ussian s)ientists helpe" to )onvin)e the Unite" States an" the Unite" Aing"om to "o li*ewise. 4n %271, these two )ountries pu9lishe" large amounts o& previousl! )lassi&ie" "ata on their &usion resear)h, the timing )oin)i"ing with the Atoms &or 8ea)e )onvention in @eneva that !ear. All wasn$t pea)e&ul, however, as we o9serve" in %2/% that +ussia explo"e" the largest H=9om9 to that time, a 7 = megaton explosion. 3! %2/7, the i"ea o& using lasers to provi"e the energ! nee"e" to initiate the &usion o& nu)lei ha" resulte" in the )onstru)tion an" testing o& a %2=9eam laser s!stem at the Gawren)e Givermore -ational Ga9orator!. Gaser resear)h )ontinues even to"a!.

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A &ew !ears later 5%2/16 The +ussians provi"e" "ata that showe" their to*ama* "evi)es were pro"u)ing results 9etter than their expe)tations 59! a power o& % 6. The U.S. <ui)*l! pi)*e" up on that i"ea an" )hange" their resear)h to in)orporate that )on)ept into the "esign o& their &usion resear)h &a)ilities, even retro&itting ol"er "evi)es. 4n Europe, the Boint European Torus 5BET6 "evi)e 9egan "esign wor* in %20, an" was )omplete" in %21,, a)hieving their &irst plasmas that same !ear. 8rogress with the BET "evi)e has )ontinue" through to the present, al9eit with shut"owns an" restarts to allow &or alterations ma"e as new "is)overies an" "esigns were &oun" that improve" on its own results. 4n %217 @or9a)hev an" +eagan 9egan an international venture )alle" 4TE+, the 4nternational Thermonu)lear Experimental +ea)tor. Originall!, the pro?e)t as propose" involve" the Soviet Union, the European Union, Bapan an" the U.S. 4n %222 the "esign phase 9egan. 3! 2 7 the pro?e)t was )olla9orativel! supporte" 9! the European Union 5EU6, Bapan, 4n"ia, China, +ussia, South Aorea an" the U.S. 4n 2 / the parties involve" signe" a &ormal agreement, an" &un"ing &or the ?oint pro?e)t 9egan that same !ear. The &un"ing 5an" the pro?e)t6 is expe)te" to last &or , !ears, the &irst % !ears &or )onstru)tion an" the rest &or operation. The goal &or the rea)tor is to pro"u)e a9out 7 :W o& sustaine" power &or up to % se)on"s, 9! &using approximatel! .7 g o& a "euteriumFtritium mix. The energ! output o& the "evi)e is expe)te" to 9e a9out % times the input o& energ!. This woul" onl! 9e a &irst step towar" a nu)lear &usion power plant. A su))essor to 4TE+ is #E:O 5short &or #E:Onstration 8ower 8lant6, a propose" nu)lear &usion power plant to 9uil" on the anti)ipate" su))ess o& 4TE+.
The o9?e)tives o& #E:O are usuall! un"erstoo" to lie somewhere 9etween those o& 4TE+ an" a Z&irst o& a *in"Z )ommer)ial station. While there is no )lear international )onsensus on exa)t parameters or s)ope, the &ollowing parameters are o&ten use" as a 9aseline &or "esign stu"ies: Whereas 4TE+Ns goal is to pro"u)e 7 megawatts o& &usion power &or at least 7 se)on"s, the goal o& #E:O will 9e to pro"u)e at least &our times that mu)h &usion power on a )ontinual 9asis. :oreover, while 4TE+Ns goal is to pro"u)e % times as mu)h power as is re<uire" &or 9rea*even, #E:ONs goal is to pro"u)e 27 times as mu)h power. #E:ONs 2 to . gigawatts o& thermal output will 9e on the s)ale o& a mo"ern ele)tri) power plant. Also nota9l!, #E:O is inten"e" to 9e the &irst &usion rea)tor to generate ele)tri)al power. Earlier experiments, su)h as 4TE+, merel! "issipate the thermal power the! pro"u)e into the atmosphere as steam. 5http:FFen.wi*ipe"ia.orgFwi*iF#E:O6

4n %22 here in the U.S. the -ational 4gnition (a)ilit! )on)ept was 9orn. The -4( )on)ept o& a series o& small simultaneous 9eams o& laser light was "esigne" an" teste" in%22.. A)tual groun"9rea*ing &or the &a)ilit! 9egan in %220. 3! 2 % the laser 9eamline pro?e)t was )omplete" an" testing 9egan, with small=s)ale testing "one in 2 7. Constru)tion was )omplete" in 2 2, wa! 9ehin" s)he"ule an" over 9u"get. The &irst experiments to test the power o& the &ull 9an* o& lasers$ were "one in late 2 % . :an! tests 5as man! as 7 in one month6 have 9een "one sin)e then 9ut, "espite 7 trillion watts 5terawatts, or TW6 o& pea* power, an" 2.17 mega?oules 5:B6 o& UH laser light to the target, &usion ignition has not !et 9een rea)he" at -4(. The &a)ilit! has altere" "evi)es to re&le)t te)hnologi)al progress in various areas o& &usion resear)h. The progress that has 9een ma"e 9! the -4( has 9een nothing short o& remar*a9le. As re)entl! as (e9ruar! 2 %,, the -ational +esear)h Coun)il issue" a report stating that the -4( shoul" )ontinue to re)eive &e"eral &un"ing, "espite its la)* o& rea)hing its ultimate goal o& inertial &usion. 5a"apte" &rom http:FFen.wi*ipe"ia.orgFwi*iFTimelineOo&Onu)learO&usion6

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Some s)ientists )onten" that &usion resear)h has 9een spora"i) over the !ears, with &un"ingVan" resultsVo&ten a&&e)te" 9! external 5o&ten glo9al6 events having nothing to "o with the s)ien)e. (or example, the oil em9argo o& %20, ha" a )onsi"era9le e&&e)t on &usion resear)h.
4n %20,, O8EC )alle" &or limitations on the pro"u)tion o& oil an" pre)ipitate" a worl"wi"e energ! )risis. The suppl! o& oil was re"u)e", the pri)e o& oil in)rease", an" the vulnera9ilit! an" "epen"en)e o& western=st!le "emo)ra)ies to su)h )artel a)tion 9e)ame evi"ent. The response in the U.S. was imme"iate an" un)om&orta9le. @as lines 9e)ame a )ommon o))urren)e, "riving an" 9u!ing ha9its )hange", an" the government, re)ogniDing the )ountr!$s vulnera9ilit! in terms o& national se)urit! an" e)onomi) health, )alle" &or Wenerg! in"epen"en)eX. The entire episo"e )hange" the outloo* o& people with respe)t to energ! an" its use, pro"u)ing mu)h greater )on)ern &or issues su)h as e&&i)ien)! an" )onservation. (or a strategi) viewpoint, the se)urit! o& energ! suppl! an" the "iversit! o& energ! sour)es 9e)ame national strategi) o9?e)tives. Over the next seven !ears, the government intro"u)e" programs an" regulations that )hange" the wa! in"ustr! an" private )itiDens use" energ!, )hange" the wa!s in whi)h energ! was pro"u)e" 5oil=9ase" power stations were )ompletel! eliminate"6, )hange" the nature o& our transportation &leet, intro"u)e" new resear)h an" "evelopment programs to "evelop new energ! sour)es an" promote" than Lsi)M energ! )onservation ethi). @enerall! spea*ing, the pu9li)$s )ons)iousness a9out energ!$s strategi) role rea)he" an unpre)e"ente" pea*f The e&&e)t o& the %20, oil sho)* on the &usion energ! program was almost imme"iate. The primar! AEC=supporte" program &or new energ! was &o)usse" on the "evelopment o& &ission 9ree"er rea)tors &or sel&=su&&i)ien)! in ele)tri)it! pro"u)tion. Set while this program too* on even greater urgen)!, the )all )ame to the &usion )ommunit! to answer the <uestion = WWhat )an !ou "eliver, an" on what timeta9le'X Clearl! a ma?or event, the oil )risis was a9out to have a ma?or impa)t on the <uest &or &usion energ!. The &usion program organiDe" to a""ress this <uestion. 4t was le" 9! a new "ivision o&&i)e, )reate" in %20. 9! the AEC, &or magneti) &usion resear)h an" energ! "evelopment. #uring %20. an" %207, the program Deroe" in on an answer Y it woul" propose a 9rea*even experiment 9ase" upon the to*ama* )on)ept. 3rea*even, as )ontraste" with the Whol! grailX o& ignition, was "e&ine" as pro"u)ing as mu)h power in &usion rea)tions as is 9eing in?e)te" into the plasma to maintain its energ! )ontent. 5http:FF&ire.pppl.govF,.Conn.p"&6

Another oil )risis in %202 also resulte" in in)rease" support o& &usion resear)h, via a national &usion energ! "evelopment a)t. Also in %202, the Three :ile 4slan" a))i"ent &or)e" &usion resear)hers to "ivor)e themselves &rom &ission rea)tors an" Wnu)lear power,X to esta9lish their existen)e as a new energ! sour)e with no )onne)tion to nu)lear power. So the! 9asi)all! re&erre" to it as fusion or fusion power, not nuclear power. (usion resear)hers have alwa!s 9een ver! positive a9out progress in rea)hing the hol! grail o& a)tuall! pro"u)ing more energ! via &usion than is use" to ma*e the rea)tion happen. This <uote )omes &rom WTowar"s a Controlle" (usion +ea)torX, a paper pu9lishe" in the .-96ulletin 54nternational Atomi) Energ! Agen)!6 in %201: W8rogress in &usion resear)h has 9een rapi" an" remar*a9l! stea"!. The high temperature )on"itions nee"e" &or a rea)tor now appear to 9e almost within our grasp.X 5+. S. 8ease, .-9- 6ulletin 54nternational Atomi) Energ! Agen)!6, Septem9er 2 , %201.6

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And in the same speech, Pease says,

4& the te)hni)al progress we are )urrentl! experien)ing )ontinues, an" in parti)ular i& those to*ama*s now un"er )onstru)tion )an give in&ormation whi)h we nee" on the 9ehaviour o& power=pro"u)ing rea)tions in the high temperature plasma, then su)h an international initiative ma! prove to 9e the *e! to a "emonstration o& ele)tri)it! generation 9! )ontrolle" nu)lear &usion in the earl! %22 s 4t is essential, i& the &orwar" thrust o& the wor* is to 9e maintaine", that the "esign an" "evelopment wor* &or the next step is well a"van)e" 9! the earl! %21 s. This arti)le was a"apte" &rom a portion o& #r 8easeNs a""ress to the 4AEANs S)ienti&i) A&ternoon on Septem9er 2 , %201 "uring the 22n" @eneral Con&eren)e The &ull text o& his a""ress appears in Atomi) Energ! +eview %/, , http:FFwww.iaea.orgF8u9li)ationsF:agaDinesF3ulletinF3ull2 /F2 / .01 2%2.p"&

To"a!, we seem to 9e ?ust as &ar &rom &usion power as ever, "espite the enormous stri"es ma"e in the s)ien)e an" te)hnolog! o& &usion. An" here is an ex)erpt &rom the Ele)tri) 8ower +esear)h 4nstitute$s 5E8+46 O)to9er 2 %2 report, WAssessment o& (usion Energ! Options &or Commer)ial Ele)tri)it! 8ro"u)tionX that tells us where we$ve 9een an" how &ar we have !et to go.
The vision o& &usion energ! as a sustaina9le )omponent o& a glo9al power generation &uture has 9een in pla)e &or "e)a"es. :ore than / !ears have passe" sin)e the &irst &usion rea)tion too* pla)e in the la9orator!. A variet! o& &usion power s!stem "esigns have 9een stu"ie" a)ross the worl". Although the initial &ore)asts &or su))ess prove" to 9e wil"l! optimisti) in the &a)e o& man! te)hnologi)al )hallenges, su9stantial progress has 9een ma"e. 4n the last % !ears, some important )ommitments have 9een ma"e to a"van)e the state o& the art. 4n the &iel" o& magneti) )on&inement s!stems, whi)h use a magneti) &iel" to )on&ine the hot &usion &uel in the &orm o& plasma, the international thermonu)lear experimental rea)tor 54TE+6 is un"er )onstru)tion. 4t is supporte" 9! ,. nations, has a 9u"get o& a9out USE22 9illion, an" is s)he"ule" to 9egin operation in (ran)e in 2 %2. Another magneti) )on&inement s!stem, the stellarator &usion experiment, Wen"elstein 0=`, is un"er )onstru)tion in @erman!, with a 9u"get o& USE7 million. 4n the &iel" o& inertial )on&inement s!stems, in whi)h &usion rea)tions are initiate" 9! )ompressing an" then sho)* heating a small spheri)al, )r!ogeni) &uel target, the U.S. #epartment o& Energ! 5#OE6 -ational -u)lear Se)urit! A"ministration 5--SA6 supports the -ational 4gnition (a)ilit! 5-4(6, whi)h was 9uilt at a )ost o& USE,.7 9illion. 4t is an inertial &usion )on&inement power testing program that uses laser 9eams to "rive the target. 4n a""ition to a"van)e" nu)lear weapons resear)h, it has a goal o& pro"u)ing su9stantial energ! gain &or inertial &usion energ!. f

Aeeping in min" that the E8+4 is a non=pro&it organiDation that W)on"u)ts resear)h an" "evelopment relating to the generation, "eliver! an" use o& ele)tri)it! &or the 9ene&it o& the pu9li),X the re)ommen"ations it ma"e &ollowing its stu"! o& &usion resear)h are "ire)te" primaril! towar" getting more energ! out o& the resear)h 9eing "one an" ma*ing 9etter use o& the energ! that is pro"u)e", so that it )an eventuall! pro"u)e ele)tri)it! most e&&i)ientl!.
The &ollowing a)tions are re)ommen"e":

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#ire)t more &usion resear)h on the engineering an" operational )hallenges o& a power plant, in)lu"ing how to maximiDe the value o& the &usion power pro"u)e". :ore )onsi"eration shoul" 9e given to the )onversion o& the heat o& &usion to power pro"u)tion an" the relia9ilit! o& an! &usion "evi)e. Consi"er "eveloping more a"van)e" an" perhaps "ire)t power )onversion s!stems to enhan)e the overall e&&i)ien)! o& energ!=to=ele)tri)it! )onversion. 4"enti&! )ommon materials an" te)hnolog! nee"s 5su)h as tritium pro"u)tion6 that a &usion test &a)ilit! )oul" a""ress to meet most o& the nee"s &or 9oth magneti) an" inertial )on&inement s!stems. :onitor an" perio"i)all! re=evaluate the &usion programs to assess the potential &or ele)tri) power pro"u)tion in the nearer term to i"enti&! whi)h )on)epts are li*el! to pro"u)e tangi9le &usion power. At the appropriate time: Create a utilit! a"visor! group to &o)us &usion energ! resear)h an" "evelopment pro?e)ts to a""ress more utilit! nee"s, parti)ularl! in the area o& operations an" maintenan)e, an" to provi"e input into the "esign o& the &usion power plants.

3egin to )onsi"er the regulator! re<uirements &or )ommer)ial &usion power plants in terms o& esta9lishing sa&et! an" li)ensing stan"ar"s. 5http:FFwww.epri.)omFa9stra)tsF8agesF8ro"u)tA9stra)t.aspx' 8ro"u)t4"[ % 27/,/J )li)* on lin* to "ownloa"6

4t woul" also 9e worthwhile mentioning that although the ma?or &o)us in terms o& &un"ing is on the 9ig pro?e)ts, li*e -4( an" 4TE+, &re<uentl! it is the smaller resear)h &a)ilities, man! sponsore" 9! the U.S. #epartment o& Energ!, that ma*e small "is)overies that result in "esign improvements in the large &a)ilities that allow them to )ontinue to ma*e progress. O&ten those smaller &a)ilities get overloo*e". The "iagram 9elow illustrates the progress that has 9een ma"e 5an" is pre"i)te" to 9e ma"e6 towar" esta9lishing ignition, using the to*ama* rea)tor:

http://ec.europa.eu/research/energy/euratom/inde43en.cfm;pg<fa@

An" &inall!, here is a )hart "epi)ting where we are on the plasma=to=&usion )ontinuum. Temperature on the !=axis is sel&=explanator!J triple pro"u)t on the x=axis re&le)ts a )om9ination o& "ensit! o& parti)les, time o& )on&inement, an" temperature, measure" in AeH. The ovals represent "ata points &rom various experimental rea)tors aroun" the worl" over the last 7 or so !ears. The "ata shows stea"! progress, an" we seem to 9e getting ver! )lose to rea)hing ignition, 9ut note that the axes are exponential values. 4n a wa!, this is even more impressive, that we$ve a)tuall! in)rease" temperatures 9! a &a)tor o& almost % , an" the triple

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point 9! an even larger margin. 3ut the log s)ale also means we$re &urther &rom the Whol! grailX o& 9rea*=even an" ignition, also.

"http://www.fusionenergyleague.org/inde4.php/blog/article/fusion39.3moores3law $

$ore on fusion reactions

4n or"er &or a &usion rea)tion to o))ur 9etween two nu)lei, the ele)trostati) &or)es o& repulsion 9etween the two positive nu)lei 5&rom their positivel! )harge" protons6 must 9e over)ome in or"er to allow the two to approa)h )lose enoughVin )onta)tV&or the strong nu)lear &or)e to ta*e e&&e)t. At large "istan)es 5at the nu)lear level6, the ele)trostati) &or)es *eep the two nu)lei &ar apart an" prevent them &rom getting )lose to ea)h other. The goal o& &usion is to over)ome the ele)trostati) &or)e an" push the two nu)lei ver! )lose together until the! tou)h, so that the strong nu)lear &or)e )an ta*e over an" &use the two nu)lei, releasing energ!. The strong &or)e is greatest at ver! )lose range, so we have to push the nu)lei extremel! )lose to ea)h other &or this &or)e to over)ome ele)trostati) repulsion. This is wh! so mu)h heat an" pressure is nee"e" &or &usion to o))ur. An" while it ma! seem )ounterintuitive to 9ring them so )lose together 5great pressure6 an" then ma*e them move extremel! &ast 5extreme temperature6, the nu)lei nee" to 9e 9rought together 9e)ause the strong nu)lear &or)e onl! wor*s over ver! short 5nu)lear6 "istan)es, an" that$s where the pressure )omes in. Then, to 9rea* the existing strong &or)es, great energ! is nee"e", an" that$s wh! temperatures nee" to 9e so high. (usion won$t o))ur without either one o& themJ it nee"s 9oth. 4n a""ition, the nu)lei have to 9e hel" together &or long perio"s o& time 5on a nu)lear s)aleVtin! &ra)tions o& a se)on"6 so that the! )an 9e a&&e)te" 9! the strong &or)es aroun" them. The energ! 9arrier &or the "euterium=tritium &usion is a9out .% :eH. Compare this to the ioniDation energ!, the energ! nee"e" to remove an ele)tron, &rom a neutral h!"rogen atom: %,./ eH. 4t ta*es a9out 07 times as mu)h energ! &or the &usion o& the two nu)lei. WThe 5interme"iate6 result o& the &usion is an unsta9le He nu)leus, whi)h imme"iatel! e?e)ts a neutron with %..% :eH. The re)oil energ! o& the remaining .He nu)leus is ,.7 :eH, so the total

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energ! li9erate" is %0./ :eH. This is man! times more than what was nee"e" to over)ome the energ! 9arrier.X 5http:FFen.wi*ipe"ia.orgFwi*iF-u)learO&usion6 The energ! asso)iate" with a pro"u)t o& a &usion rea)tion is inversel! proportional to its mass, as shown in this "iagram o& the #=T &usion rea)tion. When s)ientists "e)i"e whi)h &usion rea)tion to )hoose &or their initial wor* in &usion resear)h, the! nee" to )onsi"er several spe)i&i) )riteria. The rea)tion nee"s to:
De e,othermic: This ma! 9e o9vious, 9ut it limits the rea)tants to the low W 5num9er o& protons6 si"e o& the )urve o& 9in"ing energ!. 4t also ma*es helium .He the most )ommon pro"u)t 9e)ause o& its extraor"inaril! tight 9in"ing, although ,He an" ,H also show up. An6ol6e lo" 6 Patomic numberQ nuclei: This is 9e)ause the ele)trostati) repulsion must 9e over)ome 9e&ore the nu)lei are )lose enough to &use. http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipe dia/commons/3/3b/Aeuteriumtritium3fusion.s9g

5a6e t"o reactants: At an!thing less than stellar "ensities, three 9o"! )ollisions are too impro9a9le. 4n inertial )on&inement, 9oth stellar "ensities an" temperatures are ex)ee"e" to )ompensate &or the short)omings o& the thir" parameter o& the Gawson )riterion Lmathemati)al pre"i)tion o& the li*elihoo" o& &usion o))urringM, 4C(Ns Linertial )on&inement &usion rea)tionsM ver! short )on&inement time. 5a6e t"o or more .roducts: This allows simultaneous )onservation o& energ! an" momentum without rel!ing on the ele)tromagneti) &or)e. Conser6e both .rotons and neutrons: The )ross se)tions &or the wea* intera)tion are too small.

(ew rea)tions meet all o& these )riteria, 9ut here is a list o& a &ew o& the most li*el! )an"i"ates.
5%6 52i6 52ii6 5,6 5.6 576 5/i6 5/ii6 2 %# , %T , 2He , 2He , 2He , ] %T , ] 2He , ] %T ] 2 %# 2 %# , %T 2 ] %# ] c c c c c c c c . 2He , %T , 2He . 2He . 2He . 2He . 2He . 2He 5 ,.7 :eH 5 %. % :eH 5 .12 :eH 6 ] n 6 ] p] 6 ] n 6 ] p] ] 2n ] 2 p] ] p] 5 ..1 :eH 6 ] 2 %# ] n 5 2.7 :eH 6 5 %..% :eH 5 ,. 2 :eH 5 2..7 :eH 5 %..0 :eH 6 6 6 6 ] %%., :eH ] %2.2 :eH ] %2.% :eH

5 ,./ :eH

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2. ] 22.. :eH 2He , . 50ii6 c ] 2He 2He 0 50iii6 c ] p] ,Gi 0 50iv6 c ] n .3e / . 516 p] ] c 5 %.0 :eH ,Gi 2He , / 2. 526 ] c ] p] 2He ,Gi 2He %% ,. 5% 6 p] ] c 73 2He 5http:FFen.wi*ipe"ia.orgFwi*iF-u)learO&usion6 50i6 ] c

2 %#

/ ,Gi

] n

] 2.7/ :eH ] 7. :eH ] ,.. :eH

6 ]

, 5 2., :eH 2He

6 ] %/.2 :eH ] 1.0 :eH

See W:ore on &usion in the sunX &or &usion rea)tions involving s!nthesis o& elements within stars.

$ore on nuclear bindin1 ener13

3in"ing energ! is the energ! nee"e" to separate a nu)leus into its )omponent parts. The num9er is alwa!s positive 9e)ause it alwa!s re<uires energ! to separate protons an" neutrons &rom a nu)leus, so the nu)leus is a more sta9le parti)le than its )omponents 5lower potential energ!6. The mass o& the nu)leus itsel& is alwa!s less than sum o& the masses o& the in"ivi"ual parti)les. This is )alle" the mass "e&i)it or mass "e&e)t. The mass "e&e)t re&le)ts the amount o& 9in"ing energ! in the nu)leus an" we )an )al)ulate that energ!, using Einstein$s e<uation, E [ amC2. This amount o& energ! is the amount o& energ! that was release" when the nu)leus &irst &orme", either in nu)leos!nthesis in a star or wa! 9a)* in the 3ig 3ang. -u)lear 9in"ing energies are &re<uentl! in the realm o& a million times larger than the ele)tron 9in"ing energ! that hol"s an atom together with its ele)trons, espe)iall! so in smaller atoms li*e h!"rogen. The relative siDe o& the 9in"ing energ! tells !ou how "i&&i)ult it will 9e to split that nu)leus apart, or )onversel!, how mu)h energ! will 9e li9erate" when that nu)leus is &orme" &rom its )omponent parts. As !ou )an see &rom the graph 9elow, the 9in"ing energ! o& elements generall! in)reases signi&i)antl! with atomi) num9er 5atomi) mass6, espe)iall! &or the &irst eight or so elements, an" )ontinues more slowl! until !ou get to iron, whereupon the 9in"ing energ! "e)reases slightl! with in)rease" mass. This means that, up to (e, more an" more energ! is release" when that nu)leus is &orme" 5originall!6 or &use" 5&rom other parti)les6. Thus &usion o& smaller nu)lei will result in more energ! 9eing pro"u)e" than &or larger nu)lei. An", 9e)ause it ta*es heavier nu)lei to ma*e even heavier nu)lei, more &or)e is nee"e" to over)ome the 9in"ing energ! in those larger nu)lei to 9rea* them apart 9e&ore the! )an re)om9ine to &orm the larger nu)leus.

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"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/+uclear3binding3energy:+uclear3binding3energy3cur9e!

The 9in"ing energ! in)reases in the 9eginning 9e)ause there are more protons an" neutrons a""e" to ea)h heavier element. Thus there are more attra)tive &or)es 9etween parti)les within a nu)leus 9in"ing them all together. 3ut remem9er that the nu)lear &or)e onl! wor*s at extremel! )lose "istan)es, so that as a nu)leus gets larger, nu)leons a)ross &rom one another get &arther apart, thus wea*ening the &or)e o& attra)tion an" thus, the 9in"ing energ! o& the entire nu)leus. An" o& )ourse, as the nu)leus gets larger, there are more protons insi"e with their ele)trostati) repulsive &or)es whi)h, even though the! are relativel! smaller than the nu)lear &or)e, the! 9egin to 9e)ome signi&i)ant, there9! wea*ening the 9in"ing &or)es hol"ing the nu)leus together, )ontri9uting to the re"u)tion in the 9in"ing energ!. An" all o& this is wh! &usion resear)hers are 9eginning with h!"rogen an" &using it into helium, 9e)ause h!"rogen 5"euterium6 has the smallest 9in"ing energ! so it ta*es less energ! to 9rea* it apart. An" helium has a mu)h larger 9in"ing energ! 5more than twi)e as large as "euterium6. So less energ! is re<uire" 5although a temperature o& % million *elvins "oesn$t soun" li*e a little energ!I6 to split the "euterium an" tritium nu)lei, an" more energ! is release" when the helium nu)leus &orms. Thus the net gain is the largest &or this ver! small rea)tion.

$ore on fusion HfuelI

3esi"e the 9in"ing )onsi"eration, there is another reason the "euterium=tritium )om9ination is 9eing use" &or the &irst &usion rea)tion. True, s)ientists have )al)ulate" that this )om9ination will 9e the easiest one. 3ut there$s more.
Wh! is the "euterium=tritium 5#=T6 rea)tion the easiest' 3asi)all! spea*ing, the extra neutrons on the # an" T nu)lei ma*e them WlargerX an" less tightl! 9oun", an" the result is that the )ross=se)tion &or the #=T rea)tion is the largest. LGarger nu)lear )ross se)tion means more li*el! to rea)tM Also, 9e)ause the! are onl! singl!=)harge" h!"rogen isotopes, the ele)tri)al repulsion 9etween them is relativel!

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small. So it is relativel! eas! to throw them at ea)h other, an" it is relativel! eas! to get them to )olli"e an" sti)*. (urthermore, the #=T rea)tion has a relativel! high energ! !iel". However, the #=T rea)tion has the "isa"vantage that it releases an energeti) neutron. -eutrons )an 9e "i&&i)ult to han"le, 9e)ause the! will Wsti)*X to other nu)lei, )ausing them to 5&re<uentl!6 9e)ome ra"ioa)tive, or )ausing new rea)tions. -eutron= management is there&ore a 9ig pro9lem with the #=T &uel )!)le. 5While there is "isagreement, most &usion s)ientists will ta*e the neutron pro9lem an" the #=T &uel, 9e)ause it is ver! "i&&i)ult ?ust to get #=T rea)tions to go.6 Another "i&&i)ult! with the #=T rea)tion is that the tritium is 5wea*l!6 ra"ioa)tive, with a hal&=li&e o& %2., !ears, so that tritium "oes not o))ur naturall!. @etting the tritium &or the #=T rea)tion is there&ore another pro9lem. (ortunatel! !ou )an *ill two 9ir"s with one stone, an" solve 9oth the neutron pro9lem an" the tritium=suppl! pro9lem at the same time, 9! using the neutron generate" in the #=T &usion in a rea)tion li*e n ] Gi/ =b He. ] T ] ..1 :eH. This a9sor9s the neutron, an" generates another tritium, so that !ou )an have 9asi)all! a #=Gi/ &uel )!)le, with the T an" n as interme"iates. (using # an" T, an" then using the n to split the Gi/, is easier than simpl! tr!ing to &use the # an" the Gi/, 9ut releases the same amount o& energ!. An" unli*e tritium, there is a lot o& lithium availa9le, parti)ularl! "issolve" in o)ean water. Un&ortunatel! !ou )an$t get ever! single neutron to sti)* to a lithium nu)leus, 9e)ause some neutrons sti)* to other things in !our rea)tor. Sou )an still generate as mu)h T as !ou use, 9! using Wneutron multipliersX su)h as 3er!llium, or 9! getting rea)tions li*e n ] Gi0 =b He. ] T ] n 5whi)h propagates the neutron6 to o))ur. The neutrons that are lost are still a pro9lem, 9e)ause the! )an in"u)e ra"ioa)tivit! in materials that a9sor9 them. 5http:FF&use"we9.llnl.govF&a<.html6

Although "euterium=tritium &usion "oesn$t pro"u)e the most energ! 5see W:ore on &usion,X 9elow6, an" there&ore ma! seem an unli*el! )an"i"ate &or initial &usion experiments when other light isotopes )an pro"u)e mu)h larger amounts o& energ!, it is )al)ulate" to 9e the easiest rea)tion to use to initiate &usion, &or reasons given a9ove. Sin)e the hal& li&e o& tritium is relativel! short 5%2., !ears6, there isn$t mu)h o& it availa9le &rom water 9e)ause most o& it transmutates ver! <ui)*l!, so almost all o& the tritium &uel is a)tuall! pro"u)e" in the rea)tor, 9! 9om9ar"ment o& lithium 9! neutrons pro"u)e" in the rea)tion itsel&.

4n plasma ph!si)s, ele)tron=volts 5or eH6 is use" as a )onvenient wa! to "is)uss temperature. 3! )al)ulation, % eH [ %%,/ ..7 7 A. 5http:FFen.wi*ipe"ia.orgFwi*iF:ainO8age6 3! that relationship, one )an show that, &or the "euterium=tritium &usion rea)tion, %0./ :eH [ 2 . 9illion *elvinsI

$ore on inertial confinement

128

The -ational 4gnition (a)ilit! 5see next se)tion6, along with other resear)h rea)tors aroun" the worl", utiliDe inertial )on&inement. The hohlraum is the target in the -4( &a)ilit!. 4t )ontains &roDen "euterium insi"e a ver! tin! pellet that is then 9om9ar"e" 9! the laser 9eam. The illustration 9elow shows how inertial )on&inement wor*s.

>http://chemconnections.org/crystals/icf-frameset.html? $ore on the )ational A1nition (acilit3 ()A(

The portion o& the (e9ruar! 2 %, ChemMatters Tea)her$s @ui"e "ealing with the topi) W(ighting Can)er with GasersX )ontains a 9rie& se)tion "es)ri9ing the use o& lasers 9! the -ational 4gnition (a)ilit!. This pie)e "es)ri9es in more "etail how the 9an* o& %22 lasers will wor* to pro"u)e &usion.
The U.S. -ational 4gnition (a)ilit! 5-4(6, hea"<uartere" at the Gawren)e Givermore -ational Ga9orator!, is )harge" with three missions: -ational Se)urit!: How "o we ensure the nation$s se)urit! without nu)lear weapons testing' Energ! &or the (uture: Where will the worl"$s energ! )ome &rom when all the &ossil &uels are gone' an" How )an we pro"u)e the energ! we nee" without )ausing )atastrophi) )limate )hange' Un"erstan"ing the Universe: How "i" the universe )ome into 9eing' How "i" the stars an" planets &orm' What happens in supernovas an" 9la)* holes'

One o& the &a)ilit!$s primar! goals has 9een to "evelop )on"itions whi)h )oul" initiate a &usion rea)tion. To rea)h this goal, the program has 9uilt a huge 9uil"ing 5thin* ten stories high, the siDe o& three &oot9all &iel"s6 to )ontain an experiment that uses%22 ver! power&ul lasers all aime" at a tin! target in the target )ham9er in the )enter o& the 9uil"ing. The in)i"ent ultraviolet light energ! will 9e approximatel! 2 million ?oules o& energ!, all impa)ting the )entral target simultaneousl!. This energ! will )reate W)on"itions similar to those that exist onl! in the )ores o& stars an" giant planets an" insi"e a nu)lear

129

weapon. The resulting &usion rea)tion will release man! times more energ! than the laser energ! re<uire" to initiate the rea)tion.X 5https:FFlasers.llnl.govFa9outFni&F6 4n or"er to ensure that the output o& the %22 9eamlines is uni&orm, the initial light is generate" &rom a single sour)eVa low=power &lash o& % 7, nm in&rare" light. This is generate" 9! an !tter9ium="ope" soli" state opti)al &i9er laser. The &lash &rom this "river laser is then split an" sent into .1 preampli&ier mo"ules whi)h ampli&! the 9eams. The partiall!=ampli&ie" light goes into the s!stem o& %22 &lash lamp=pumpe" neo"!mium= "ope" phosphate glass lasers to 9e greatl! ampli&ie" 9e&ore entering the target )ham9er. A more "etaile" a))ount o& the generation pro)ess )an &oun" at http:FFen.wi*ipe"ia.orgFwi*iF-ationalO4gnitionO(a)ilit!, or at the -4( We9 site: https:FFlasers.llnl.govF^O.

=aser Da3 2 Gaser 3a! 2, one o& -4(Ns two laser 9a!s, was )ommissione" on Bul! ,%, 2 0. "https://lasers.llnl.go9/multimedia/photo3gallery/o9 er9iew/;category<o9er9iew!

)A( Tar1et Chamber The interior o& the -4( target )ham9er. The servi)e mo"ule )arr!ing te)hni)ians )an 9e seen on the le&t. The target positioner, whi)h hol"s the target, is on the right.

The light emitte" &rom these %22 lasers is in&rare" light, whi)h is later )onverte" to ultraviolet light ?ust 9e&ore impa)ting the target. The 2 million Boules o& laser energ! slamming into Wmillimeter=siDe" targets ... )an generate unpre)e"ente" temperatures an" pressures in the target materialsVtemperatures o& more than % million "egrees an" pressures more than % 9illion times Earth$s atmosphere.X 5https:FFlasers.llnl.govFa9outFni&Fa9out.php6 4nitiating the &usion rea)tion will simultaneousl! &urther the goals o& the three missions "is)usse" a9ove. As o& the writing o& this Tea)her$s @ui"e, experiments )alle" WshotsX have alrea"! pro"u)e" %.12 :B o& energ! insi"e the -4(Vver! )lose to the 2. :B expe)te" to 9e re<uire" &or &usion initiation. 3ut &usion initiation is not the onl! experiment 9eing "one in -4(. Other laser shots will help s)ientists 9etter un"erstan" properties o& material un"er extreme )on"itions an" h!"ro"!nami)s, Wthe 9ehavior o& &lui"s o& une<ual "ensit! as the! mixX. Extremel! high=spee" )ameras 5a 9illion &rames a se)on"I6 insi"e the target )ham9er )an 9e use" to "iagnose the results o& the experiments. This vi"eo )lip "es)ri9es how the -4( laser=in"u)e" &usion rea)tion will wor*:

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https:FFlasers.llnl.govFmultime"iaFvi"eoOgaller!FhowOni&Owor*s.php. 4& this is unavaila9le, !ou )an also a))ess it on SouTu9e at http:FFwww.!outu9e.)omFwat)h' v[!ixh!8- r,g>-+[%>&eature[en"s)reen. 5material a9ove ta*en &rom (e9ruar! 2 %, ChemMatters Tea)her$s @ui"e "ealing

with the topi) W(ighting Can)er with GasersX6 The "iagram to the right shows the e&&e)t o& the s!n)hroniDe" laser 9eams impa)ting the "euterium in the hohlraum.
"6mage%from%+6&-77+71%found%at% http://tubohotel.com/img/fusion-reactor$

A))or"ing to an arti)le in 5cience magaDine pu9lishe" in O)to9er 2 %%, there are %0 parameters 5%. on the laser, an" , on the hohlraum6 that )an 9e twea*e" to help the -4( a)hieve the &our i"enti&ie" )on"itions ne)essar! &or ignition. The &our )on"itions that nee" to 9e a)hieve" &or ignition to ta*e pla)e are: ZThe implo"ing &uel must maintain its spheri)al shapeJ it must a)hieve a )ertain spee"J the amount o& mixing 9etween the &uel an" the )apsule material must 9e *ept lowJ an" the entrop! o& the s!stem must 9e *ept "ownVin other wor"s, the energ! applie" nee"s to 9e &o)use" on )ompressing the &uel an" not raising its temperature, whi)h woul" impe"e )ompressionZ.
"6mage%from%+6&-77+71%found%at%http://tubohotel.com/img/fusion-reactor$

The plan to a)hieve these &our )on"itions &or ignition involves:

%. 4mplosion velo)it! nee"s to 9e in)rease" &rom , *mFs to ,0 *mFs == this )an 9e twea*e" 9! the pulse shape. 2. The power o& the &ourth an" &inal 9urst o& the laser pulse has to 9e , times the power o& the initial 9ursts. 4t was presentl! at 7 x. ,. The hohlraum shape has to 9e ma"e stu99ier so that in)oming laser 9eams are not su9?e)t to inter&eren)e 9! material 9low o&&. .. The hohlraum material has to 9e twea*e" to avoi" the &uel 9eing heate" so that )ompression )an 9e in)rease" 9! , *mFs. 5http:FFen.wi*ipe"ia.orgFwi*iF-ationalOignitionO&a)ilit!^(o)usOshi&ts6

$ore on ho" lasers "or;

Although it is not the &o)us o& this arti)le, stu"ents ma! won"er how lasers )an 9e use" to generate temperatures in the millions o& "egrees to initiate a &usion rea)tion. An arti)le 9!

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3o9 3e)*er appearing in the April 2 , issue o& ChemMatters answers the stu"ent <uestion: WHow "o lasers wor* an" what is so spe)ial a9out laser light'X An" The (e9ruar! 2 %, ChemMatters Tea)her$s @ui"e )overing W(ighting Can)er with GasersX )ontains a .=page "es)ription o& what lasers are an" how the! wor* that )ites some o& 3e)*er$s arti)le as well as other material. Also in)lu"e" is material on the appli)ations o& lasers outsi"e the realm o& nu)lear &usion.

$ore on the Anternational Thermonuclear *,.erimental <eactor (AT*<

The a)ron!m 4TE+ "oes in"ee" stan" &or 4nternational Thermonu)lear Experimental +ea)tor, 9ut a"ministrators o& the pro?e)t worrie" the term Wthermonu)learX might 9ring 9a)* memories o& h!"rogen 9om9s, whi)h are thermonu)lear "evi)es. So, re)entl!, )ommuni)ations &rom the organiDation stress that 4TE+ 5pronoun)e", WeaterX6 is Gatin an" means Wthe wa!X, as in &usion is the wa! towar" an energ! in"epen"ent &uture. The &usion rea)tor is "esigne" to pro"u)e 7 :W o& output power &rom 7 :W o& input power, ten times return on investment 5+O46. An" it is "esigne" to pro"u)e this amount o& energ! &or 7 =% se)on"s. This is the &irst ma)hine that is trul! expe)te" to pro"u)e more energ! than it usesVin other wor"s, it will more than 9rea* even. #espite the &a)t that it is expe)te" to a)tuall! pro"u)e energ!, it will not 9e)ome part o& the ele)tri)al gri" an" will not generate ele)tri)it!Vonl! heat.

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The incredibl3 com.le, AT*< To;ama; "ill be nearl3 30 metres tall2 and "ei1h 232000 tons. The 6er3 small man dressed in blue (bottom ri1ht 1i6es some idea of the machine's scale. The AT*< To;ama; is made u. of an estimated one million .arts. Ama1e credit' AT*< Or1ani&ation 2013 "http://www.iter.org/pro>:history!

4TE+$s role is that o& an experimental, resear)h "evi)eVa proo& o& )on)ept, i& !ou will, not an in"ustrial or )ommer)ial "evi)e. As su)h, there are great expe)tations &or the resear)h that will 9e "one with 4TE+.
4TE+Ns mission is to "emonstrate the &easi9ilit! o& &usion power, an" prove that it )an wor* without negative impa)t. Spe)i&i)all!, the pro?e)t aims: To momentaril! pro"u)e ten times more thermal energ! &rom &usion heating than is supplie" 9! auxiliar! heating 5a Q value o& % 6. To pro"u)e a stea"!=state plasma with a Q value greater than 7. To maintain a &usion pulse &or up to .1 se)on"s. To ignite a N9urningN 5sel&=sustaining6 plasma. To "evelop te)hnologies an" pro)esses nee"e" &or a &usion power plant V in)lu"ing super)on"u)ting magnets an" remote han"ling 5maintenan)e 9! ro9ot6. To veri&! tritium 9ree"ing )on)epts. To re&ine neutron shiel"Fheat )onversion te)hnolog! 5most o& the energ! in the #]T &usion rea)tion is release" in the &orm o& &ast neutrons6. 5http:FFen.wi*ipe"ia.orgFwi*iF4TE+6

3e&ore it is ever 9uilt an" 9e&ore it 9egins to provi"e results o& experiments, it has met with mu)h )riti)isms an" )hallenges, )entering on the tremen"ous temperatures involve" an" the un)ertaint! o& 9eing a9le to )ontain the plasma at those temperatures, the "amage to the rea)tor itsel& 9! the high=spee" neutrons pro"u)e" in the &usion rea)tion an" whether a )ommer)ial rea)tor )oul" withstan" )onstant exposure to the ra"iation, the ra"ioa)tivit! that will result to the rea)tor vessel itsel& as a result o& neutron exposure, a )a"re o& s)ientists who 9elieve smaller=s)ale, more )ost=e&&i)ient rea)tors )alle" pol!well rea)tors woul" 9e a 9etter "estination &or the huge amounts o& mone! going into 4TE+, anti=nu)lear groups against the pro?e)t 9e)ause s)ientists "on$t !et have answers to several o& the a9ove )on)erns, an" government representatives who 9elieve the &un"ing shoul" instea" 9e use" &or resear)h in renewa9le &uels, sin)e there$s no guarantee that &usion will wor*, even a&ter all the mone! has 9een spent. 5http:FFen.wi*ipe"ia.orgFwi*iF4TE+6 Even s)ientist )olleagues "i"n$t all agree that 4TE+ shoul" 9e 9uilt. (ren)h -o9el laureate in ph!si)s, 8ierre=@illes "e @ennes sai" o& nu)lear &usion, ZWe sa! that we will put the sun into a 9ox. The i"ea is prett!. The pro9lem is, we "onNt *now how to ma*e the 9ox.Z 3ut it is ?ust these <uestions an" )on)erns that 4TE+ is 9eing 9uilt to answer. 4t$s )alle" experimental &or a reason an", hope&ull! this experiment will give us answers that will get us )loser to &usion power with ea)h new generation o& WexperimentalX "evi)e.

133

+emem9er, there$s more in&ormation a9out 4TE+ in the W:ore on the histor! o& &usionX earlier in this Tea)her$s @ui"e.

$ore on com.arin1 6arious t3.es of reactions?reactors

As !ou *now, nu)lear rea)tions pro"u)e man! times more energ! than normal )hemi)al rea)tions. Here is a 9it o& in&ormation regar"ing energ! output o& various rea)tions: *ner13-<eleasin1 <eactions
Chemical Sam.le <eaction T3.ical An.uts (to %o"er %lant T3.ical <eaction Tem.erature (0 *ner13 <eleased .er ;1 of (uel (J?;1 C ] O2 CO2 (ission (usion

n ] U=2,7 3a=%., ] Ar=2% ] 2 n H=2 ] H=, He=. ] n #euterium > Githium %

%2 1

3ituminous Coal UO2 5,P U=2,7 ] 20P U=2,16 0 ,., x %

0

% 2.% x %

,.. x %

%.

"http://fusedweb.llnl.go9//-$-//hart3-ages/2.$nergy/on9ersion.html!

4n a""ition to energ! "i&&eren)es, there are also "i&&eren)es in amounts o& &uel nee"e" as well as amounts an" haDar"s o& waste pro"u)ts. Here$s another ta9le showing amounts o& &uel an" pro"u)ts involve" in the "ail! pro"u)tion o& % :egawatts o& ele)tri)it!. 1000 $4e %o"er %lant L:We [ :egawatt ele)tri)alM
Chemical Sam.le <eaction T3.ical An.uts (to %o"er %lant C ] O2 CO2 (ission (usion

n ] U=2,7 3a=%., ] Ar=2% ] 2 n H=2 ] H=, He=. ] n #euterium > Githium 5to ma*e tritium6 K % l9 #euterium K , l9 Githium=/ K % l9 Tritium

3ituminous Coal UO2 5,P U=2,7 ] 20P U=2,16

Amount of fuel needed 2

tons )oal

K 2., l9 U=2,7

Amount of "aste .roducts .roduced

, , tons CO2 / tons SO2 1 tons -O2 2,.. l9 U 70./ l9 Th

%/. l9 high=level nu)lear waste 5hal&=lives &rom se)on"s to thousan"s or even millions o& !ears6

K . l9 Helium

"adapted%from%http://ippe4.pppl.go9/fusion/fusion5.htm%and% http://www.pge.com/myhome/edusafety/systemworks/dcpp/nuclearfacts/!

-u)lear rea)tions li9erate man! times the energ! o& )hemi)al rea)tions. Ea)h single &ission event 5one nu)leus &issioning6 results in the release o& a9out 2 :eH o& energ!, or a9out ,.2 x % =%% watt=se)on"s. Thus, ,.% x % % &issions per se)on" pro"u)e % W o& thermal power. The &ission o& % g o& uranium or plutonium per "a! li9erates a9out % :W. This is the

134

energ! e<uivalent o& , tons o& )oal or a9out / gallons o& &uel oil per "a!, whi)h when 9urne" pro"u)es approximatel! %F. tonne o& )ar9on "ioxi"e. 5A tonne, or metri) ton, is % *g.6 5http:FFwww.l9l.govFa9)Fwall)hartF)haptersF%.F%.html6

$ore on thermonuclear safet3

As mentione" in the arti)le, )ontrolle" &usion rea)tors are inherentl! sa&er than &ission rea)tors &or several reasons: S)ientists or engineers at the site "o not sto)*pile the nu)lear &uel in 9ul* insi"e the rea)tor vessel as must 9e "one &or &ission to sustain the rea)tionJ rather, the &uel is a""e" to the rea)tor vessel in ver! tin! portions, eventuall! at a )onstant rate, perhaps % or more in?e)tions ever! se)on". 4n the event o& an a))i"ent, the &uel will simpl! )ease to exist in the rea)tion vessel, so the rea)tion will stop. Also, i& the &usion pro)ess itsel& &ails to o))ur, the whole pro)ess shuts "own, sin)e it re<uires the extremel! high temperatures o& the &usion pro)ess to maintain the )on"itions &or more &usion to o))ur. 4n short, a &usion rea)tor )annot ever 9e)ome a runawa! rea)tor. +a"iation &rom the rea)tion is *ept in the inner rea)tor vessel in &usion, so there is little "anger o& exposure to wor*ers in the rea)tor, unli*e the materials use" in a &ission rea)tor. The pro"u)ts o& the "euterium=tritium &usion rea)tion are helium atoms, not the m!ria" heav!=element, highl!=ra"ioa)tive=isotope, long=hal&=li&e materials that are pro"u)e" in a &ission rea)tion. An" the pro"u)ts o& &ission, 9eing unsta9le nu)lei, also "e)a! into even more ra"ioa)tive isotopes o& lighter elements, pro"u)ing even larger amounts o& ra"ioa)tive material. Compare" to hal&=lives o& potentiall! thousan"s o& !ears &or some o& the &ission pro"u)ts, the hal&=li&e o& tritium, shoul" it es)ape, is onl! K%2 !ears. An" the helium pro"u)e" in the &usion rea)tion is not ra"ioa)tive at all. (usion rea)tor materials "o not pose a great threat &rom terrorists, sin)e the &uel materials &or &usion )annot rea"il! 9e ma"e into weapons, unli*e those &or &ission. An" the materials &or &usion are not use&ul &or a W"irt! 9om9X either, again unli*e &ission. An" i& !ou )onsi"er the glo9al )ommunit!, Wsa&et!X o& &usion rea)tors is even more important, 9e)ause: the &usion pro)ess "oes not pro"u)e )ar9on "ioxi"e or other greenhouse gas emissions, as "o all &ossil=9urning power plants that pro"u)e ele)tri)it!. Thus &usion "oes not )ontri9ute signi&i)antl! to pro9lems asso)iate" with glo9al warming. &usion "oes not pro"u)e other pollutants that are spewe" into the air, su)h as nitrogen oxi"es, sul&ur "ioxi"e, an" even mer)ur! &rom )oal=9urning power plants. #espite all o& the positives a9ove, we nee" to note that ra"iation is still part an" par)el o& what a &usion rea)tor is all a9out, an" i&Fwhen &usion rea)tors are "evelope" that )an generate ele)tri)it! an" go online to "o so, ra"iation &rom ea)h plant will 9e a )on)ern &or &uture generations.

$ore on fusion in the sun

The pro)ess o& &usion that is o))urring in the sun is primaril! the pro"u)tion o& helium &rom h!"rogen. 3ut there are several other pro)esses going on in other stars that pro"u)e elements heavier than helium.
There are three important 9asi) stellar &usion pro)essesVproton=proton &usion, helium &usion an" the )ar9on )!)le. (ollowing are the 9asi) steps in ea)h.

135

%roton-%roton (usionV+e)all that the environment &or these rea)tions is a high= temperature environment, thus )reating high=energ! )ollisions 9etween nu)lei. Stu"ents ma! as* a9out the role o& ele)trons in this pro)ess. Sou )an note that the temperature is su&&i)ientl! high to ioniDe the elements present, )learl! the wa! &or nu)lear rea)tions. H!"rogen is the most a9un"ant element in stars. A h!"rogen nu)leus is a single proton. The &irst step in this pro)ess involves the &using o& two h!"rogen nu)lei, pro"u)ing a "euterium nu)leus an" a neutron, whi)h is the result o& the transmutation o& one o& the protons.

4n the next step a "euterium nu)leus &uses with another proton to pro"u)e an isotope o& helium:

Two o& these helium nu)lei then &use to pro"u)e a He=. nu)leus, an" two protons are emitte":

5O)to9er 2 2 ChemMatters Tea)her$s @ui"e, "es)ri9ing the arti)le WWhere #o Elements Come (rom'X6

To the right is a graphi) &rom Wi*ipe"ia illustrating this )!)le.

4n this )!)li) pro)ess the two original protons are pro"u)e" an" helium is &orme" &rom the original h!"rogen. 4& stu"ents )an un"erstan" that the net result o& this pro)ess is to pro"u)e a helium nu)leus &rom two "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/&ile:&usioninthe h!"rogen nu)lei, the! shoul" also 9e a9le =un.s9g! to un"erstan" how helium nu)lei )an &use to pro"u)e heavier an" heavier elements. -ote that ea)h o& these steps pro"u)es energ!. 5elium (usionVThis se)on" 9asi) pro)ess illustrates the pro"u)tion o& elements heavier than helium. 4& the )ore star temperature rea)hes a9out % million *elvins, helium nu)lei &use to &orm isotopes o& 9er!llium, an" then )ar9on=%2:

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.elium3fusion

136

Carbon C3cleVAt %7 million *elvins, the )ar9on nu)lei pro"u)e" via helium &usion enter into a &usion pro)ess that involves multiple steps an" is thought to repla)e the h!"rogen 5proton=proton6 &usion as the main energ! sour)e &or the star. 4n the &irst step a )ar9on nu)leus &uses with a proton to pro"u)e nitrogen=%,. A proton in the -=%, transmutates to !iel" )ar9on=%,. The C=%, &uses with another proton to pro"u)e nitrogen=%., whi)h &uses with !et another proton to pro"u)e ox!gen=%7, within whi)h a neutron "e)a!s, emitting an ele)tron to pro"u)e nitrogen=%7. One more &usion 9etween a proton an" the -=%7 pro"u)es ox!gen=%/, whi)h emits an alpha parti)le 5a helium nu)leus6 !iel"ing )ar9on=%2 to )omplete the )!)le. Lsee "iagram 9elowM 5O)to9er 2 2 ChemMatters Tea)her$s @ui"e, "es)ri9ing the arti)le WWhere #o Elements Come (rom'X6

Here are the e<uations that re&le)t the rea)tions a9ove an" in"i)ate the parti)les in the "iagram to the right. C%2 ] H% -%, C%, ] H% -%. ] H% O%7 -%7 ] H%

c c c c c c

-%, ] j C%, ] e] ] k -%. ] j O%7 ] j -%7 ] e] ] k C%2 ] He.

where

k [ ele)tron neutrino j [ gamma e] [ positron 5e<uations a9ove &rom http:FFwww.astroph!si)sspe)tator.) omFtopi)sFstarsF(usionH!"rogen.ht ml6

"

4n these three examples o& nu)lear &usion pro)esses, in)reasingl! heavier elements are pro"u)e"Vhelium, 9er!llium, )ar9on, nitrogen an" ox!gen. Other elements in this mass range )an 9e pro"u)e" &rom isotopes o& the a&orementione" elements. These t!pes o& pro)esses ta*e pla)e in stars that are relativel! lightVli*e our sun. (usion

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pro"u)es heavier elementsV&rom ox!gen to ironVin stars that are more massive. The &usion pro)esses &or most nu)lei are exothermi). 8ro"u)ing elements heavier than iron, however, re<uires energ!, an" it is 9elieve" that these heavier elements are &orme" onl! "uring supernova explosions. 5O)to9er 2 2 ChemMatters Tea)her$s @ui"e, "es)ri9ing the arti)le WWhere #o Elements Come (rom'X6

4t might 9e use&ul to see the approximate amount o& time the a9ove steps in the C-O )!)le ta*e: C ] %H ==b %,- ] - ==b %,C ] e] ] ] %, C ] %H ==b %.- ] %. - ] %H ==b %7O ] %7 O ==b %7- ] e] ] ] %7 - ] %H ==b %2C ] .He
%2 %,

% / !ears % minutes 2 x% 7 !ears , x% 0 !ears 2 minutes % . !ears

This shoul" help to explain wh! the sun is still shiningVit has !et to use up all its &uel. A)tuall!, astronomers thin* it$s onl! a9out hal& wa! through its )!)le. 5http:FFwww.muller.l9l.govFtea)hingF8h!si)s% Fol"P2 ph!si)sP2 % F)haptersP2 5ol"6F0= &usion.htm6 (or main se<uen)e stars, that is, stars that have energ! outputs an" masses reasona9l! similar to that o& the Sun, the C-O )!)le is pro9a9l! as &ar as the! will go in pro"u)ing new elements. The lower part o& this group, those stars with masses %.7 times that o& the sun or less, will pro9a9l! onl! generate helium through the proton=proton )hain o& nu)lear rea)tions. Stars in the upper main se<uen)e, with masses greater than %.7 times that o& the Sun, will use )ar9on, nitrogen an" ox!gen nu)lei in the C-O )!)le to pro"u)e helium to *eep their &usion pro)ess going. Stars eventuall! move &rom the main se<uen)e 5on a )hartVthe HertDsprung=+ussell "iagramVnot literall!6 as the! either sputter out or 9e)ome more energeti) stars as the! 9egin to &use the heavier elements o& the main se<uen)e &usion pro)ess 5C, -, O6 into even heavier elements up to iron. 4t is presentl! 9elieve" that onl! supernovae possess su&&i)ient )on"itions o& temperature an" pressure to &use those heav! nu)lei into elements 9e!on" iron on the perio"i) ta9le.

$ore on the sun8s ener13

The Sun "erives its energ! primaril! &rom the proton=proton &usion )hain. This pro)ess uses enormous, almost un&athoma9le amounts o& h!"rogen as its &uel.
S)ientists have )al)ulate" that the Sun releases a9out ,.2 l % 2/ Boules o& energ! ever! se)on". This energ! )omes &rom the )onversion o& a9out 0 , , tons o& h!"rogen into a9out /27, , tons o& helium. The loss in mass o& a9out 7, , tons a se)on" is )onverte" into energ!, a))or"ing to Einstein$s &amous e<uation E [ m)2. The mathemati)s that show this relationship are as &ollows: 57 l %
/

tons6 x 52

l9Fton6 x5.7. gFl96 x 5%*gF%

g6 [ ..7. l %

*g 5ignoring

138

signi&i)ant &igures6 E [ m)
2 2

E [ 5..7. l % E[.l% 5O)t 2

2/

*g6 x 5, l %

mFs62

B 5within the a))ura)! o& the "ata presente"6

ChemMatters Tea)her$s @ui"e, WThe 3irth o& the ElementsX6

$ore on Cold (usion

4n %212 Stanle! 8ons an" :artin (leis)hmann announ)e" 5an" then pu9lishe"6 the results o& their resear)h in a pro)ess the! )alle" )ol" &usion. The experiment involve" generation o& Wex)ess heatX in what was essentiall! an ele)tro)hemi)al rea)tion. 3oth 8ons an" (leis)hmann were well=respe)te" ele)tro)hemists. Their experiment essentiall! involve" an ele)tro)hemi)al, running a *nown voltage o& ele)tri)it! through a )ell using palla"ium ele)tro"es an" #2O instea" o& H2O. The! measure" the heat output o& the )ell an" &oun" more heat exiting than entering. The! )laime" the ex)ess heat in their experiment was "ue to &usion o& "euterium nu)lei insi"e the metal ele)tro"e. The! also reporte" "ete)ting nu)lear parti)les pro"u)e" in the rea)tion, namel! neutrons an" tritium. The! announ)e" that the pro"u)tion o& heat through this pro)ess )oul" 9e the answer to the worl"$s energ! nee"s, so it was an astoun"ing announ)ement at the time. S)ientists aroun" the worl" imme"iatel! rushe" to "o experiments &ollowing 8ons an" (leis)hmann$s "es)ription 5whi)h was not ver! "etaile"6. Almost to a s)ientist, the others reporte" no ex)ess heat, or at 9est, spora"i), small amounts an" no evi"en)e o& nu)lear parti)les release". Onl! a han"&ul o& s)ientists were a9le to report similar results as those o& 8ons an" (leis)hmann, an" those weren$t signi&i)ant. 8ons an" (leis)hmann were "is)re"ite" an" their )areers at the Universit! o& Utah were over. Col" &usion &ell into the a9!ss o& W?un* s)ien)e.X 3ut some s)ientists "i"n$t give up, an" over the last two "e)a"es, s*epti)al s)ientists 5an" some W9elieversX6 have repeate" an" improve" the original experiment, an" the! report some su))ess. S)ientists no longer re&er to the phenomenon as )ol" &usion, pre&erring instea" the term Gow Energ! -u)lear +ea)tion or GE-+. There are var!ing reports Wout thereX on the internet )laiming this organiDation or that organiDation has results o& their experiments that prove GE-+ wor*s, 9ut the overwhelming ma?orit! o& s)ientists at this time "o not 9elieve that GE-+ wor*s. Here is a report in the :ar)h 2 2 e"ition o& 99 $imes o& resear)h results &rom The U.S. -av!$s Spa)e an" -aval War&are S!stems Center 5San #iego6 9! 8amela :osier=3oss. +esear)her :osier=3oss announ)e" Zthe &irst s)ienti&i) report o& highl! energeti) neutrons &rom low=energ! nu)lear rea)tions.Z 5http:FFwww.eetimes.)omF"o)ument.asp'"o)Oi"[%%0 /,,6 On April %0, 2 2, S)ott 8elle!, news reporter, "i" an investigative segment on / :inutes a9out re)ent resear)h on )ol" &usion. Sou )an view it at http:FFwww.!outu9e.)omFwat)h'v[w1UoOOA9CSo. That report she" new light on the experiments still 9eing "one to"a!. 4t seems that some mo"ern resear)hers still 9elieve there is some truth to the assertions ma"e 9! 8ons an" (leis)hmann those man! !ears ago. WThe potential is ex)iting.X

139

There are annual )on&eren)es on the topi) o& )ol" &usion where s)ientists report the results o& their experiments. +esear)h )ontinues . . .

Conne%tions to Chemistry Con%epts +"or %orrelation to %ourse %urri%ulum,

%. Atomic structureV(usion "eals with nu)lei, protons an" neutrons, so it &its right into this area o& the )urri)ulum. 2. Asoto.esV(usion gives !ou a great topi) to use to show stu"ents a6 that isotopes exist, an" 96 that the! have "i&&erent properties 5ra"ioa)tive vs. non=ra"ioa)tive6Valthough their )hemi)al properties are usuall! similar. ,. *lementsVAlthough onl! h!"rogen an" helium are mentione" in the arti)le, &usion is the pro)ess responsi9le &or ma*ing all the elements in the universe, in a pro)ess *nown as stellar nu)leos!nthesis. .. )uclear reactionsVAlthough &ission is pro9a9l! the main example o& nu)lear rea)tions in )hemistr! )urri)ula 5a&ter alpha, 9eta an" gamma "e)a! rea)tions6, &usion rea)tions are a)tuall! easier &or stu"ents to un"erstan", as these involve mu)h smaller nu)lei an" &ewer nu)leons. 7. )uclear ener13V(usion an" &ission 9oth pro"u)e huge amounts o& energ!, )ompare" to normal )hemi)al rea)tions. 4t might 9e goo" to )ompare the amounts o& energ! involve" in ea)h t!pe o& rea)tion, as well as the pro9lems asso)iate" with its pro"u)tion an" han"ling an" storage o& waste pro"u)ts. /. (usionVThis topi) is )overe" in most high s)hool )hemistr! text9oo*s an" )urri)ula. 0. States of $atterVControl o& plasma, the W&ourth state o& matterX, is )riti)al to the su))ess o& a &usion rea)tor. The two metho"s un"er stu"! are magneti) an" inertial )on&inement. 1. *ner13 con6ersionVThere are man! energ! )onversions o))urring in a power plant. Although man! o& them involve me)hani)al )onversions rather than )hemi)al 5state=o&= matter6 )onversions, an" are there&ore outsi"e the s)ope o& a )hemistr! )urri)ulum, the heat pro"u)e" &rom &usion will 9e use" to pro"u)e steam to "rive tur9ines to generate ele)tri)it!. The steam will then )on"ense an" 9e sent 9a)* into the rea)tor to renew the )!)le. 2. *ner13 .roduction in reactionsVSee 7 a9ove. % . Thermod3namics and stabilit3Vall the &usion pro)esses "es)ri9e" are "riven 9! energeti) sta9ilit!. %%. The sun8s ener13V(usion in the sun is the pro)ess that provi"es us energ! &rom the sun. %2. Safet3VThe nee" to 9e aware o& sa&et! )on)erns perva"es all we "oVnot ?ust in &usion rea)tors, 9ut also in the )hemistr! la9 an" in our "ail! lives. %,. *n6ironmental chemistr3VEven though nu)lear power plants 5presentl! onl! &ission, 9ut in the &uture, &usion as well6 "on$t )ontri9ute to greenhouse gases an" "on$t pro"u)e mu)h waste 5)ompare" to )om9ustion power plants6, the! have their own environmental pro9lems, )entere" mainl! aroun" ra"iation an" ra"ioa)tive waste.

-ossi.le Stu ent Mis%on%eptions +to ai tea%her in a mis%on%eptions,

ressing

%. H(usion is >ust as bad as fission "hen it comes to .roducin1 nuclear "aste.I 4hile fission produces many different radioisotopes, some with very long half/lives that future generations will need to deal with, fusionDs only ma7or product is helium, although significant

140

amounts of tritium are produced and used in the Deuterium/$ritium reaction. $he other problem is that high/energy neutrons are produced, which will impact the reaction chamber and effect radioactive changes in the reactor materials, rendering them radioactive. 9ven so, the half/lives of all these isotopes is relatively short (tritiumDs half/life is only about ';.C years#, resulting in a decommissioned nuclear reactor being dangerous for about C( years and high/level nuclear waste for another '(( or so, becoming low/level waste thereafter. $his compares with radioactive waste from fission reactors that remains high/level waste for perhaps thousands of years. 2. H)uclear is nuclear. A fusion reactor "ill be >ust as li;el3 to ha6e a nuclear e,.losion if it becomes a runa"a3 reaction as are fission reactors.I 4hoa" $his statement is wrong on both fronts. - fusion reactor canDt e,plode because the reaction is a very rapid one/shot deal, followed by another one/shot reaction, etc. $hereDs no chance of a runaway reaction because the operator has to keep infusing pellets of the !/!e mi, into the reactor 7ust to keep the reaction going. -s soon as heHshe stops in7ecting pellets, the reaction stops. 8o reaction, no e,plosion, simple as that" -nd in fission, there also is no chance of an e,plosion because the nuclear fuel, predominantly /;&C, is not Eweapons/gradeF fuel1 that is, it has not been processed enough to be concentrated enough to reach critical mass, the minimal amount needed to auto/ sustain the fission reaction. :eactor/grade fuel is only about &< fissile /;&C, while weapons grade uranium is about L(O< /;&C. $hereDs 7ust too much other stuff mi,ed with the uranium that absorbs the neutrons needed to initiate more fission reactions and gets in the way of sustaining the reaction. -nd the design of fission reactors does not allow for the uranium to be forced together into the compressed dense mass needed for a nuclear e,plosion. Of course, there is still all the heat involved in a runaway fission reactor, and that C-8 produce a chemical e,plosion, usually the combustion of highly pressuri+ed steam and hydrogen in the containment vessel. 6ut this type of e,plosion is orders of magnitude smaller than a nuclear e,plosion would be (.* it could happen, which it canDt#. ,. HA don8t ;no" "h3 the author8s ma;in1 such a bi1 deal about the difficulties of 1ettin1 nuclear fusion to "or;. A read some"here a"hile a1o that scientists had disco6ered a "a3 to ma;e fusion ha..en in a bi1 bottle at room tem.eratureLA thin; the3 called it Kcold fusion8.I Cold fusion was a hot topic in science in '%L% (and ever since, although less so as time went on#. 3ons and *leischman published the results of their research in '%L%, setting off an e,plosion of research teams trying to duplicate their resultsGwith almost no positive results. (5ee EMore on cold fusionF, above.# :esearch continues to this day, but no absolutely positive evidence has yet been produced. Most scientists believe that ErealF nuclear fusion can only occur at e,tremely high temperatures and pressures, similar to those in stars.

Anti%ipating Stu ent /uestions +answers to 0uestions stu ents might as& in %lass,
%. HAf nuclear fusion in6ol6es nuclear reactions2 "h3 does the author sa32 Kthere8s little dan1er from radiation8 and Kno lon1-lastin1 radioacti6e "aste89I .n controlled fusion, the radiation is contained within the confinement vessel, either magnetic or inertial, so that people outside the reactor are e,posed to little or no radiation. $he fusion reactions described by the author involve only deuterium, tritium and helium isotopes, with lithium included in the actual production of tritium to make fusion energy. 8one of these isotopes

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has a half/life anywhere near those of isotopes produced by the fission reaction, resulting in Eno long/lasting radioactive waste.F 2. H$a3be nuclear fusion can KRsol6e e6er3 ener13 .roblem facin1 the "orld toda3R82 but "here is the nuclear fuel comin1 from2 and "ill "e ha6e enou1h9I Deuterium is one of the principal isotopes used in controlled fusion. Combined with o,ygen, it makes deuterium o,ide or Eheavy waterF. D;O molecules comprise appro,imately (.('CB< of water molecules (' molecule D;O in B,=;( molecules of !;O#. 5cientists estimate that ocean water can provide enough deuterium to provide manDs energy needs for thousands of years. $ritium, the other ma7or ingredient in controlled fusion, can be produced by bombarding lithium with neutrons. 0ithium is abundant in minerals in the earthDs crust. ,. H4h3 does the author sa3 that nuclear fusion 1enerates ener13 KRin an en6ironmentall3 friendl3 "a3R89I 6esides the reasons given in the articleGlittle danger of radiation, no long/lasting radioactive waste, and +ero chance of a runaway chain reaction, fusion reactors also will not pollute the atmosphere with waste gases or particulates, because there simply arenDt any. 5o fusion will not contribute to the greenhouse gas problem as combustion from internal combustion engines and coal/ and oil/burning power plants producing electricity do today. $his will minimi+e its effect on our global warming problem. .. HSo2 >ust ho" much ener13 are "e tal;in1 about in a fusion reaction9I .tDs been said that thereDs enough deuterium in a '/0 water bottle to be e2uivalent to the energy content in a whole barrel of oil. -lso see EMore on comparing various types of reactionsHreactorsF, above. 5http:FFwww.)9snews.)omF1, %=,7 . O%/2=707222.,Fpowering=the=&uture=what=will=&uel= the=next=thousan"=!earsF6

*n1%lass A%tivities +lesson i eas, in%lu ing la.s 2 emonstrations,

1. The -ational 4gnition (a)ilit! at the Gawren)e Givermore -ational Ga9orator! in Cali&ornia
o&&ers a vi"eo or au"io )lip 5!ou )hoose6 "ealing with their WSuper Gaser at the -4(X. 4t )omes )omplete with Cali&ornia S)ien)e Stan"ar"s, a glossar! o& s)ien)e terms, 9a)*groun" in&ormation &or the stu"ent, a WSegment Summar! Stu"ent SheetX an" a W8ersonal +esponse Stu"ent SheetX. 4t also in)lu"es spe)i&i) <uestions the tea)her )an as* stu"ents to answer through their viewing o& the vi"eo. #ownloa" the p"& &ile at http:FFs)ien)e.*<e".orgF<uestF&ilesFimpF"ownloa"F..F2 ,aOSuperGaserat-4(.p"&. The vi"eo an"For au"io )lips are also availa9le at this same site. 2. 4& !ou want to use &usion as a lesson in )lass, !ou )oul" 9egin with this set o& /0 sli"es &rom @eneral Atomi)s$ (usion E"u)ation We9 page: http:FF&usione".gat.)omFsli"eshow.html. The sli"e set gives goo" 9asi) s)ien)e involving the &usion pro)ess, as well as its a"vantages an" "isa"vantages, with the emphasis on a"vantages. The sli"es are somewhat "ate", an" mention that the 4TE+ is W9eing "esigne" 9! an international )onsortium or engineers an" s)ientistsfX an" that the W#e)ision to pro)ee" with )onstru)tion will 9e ma"e in %227X. -evertheless, it is a worthwhile set o& sli"es. The sli"eshow re<uires (lash 8la!er. Ea)h sli"e has a )aption explaining the )ontents. The sli"es are "ownloa"a9le as a p"& "o)ument 5..7 :36, 9ut the )aptions are not in)lu"e" in the p"& &ile. 3. (usionE" &rom @eneral Atomi)s has a whole series o& simulation experiments stu"ents )an "o to help them un"erstan" where elements )ome &rom, what &usion is, what plasma is an" how we )an )on&ine it in a &usion rea)tor: http:FF&usione".gat.)omFimagesFp"&F8lasmaOTo*ama*.p"&.

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.. One o& the a)tivities &rom (usionE", a9ove, simulates mass loss in&usion 9! W9a*ingX two pie)es o& )oo*ie "ough in the mi)rowave, noting that the! will have &use" a&ter W9a*ingX, an" measuring mass loss to relate that to 9in"ing energ!. 3a)*groun" material is provi"e" &or the stu"ent, an" )autions regar"ing the short)omings o& this mo"el are provi"e" &or the tea)her. 5. C8E8, Contemporar! 8h!si)s E"u)ation 8ro?e)t, sponsore" 9! the Gawren)e Givermore -ational Ga9orator! an" 8rin)eton 8lasma 8h!si)s Ga9orator!, has a We9 site with a list o& 1 or 2 stu"ent a)tivities "ealing with &usion an" plasma at http:FFwww.)pepph!si)s.orgF&usionOstu"entOa)tivities.html. Tea)her -otes &or ea)h are availa9le also, 9ut the! are passwor"=prote)te" an" !ou nee" to sen" them an email with !our 9asi) in&ormation to o9tain the passwor". The a)tivities in)lu"e simulating &usion, the ph!si)s o& plasma glo9es, an" an a)tivit! aime" at mi""le s)hool stu"ents 9ut use&ul even at the high s)hool level, Testing a 8h!si)al :o"el, whi)h uses the 7E mo"el o& learning, an" whi)h seems to 9e the simulating &usion a)tivit!, onl! mu)h 9ee&e"=up 5pe"agogi)all!=spea*ing6. /. To show stu"ents a plasma, i& one has a))ess to a mi)rowave oven, one )an simpl! insert a seale" tu9e )ontaining some sort o& low=pressure gas 5su)h as a &luores)ent light 9ul96, an" then run the mi)rowave. The mi)rowave ra"iation will ioniDe the gas, &orming a mi)rowave plasma "is)harge, i& the )ir)umstan)es are right. 4tNs a lot o& &un to see a &luores)ent 9ul9 glowing without 9eing plugge" inI 3e sure to )lose the mi)rowave "oor )ompletel!, though, or !ou ma! )oo* !oursel& = whi)h )oul" 9e &atalI Also, this "emonstration ma! ruin some mi)rowaves, so please use an ol"F)heap oneI 5http:FF&use"we9.llnl.govF+esour)esFintro"u)tor!.html6 Other plasmas in our worl" 5an" 9e!on"6 in)lu"e: the Sun an" stars, mu)h o& interstellar h!"rogen, interstellar ne9ulae, the aurora 9orealis 5or australis6, lightning, plasma televisions, neon signs, gas "is)harge tu9es, &luores)ent 9ul9s 5as mentione" a9ove6, plasma 9alls 5a to!, sort o&6, an" ar)s pro"u)e" &rom ele)tri)=ar) wel"ing ma)hines 5onl! viewe" sa&el! through a wel"er$s mas*6. 0. Another a)tivit! utiliDing a plasma is to )ompare the )olor an" spe)trum o& a plasma 9all to those o& various gas "is)harge tu9es. See this C8E8 vi"eo: http:FFviewpure.)omF,22AO:<BS_*. 1. (usE" )ontains an Online (usion Course 9! C8E8 that )oul" 9e use" as the 9asis &or a )lassroom "is)ussion o& &usion: http:FF&use"we9.llnl.govF)pepFin"ex.html. There are six topi) pages, with ea)h page provi"ing lin*s to m!ria" other sites &or more in&ormation. The six pages "eal with energ! sour)es, *e! &usion rea)tions, how &usion wor*s, )on"itions ne)essar! &or &usion, plasma, an" a)hieving &usion )on"itions. Sou )an )li)* on an! o& the six topi)s, or !ou )an simpl! ta*e Wthe gui"e" tourX. This site is well worth investigating. 9. This Tea)hers$ #omain .=minute vi"eo )lip &rom the -OHA TH show, WThe Elements: (orge" in Stars,X shows how the elements wereFare &orme" in the stars. Sou )oul" use it as a point o& "eparture to intro"u)e stellar nu)leos!nthesis. A set o& )lassroom "is)ussion <uestions is in)lu"e". http:FFwww.tea)hers"omain.orgFresour)eFess 7.s)i.ess.eiu.&usionF % . Sou )an use -ASA$ 4magine the Universe site to learn more a9out how the elements were 5an" still are 9eing6 &orme". 4n a""ition, the site in)lu"es stu"ent a)tivities to simulate the nu)lear pro)esses that ma*e elements in the stars: http:FFimagine.gs&).nasa.govF"o)sFtea)hersFelementsFimagineF %.html. %%. This page &rom the Ameri)an -atural Histor! :useum )ontains a graph showing the a9un"an)e o& elements in the sun vs. their atomi) num9er. There is a set o& <uestions 9ase" on the graph that !ou )an use &or in=)lass "is)ussion. 5http:FFwww.amnh.orgFplan= !our=visitFplan=a=s)hool=group=or=)amp=group=visitFgetting=starte"Fspe)ial=exhi9itions=an"= showsFspa)e=show=?ourne!=to=the=starsF?ourne!=to=the=stars=&or=e"u)atorsFour=star=the= sunFthe=a9un"an)e=o&=elements=in=the=sun6 4& this lin* "oesn$t get !ou there, sear)h &or

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WamnhX or Ameri)an :useum o& -atural Histor! an", on)e on the site, sear)h &or Welements in sunX. WThe A9un"an)e o& Elements in the SunX shoul" pop up &irst. Cli)* an" go. 12. Sou )an show stu"ents that the masses o& isotopes are "i&&erent using this ver! short 5m7 se)on"s6 vi"eo )lip o& two i)e )u9es in waterJ one is ma"e o& regular water an" one o& Wheav! waterXV"euterate" water. The regular i)e &loats 5o& )ourse6, an" "euterate" i)e sin*s. The "emonstration was pu9lishe" 9! Ellis, Arthur 3.J A"ler, E"war" A.J Buergens, (re"eri)* H., Kournal of Chemical 9ducation 1//0, B), %72. The K Chem 9d C#=+O: WChemistr! Comes AliveIX vi"eo"is) 2, )ontains the vi"eo o& this "emonstration. The vi"eo )an also 9e viewe" &ree on the Universit! o& Wis)onsin )hemistr! we9 site at http:FFwww.)hem.wis).e"uF"ept&ilesFgen)hemF"emonstrationsF@enOChemO8agesF 2atomsm olpageF"ramatiDingOisotopesOO"eut.htm. 13. 4& !ou woul" li*e to spen" ?ust a 9it o& time "is)ussing the Sun an" where it gets its energ!, !ou might want to use this site: http:FF9urro.)wru.e"uFA)a"emi)sFAstr22%F. 4t is the )ontent o& a 2 7 astronom! )ourse, WStars an" 8lanetsX, an" !ou )an &o)us on the )hapter )alle" WStellar 8h!si)sX, sele)ting the su9=)hapter W8owering the SunX. This gives !ou 7 more )hoi)esJ sele)t W-u)lear +ea)tionsX an" WThe 8roton=8roton ChainX &or pertinent in&ormation re: &usion. %.. The U.S. -u)lear +egulator! Commission has a se)tion o& their We9 site on nu)lear 5&ission6 rea)tors ?ust &or stu"ents, with tea)her lesson plans also availa9le at http:FFwww.nr).govFrea"ing=rmF9asi)=re&Fstu"ents.html. The Stu"ent$s Corner "is)usses the li&e )!)le o& an" s)ien)e 9ehin" a nu)lear rea)tor, while the Tea)hers$ Gesson 8lans se)tion provi"es o9?e)tives an" lesson plans &or the stu"ent materials. :ost o& this part o& their site seems to 9e geare" &or mi""le s)hool stu"ents. %7. A mo"eling la9 exer)ise "ealing with the )on)ept o& isotopi) masses 5an" its relationship to the average mass o& an element6 )an 9e "one using pennies. Two isotopes are represente" 9! pre=%212 pennies an" post=%212 pennies that have "i&&erent average masses 9e)ause o& the "i&&eren)e in the Din)F)opper )ontent. Stu"ents )an weigh two )ontainers 5&ilm )anisters i& !ou )an still &in" them6, ea)h with % pennies, either pre=%212 or post=%212. +e)or" the mass o& the % pennies o& ea)h t!pe. 5Stu"ents nee" to *now the mass o& the empt! )anisterI6. (rom this the stu"ents )an get their average mass o& a penn! &or ea)h t!pe. -ext provi"e seale" )anisters o& % pennies, ea)h with "i&&erent ratios o& pre= an" post= %212 pennies. 58rovi"e the mass o& ea)h empt! )anister sin)e the stu"ents are not to open the )anister.6 Have the stu"ents mass their assigne" )anister with penn! mix. Explain the math &or )al)ulating the num9er o& ea)h t!pe o& penn! present: TOTAG :ASS o& 8E--4ES[ 5, times the mass o& pre=%212 penn!6 ] L5% Y,6 times the mass o& post=%212 penn!M, where , [ num9er o& pre=%212 penniesJ % Y, [ num9er o& post=%212 pennies. 5ChemMatters Tea)her$s @ui"e, April 2 06 %/. There are man! in=)lass a)tivities )on)erning lasers "es)ri9e" in the (e9ruar! 2 %, ChemMatters Tea)her$s @ui"e &or the arti)le W(ighting Can)er with GasersX. %0. (or an intera)tive stu"ent a)tivit!, tr! the simulation o& (usion at the 488E` site 54nternet 8lasma 8h!si)s E"u)ation Experien)e6, http:FFippex.pppl.govFintera)tiveF;uestP2 &or P2 -ewP2 Energ!O&inalO7.sw&. 4t allows stu"ents to investigate the relationships 9etween temperature an" atomi) motion 5spee"6, *ineti) energ! an" mass, an" *ineti) energ! an" Coulom9 &or)e. Then the! run a ver! simple rea)tion an" 9! var!ing the spee" o& the parti)les, the! see when 5at what temperature6 &usion o))urs. Then it provi"es more in&ormation on &usion rea)tions an" en"s with an on=s)reen W;uestions an" AnswersX page. Sou )oul" also use this pro?e)te" on a large s)reen as an all=)lass "emonstrationFinvestigation. Other intera)tive a)tivities li*e this on mass, volume an" "ensit!J ele)tri)it! an" magnetism, matter, an" energ! )an 9e &oun" on the parent site: http:FFippex.pppl.govFintera)tiveF. These intera)tive simulations re<uire Bava.

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%1. This is a ver! ni)e series o& sli"es in a p"& &ormat that )oul" 9e use" in )lass. Entitle" W:a*ing a Star: (usion &or Sustaina9le Energ!X an" pro"u)e" 9! @eneral Atomi)s, it )overs the 9asi)s o& &usion an" in)lu"es several ni)e illustrations or a)tual photos o& their #444=# To*ama* rea)tor. %2. The 488E` We9 site provi"es stu"ents with in&ormation an" a)tivities )on)erning &usion. Several are liste" here, all o& whi)h re<uire Bava: a. This applet &rom 488E` simplisti)all! simulates a to*ama* rea)tor an" its plasma &low. Seen hea" on, the plasma in the shape o& a "is* &lu)tuates an" the o9server must use eight magnets aroun" the perimeter to )ontrol the plasma to *eep it &rom tou)hing the walls o& the rea)tor vessel, seen as a larger "is*. 5http:FFippex.pppl.govFto*ama*F)ontainment.htm6 +. This 488E` applet is similar to the to*ama* simulation 9elow, ex)ept this one is not time". 5http:FFippex.pppl.govFto*ama*Fto*ama*.htm6 c. Another applet &rom 488E` allows the o9server to )ontrol magneti) &iel" strength, plasma "ensit! an" auxiliar! heating to initiate a &usion rea)tion insi"e the to*ama* rea)tor: http:FFippex.pppl.govFto*ama*Fto*ama*v2.htm. This is version 2 an" is 9etter. ". Sou )an a))ess all the a9ove an" more at the 488E` home page, http:FFippex.pppl.govF. -ote, the (usion #ata Anal!sis ta9 "i" not wor* &or me. 2 . Here is a 8O@4G a)tivit! that "eals with 9oth &ission an" &usionJ however, !ou )oul" &o)us solel! on the &usion parts.

Out1o"1%lass A%tivities an -ro3e%ts +stu ent resear%h, %lass pro3e%ts,

%. Stu"ents )oul" "o resear)h to )ompare the a"vantages an" "isa"vantages o& using the &ollowing as sour)es o& energ!: )oal, oil, &ission an" &usion. Topi)s &or )onsi"eration might in)lu"e: a. )osts involve" in %6 o9taining the material, 26 running the power plant ,6 "ealing with the pro"u)ts o& the rea)tion 9. amount o& energ! pro"u)e" per *ilogram o& sour)e material ). amount o& sour)e material nee"e" to provi"e our nee"e" energ! ". availa9ilit! o& sour)e material e. sa&et! involve" with %6 o9taining the material, 26 running the power plant ,6 "ealing with the pro"u)ts o& the rea)tion (or &ission, the -u)lear +egulator! Commission, the -+C, might 9e a goo" pla)e to start: http:FFwww.nr).govF 2. Stu"ents )oul" "o a hea"=to=hea" )omparison o& &ission vs. &usion as power sour)es &or the &uture. ,. Stu"ents )an explore the man! uses o& ra"ioa)tive isotopes. One wa! to allow them to "o this is to assign ea)h stu"ent a parti)ular ra"ioa)tive isotope 5or let ea)h )hoose one6 an" have the stu"ents prepare reports "es)ri9ing the uses o& their isotope, whether it is naturall! o))urring or i& it is prepare" arti&i)iall! 5an" how6, an" an! ris*s asso)iate" with its use. 4. 4& !ou want stu"ents to learn a9out lasers 9ut "on$t have mu)h )lass time &or their stu"!, !ou might want to assign stu"ents to visit this We9 site to learn on their own a9out them: http:FFwww.)olora"o.e"uFph!si)sF2 FlasersF. 4t provi"es a "ialogue 9etween a stu"ent an"

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tea)her, an" it has animations along the wa! to help stu"ents un"erstan" the s)ien)e 9ehin" the )ontent. 5. Stu"ents )an resear)h )ol" &usion. :an! s)ientists are still "oing resear)h into this phenomenon 5or la)* thereo&6. An" there are man! more s)ientists who pro)laim that all the resear)h is W?un* s)ien)e.X There are man! pro=)ol" &usion sites, among them: http:FF)ol"&usionin&ormation.)omF an" http:FF)ol"&usionnow.orgF. /. Stu"ents )oul" resear)h the )laims ma"e at this site &or the 8ol!well &usion rea)tor: http:FFpol!wellnu)lear&usion.)omFin"ex.html.

'e"eren%es +non1We.1.ase in"ormation sour%es,

The re&eren)es 9elow )an 9e &oun" on the )*4 ChemMatters 30-3ear C7 5whi)h in)lu"es all arti)les pu9lishe" &rom its in)eption in Septem9er, %21, through April, 2 %,6. The C# is availa9le &rom the Ameri)an Chemi)al So)iet! at www.a)s.org. Sele)te" arti)les an" the )omplete set o& Tea)her$s @ui"es &or all issues &rom the past three !ears are also availa9leV&reeVonline at this same site. (ull ChemMatters arti)les an" Tea)her$s @ui"es are availa9le on the , =!ear C# &or all past issues 5Tea)her$s @ui"es &rom (e9ruar! %22 6, up to 2 %,. Some o& the more re)ent arti)les 52 2 &orwar"6 ma! also 9e availa9le online at the U+G liste" a9ove. Simpl! )li)* on the W8ast 4ssuesX 9utton "ire)tl! 9elow the WMX in the ChemMatters logo at the top o& the page. 4& the arti)le is availa9le online, !ou will &in" it there. (in*9einer, A. Star 3orn: The Origin o& the Elements. ChemMatters 1/:!, 2 5,6, pp .Y7. This is the &irst ChemMatters arti)le "ealing with nu)leos!nthesis in stars. Several more &ollowe" over the !ears. This one gives a ver! 9asi) explanation o& the origins o& h!"rogen an" helium, the 9irth o& stars, an" their pro)essing h!"rogen an" helium to pro"u)e heavier elements. Thiel*, #. The 3irth o& the Elements. ChemMatters 2000, %1 5,6, pp .Y7. This is the se)on" ChemMatters arti)le a9out stellar nu)leos!nthesis. 4n it the author "is)usses the origin o& h!"rogen an" helium in the 3ig 3ang, a9out %/ 9illion !ears ago. He then "is)usses where stars )ame &rom, an" ultimatel!, where all the other elements )ame &romVall &rom the pro)ess o& &usion. 3e)*er, +. ;uestion &rom the Classroom: How "o lasers wor* an" what is so spe)ial a9out laser light' ChemMatters 2003, ;' 526, pp 2Y,6 Author 3e)*er answers this stu"ent <uestion 9! giving a "etaile" "es)ription o& laser light. 3e)*er, 3. ;uestion &rom the Classroom: What is uranium enri)hment' ChemMatters 200+, ;& 526, p 2. The author "es)ri9es the uranium enri)hment pro)ess &or &ission rea)tors. A statement at the en" "istinguishes uranium &or nu)lear weapons. :)Clure, :. The -ew Al)hem!. ChemMatters 200#, ;= 5,6, pp %7Y%0. Although this arti)le "oes not "eal "ire)tl! with &usion, it pi)*s up with nu)leos!nthesis where other ChemMatters arti)les le&t o&&Vma*ing heavier=than=natural elements, with s)ientists$ attempts to

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ma*e new elements through transmutation. 4t "is)usses the histor! o& our un"erstan"ing o& the perio"i) ta9le, ra"ioa)tivit!, transmutation an" the transuranium elements. Woo", C. The Sun: (usion at Wor*. ChemMatters 200G, ;C 5%6, pp 1Y%%. Author Woo" "is)usses man$s un"erstan"ing o& the Sun over the ages, its stru)ture, its intera)tion with the Earth, an" how &usion powers the &ier! 9all. 3lea)her, G. W(ollow the Car9on.X (ollow the 4hat' ChemMatters 200:, ;B 5%6, pp %/Y %2. 8art o& this arti)le "eals with the use o& )ar9on isotopes to help "etermine i& )ar9ona)eous materials on :ars are 9ioti) or a9ioti). +uth, C. Where #o Chemi)al Elements Come (rom' ChemMatters 200/, ;) 5,6, pp /Y 1. This is the thir" ChemMatters arti)le over the !ears that "is)usses WnormalX stars an" supernovae, an" their roles in nu)leos!nthesisVthe pro"u)tion o& elements via &usion rea)tions. The Tea)her$s @ui"e &or the O)to9er 2 2 issue 5a9ove6 o& ChemMatters )ontains "etaile" 9a)*groun" in&ormation a9out nu)leos!nthesis &or the arti)le WWhere #o Elements Come (rom'X The gui"e in)lu"es several &usion rea)tions that o))ur in the sun an" other stars involving h!"rogen an" helium, an" then in a later se)tion, it in)lu"es the rea)tion 5an" others6 use" in &usion resear)h mentione" in the Ha!nes arti)le. Shearer, #. -u)lear 8ower: A Sa&e an" Clean Sour)e o& Energ!' ChemMatters 2010, ;L 526, pp %/Y%0. The author "es)ri9es the 9ene&its an" ris*s o& fission rea)tors. The 3a)*groun" 4n&ormation se)tion o& the Tea)her$s @ui"e &or the April 2 % ChemMatters arti)le W-u)lear 8ower: A Sa&e an" Clean Sour)e o& Energ!'X 5a9ove6 )ontains more in&ormation a9out nu)lear 5&ission6 rea)tors. SitDman, 3. an" @oo"e, +. -u)lear Energ!: When Will the Gights @o Out' ChemMatters 2011, ;% 526, p 2. The two authors "is)uss our energ! nee"s an" the various sour)es presentl! 9eing use" to suppl! that energ!, with a &o)us on &ission. -oti)e that &usion is not !et among the sour)es. Washam, C. :!ster! o& :ummies. ChemMatters 2012, &( 5%6, pp %0Y%2. A small portion o& this arti)le "es)ri9es how ra"io)ar9on "ating wor*s, using C=%2 an" C=%., an" how it is use" to "etermine the age o& mummies. The (e9ruar! 2 %, ChemMatters Tea)her$s @ui"e )ontains a .=page "es)ription o& what lasers are an" how the! wor*, in the "is)ussion o& W(ighting Can)er with GasersX.

We. Sites "or A sour%es,

itional *n"ormation +We.1.ase in"ormation

$ore sites on fusion reactions

An the Sun and starsV(or in&ormation a9out &usion in stars, tr! the &ollowing sites: http:FFh!perph!si)s.ph!=astr.gsu.e"uFh9aseFastroFpro)!).html 5)li)* on an! o& the lin*e" terms &or more in&ormation6

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http:FFwww.answers.)omFtopi)Fproton=proton=)hain=rea)tion This page &rom the WAstronom! H!per Text9oo*X We9 site provi"es ;ui)*Time animate" versions o& the in"ivi"ual steps in the proton=proton )hain. Although the animate" rea)tions go &ast 5even on the WslowX s)ale6, !ou )an )li)* an" "rag the )ursor a)ross the progress 9ar o& ea)h animation to &o)us on in"ivi"ual parts or se<uen)es. 5http:FFDe9u.uoregon.e"uFtext9oo*Fenerg!gen.html6 http:FFwww.ph!si)s.mun.)aFK??errettFprotonprotonFpp.html This one page isn$t <uite as &lash! as the one a9ove showing the proton=proton )hain, 9ut the animation is slower an" easier to &ollow. -ASA has a We9 site )alle" Cosmi)opia, an" a page o& that site )ontains W-u)leos!nthesis in the -ewsX, a series o& more than % news arti)les in reverse )hronologi)al or"er, "ating 9a)* to %221. 5http:FFhelios.gs&).nasa.govFnu)leo.html6

An fusion reactors?e,.erimentsVSee 9elow.

Hiew http:FFen.wi*ipe"ia.orgFwi*iF-u)learO&usion &or a mu)h more "etaile" "is)ussion o& &usion. This page &rom H!per8h!si)s shows e<uations &or various &usion rea)tions: http:FFh!perph!si)s.ph!=astr.gsu.e"uFPE2P1 P1Ch9aseFnu)eneF&usion.html. #o)3rown$s Chemistr! We9 site has a page with a series o& simple &usion e<uations, i& !ou nee" more examples: http:FFwww."o)9rown.in&oFpage ,F,O7.ra"io 1.htm^heav!.

$ore sites on the fundamental forces of nature This single page &rom Carnegie :ellon Universit! "es)ri9es the &our &un"amental &or)es an" summariDes their e&&e)ts in a ta9le: http:FFtelstar.ote.)mu.e"uFenvironFm,Fs,F /&or)es.shtml. H!per8h!si)s at @eorgia State Universit! o&&ers a page "es)ri9ing the &our &un"amental &or)es o& nature at http:FFh!perph!si)s.ph!= astr.gsu.e"uFh9aseF&or)esF&un&or.html. This site provi"es a stu"ent=prepare" 9asi) 8ower8oint "es)ri9ing the &our &un"amental &or)es o& nature. :! onl! hang=up is that she )alls the strong nu)lear &or)e the Wstrong atomi) &or)eX. Sou )an$t get "ire)tl! to this 8ower8oint, 9ut i& !ou go to the 3ing sear)h page 9elow, it will ta*e !ou to a page o& listings o& W&un"amental &or)esX: http:FFwww.9ing.)omFsear)h' <[&un"amental]&or)es]s)ien)e><s[n>p<[&un"amental]&or)es]s)ien)e>s)[ = >sp[= %>s*[>&irst[%7>(O+:[8E+E. Then )li)* on the title W(un"amental (or)esXV-OT the one &rom @eorgia State Universit!, although that$s a goo" one alsoJ see a9ove. Un"er the )orre)t title !ou$ll see s)hools.nashua.e"uF...FforcesF(undamentalP2 (orces.ppt When the "ialog 9ox appears, !ou have two )hoi)es, save or open. 4& !ou save it !ou )an avoi" the "omain nameFpasswor" 9ox. Or i& !ou )li)* WOpenX, !ou )an ?ust hit )an)el when it as*s &or "omain nameFpasswor" an" it will ta*e !ou right to the sli"e presentation. 148

The Ahan A)a"em! has a % =minute vi"eo le)ture on the &our &un"amental &or)es at http:FFwww.*hana)a"em!.orgFs)ien)eF)osmolog!=an"=astronom!Funiverse= s)ale=topi)Flight=&un"amental=&or)esFvF&our=&un"amental=&or)es. $ore sites on histor3 of fusion research
This site )ontains the %222 2.=page paper W+e&le)tions on (usion$s Histor! an" 4mpli)ations &or (usion$s (utureX 9! +o9ert Conn, o& the (usion Energ! +esear)h 8rogram at the Universit! o& Cali&ornia, San #iego. 4t summariDes in great "etail the histor! o& &usion, essentiall! sin)e the en" o& Worl" War 44. 5http:FF&ire.pppl.govF,.Conn.p"&6 Here is a timeline "etailing man! o& the giant an" even small steps realiDe" 9! &usion s)ientists:F http:FFen.wi*ipe"ia.orgFwi*iFTimelineOo&Onu)learO&usion. A timeline o& resear)h e&&orts at 8rin)eton Universit!, involve" with &usion resear)h sin)e %27% an" home o& the 8rin)eton 8lasma 8h!si)s Ga9orator! 5888G6 an" the To*ama* (usion Test +ea)tor 5T(T+6, )an 9e &oun" here: http:FFpppl=e"it.prin)eton.e"uFa9outFhistor!Ftimeline.

$ore sites on bindin1 ener13

H!per8h!si)s has a one=page site on 9in"ing energ! that also )al)ulates an" )ompares energ! output 9! &ission an" &usion &or e<ual masses o& &uel inputs at http:FFh!perph!si)s.ph!= astr.gsu.e"uFh9aseFnu)eneFnu)9in.html. The s)hoolph!si)s We9 site has a page that "is)usses 9in"ing energ!. The! provi"e the same 9in"ing energ! graph two wa!sVone right si"e up an" one upsi"e "own. The i"ea 9ehin" it is that the &irst wa! it shows how mu)h energ! it ta*es to split the nu)leus, an" the other wa! it shows how mu)h energ! is given o&& when the nu)leus &orms. 5http:FFwww.s)hoolph!si)s.)o.u*Fage%/=%2F-u)learP2 ph!si)sF-u)lear P2 stru)tureFtextF3in"ingOenerg!OperOnu)leonFin"ex.html6 This site &rom :iami #a"e College, "is)usses Wmagi) num9ersX o& nu)leons an" how the! have a""e" sta9ilit!. 4t also shows )al)ulations &or two mass "e&e)t pro9lems: http:FFwww.m").e"uF*en"allF)hmph!Fnu)learFnu)plus.htm.

$ore sites on isoto.es

S)ienti&i) 4nstrument Servi)es$ We9 page )ontains a )omplete list o& all isotopes o& all elements, arrange" alpha9eti)all! or 9! atomi) num9er, an" an intera)tive perio"i) ta9le that shows the isotopes o& ea)h element an" their relative a9un"an)e: http:FFwww.siswe9.)omFmstools.htm.

$ore sites on .rotium?deuterium?tritium

This page &rom 5cience Daily reports on WUltra=#ense #euterium :a! 9e -u)lear (uel o& the (uture: http:FFwww.s)ien)e"ail!.)omFreleasesF2 2F 7F 2 7%%%1%,7/.htm. 4t seems logi)al that this ver! "ense material )oul" help &usion resear)hers, who are tr!ing to )ompress nu)lei in high=temperature, high=pressure s)enarios.

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$ore sites on .lasma

This page &rom 8lasma.org provi"es a ni)e photo o& plasma )ontaine" within the 8rin)eton to*ama* rea)tor: http:FFwww.plasmas.orgFrot=energ!.htm. This page &rom the site a9ove gives goo" 9a)*groun" in&ormation on plasmas: http:FFwww.plasmas.orgFin"ex.html.

$ore sites on fusion

Here is a K2 =minute vi"eo 5%22/6 &rom @eneral Atomi)s. 4t is a 9it slow an" 9asi), an" perhaps Wmi""le s)hool=ishX, 9ut it explains &usion well, relates it to the sun, )ompares )hemi)al to nu)lear rea)tions, shows plasma an" magneti) )ontrol, an" mentions 4TE+ at the en" o& the vi"eo. 4t ni)el! explains through animation wh! the torus is the shape o& )hoi)e &or magneti) plasma )ontrol. 5http:FF&usione".gat.)omFimagesFnatureOenerg!Osour)e.mp.6 Sou ma! 9e a9le to pull )lips out &or )lassroom use. Also &rom @eneral Atomi)s, this site allows !ou to tour through a virtual To*ama* rea)tor vessel: http:FF&usione".gat.)omFvirtualO"444O".html. 4t will re<uire !ou to "ownloa" a H+:G plug= in, whi)h is availa9le right on the s)reen. On)e insi"e the to*ama*, !ou )an move aroun" an" see insi"e an" outsi"e the stru)ture. A short ,:, =minute vi"eo &rom #r. +i)har" :o!er o& the Center &or Energ! +esear)h at the Universit! o& Cali&ornia, San #iego ver! 9asi)all! "es)ri9es the &usion rea)tion an" wh! we nee" &usion power. 5http:FF)er.u)s".e"uFpagesFoutrea)hFvi"eo%.shtml6 This 21=minute vi"eo &rom the U.S. #OE ar)hives 5it is ver! "ate", perhaps late %21 s, earl! 2 s6 )overs the s)ien)e an" te)hnolog! o& &usion ver! )ompletel!. 4t in)lu"es onsite interviews with s)ientists at several to*ama* an" laser &usion resear)h &a)ilities, showing the a)tual ma)hines. 5http:FFenerg!.govFarti)lesFvintage="oe=what=&usion6 This site &rom H!per8h!si)s provi"es a )on)ept map o& -u)lear Energ! with lin*s that ta*e !ou to various pages "ealing with &ission, &usion, an" nu)lear a))i"ents: http:FFh!perph!si)s.ph!=astr.gsu.e"uFh9aseFnu)eneFneng)n.html^)% C8E8, the Contemporar! 8h!si)s E"u)ation 8ro?e)t, &rom the U.S. #epartment o& Energ! O&&i)e o& S)ien)e, o&&ers a ni)e &usion )hart, W(usionV8h!si)s o& a (un"amental Energ! Sour)eX. This We9 page shows the a)tual )hart an" is expan"a9le so !ou )an view minute "etails on the )hart: http:FFwww.)pepph!si)s.orgF&usionO)hartOview.html. Sou )an print the )hart on 1=%F2X x %%X paper, although !ou ma! nee" to resiDe it to &it. Sou )an also view enlarge" in"ivi"ual parts o& the )hart in p"& &iles as well an" print those. The )hart is availa9le &or sale in normal )hart siDes as well through War"$s S)ien)e, &rom the same We9 page. There is also an instru)tor$s manual that a))ompanies the )hart an" )an 9e pur)hase" &rom War"$s. Here is another, mu)h simpler poster "epi)ting &usion, with a &ew &un &a)ts, availa9le &or "ownloa" 51=%F2X x %%X6 &rom (usionE" 5"ate" %22/6: http:FF&usione".gat.)omFimagesFp"&F(usion8oster.p"&. C8E8 also o&&ers an Online (usion Course at http:FF&use"we9.llnl.govFC8E8F. There are six topi) pages, with ea)h page provi"ing lin*s to m!ria" other sites &or more in&ormation. The six pages "eal with energ! sour)es, *e! &usion rea)tions, how &usion wor*s, )on"itions

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ne)essar! &or &usion, plasma, an" a)hieving &usion )on"itions. This site is well worth investigating. The O)to9er 2 %2 report WAssessment o& (usion Energ! Options &or Commer)ial Ele)tri)it! 8ro"u)tionX &rom the Ele)tri) 8ower +esear)h 4nstitute, )ite" in the W:ore on the histor! o& &usionX is availa9le &or "ownloa" here: http:FF)er.u)s".e"uFpagesFoutrea)hFvi"eo%.shtml. This 2=minute vi"eo W(usion 2% X &rom E(#A, the European (usion #evelopment Agreement, "epi)ts a )lassroom o& the &uture, with the tea)her an" )lass "is)ussing &usion resear)h an", naturall!, ever!thing is histor! o& &usion resear)h to the stu"ents. 4t ni)el! summariDes &usion "evelopments, in)lu"ing the 9eginnings o& 4TE+, an" it gives some ni)e s)i=&i=li*e e&&e)ts. 4t might hol" !our stu"ents$ interest. 5http:FFwww.e&"a.orgF2 %%F 1F&usion= 2% F'view[vgaller!=.6 E(#A, mentione" a9ove, has an extensive We9 site that o&&ers man! "ownloa"a9le materials, in)lu"ing posters an" animations. 4ts home page is: www.e&"a.orgF.

$ore sites on ho" lasers "or;

This site )ontains three "i&&erent stu"entFtea)her intera)tive pages "ealing with lasers: http:FFwww.)olora"o.e"uFph!si)sF2 Fin"ex.pl'T!pe[TOC. 3o9 3e)*er gives stu"ents a ver! goo", 9asi) un"erstan"ing o& how lasers wor* in this W;uestion &rom the ClassroomX arti)le &rom the April 2 , issue o& ChemMatters: http:FFportal.a)s.orgFportalF8u9li)We9SiteFe"u)ationFresour)esFhighs)hoolF)hemmattersFar)hiveF C-38O 21. 26 WGaser (un"amentalsX provi"es more "etail a9out how a laser wor*s an" gives "es)riptions o& several "i&&erent t!pes o& lasers: http:FFwww.&as.orgFmanF"o"= % %Fnav!F"o)sFlaserF&un"amhientals.htm.

$ore sites on )ational A1nition (acilit3 ()A(

Sou )an view a list o& the vi"eos availa9le &rom the -4( here: https:FFlasers.llnl.govFmultime"iaFvi"eoOgaller!F The! in)lu"e WHow -4( Wor*sX an" WTa*e a +i"e on a 3eamlineX, whi)h shows in animation the path o& the laser 9eams shot into the hohlraum, the &usion target, an" the su9se<uent &usion 9last. This vi"eo &rom the Gawren)e Givermore -ational Ga9s is a)tuall! in ,=#, provi"e" !ou have ,=# glasses with whi)h to view it. The vi"eo shows the -4( &a)ilit! an" a laser shot to ma*e &usion happen: http:FFwww.!outu9e.)omFwat)h'v[ <_@U!OS2(o. 4t has no narration. E"win :oses o& the -4(, presents a 7.=minute plenar! spee)h a9out the -4( plant at the CGEO 2 2 Con&eren)e. 4t$s "ivi"e" into / "i&&erent approximatel! 2=minute=long vi"eo )lips. The &irst is this one: 8art % Y -ational 4gnition (a)ilit!: Exploring :atter Un"er Extreme Con"itions at http:FFwww.!outu9e.)omFwat)h'v[mhlwwanl&0A. Ea)h su))ee"ing )lip appears at the right in the up)oming vi"eos. 5Sti)* with the -4( &ollowing num9ere" parts, as other vi"eo parts appear there also.6

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This ma! 9e the 9est o& the vi"eo )lips a9out -4(Vshort 57:226 an" to the point. 4t in)lu"es in&ormation a9out the &a)ilit! itsel&, an" it shows the animate" se<uen)e o& laser=&iring an" )reating &usion in the target )ham9er. 5http:FFwww.!outu9e.)omFwat)h' &eature[pla!erOem9e""e">v[!ixh!8- r,g6 This series o& &our vi"eos 9! Steve9"% )overs all angles o& -4(. The! pla! se<uentiall! &rom the &irst one, or !ou )an )hoose whi)hever !ou want. 5http:FFwww.!outu9e.)omFwat)h' v[8HWet#ogH1*>list[8G0E, #0#2,0,21 AA6 Also on the -4( We9 site, the! o&&er a virtual tour o& the &a)ilit! 5re<uires Bava6. Sou )li)* on an! o& %1 partsFrooms in the s)hemati) o& the entire &a)ilit!. 4t is highlighte" on the s)hemati). Cli)*ing on that ta*es !ou to an image o& that roomFpart o& the &a)ilit!. Sou )an then roam 5,/ o6 aroun" the room. 5https:FFlasers.llnl.govFmultime"iaFvirtualOtoursF6 -ote, this &un)tion was not wor*ing when 4 visite" the site, 2F7F%,. -4( has a ni)e )olle)tion o& resour)es &or tea)hers that in)lu"es outsi"e sites as well as their own, at https:FFlasers.llnl.govFe"u)ationFresour)es.php. Here is a Bul! 2 %2 -4( press release reporting on the 7 terawatt an" %.12 :B shot &rom their 9an* o& %22 lasers: https:FFwww.llnl.govFnewsFnewsreleasesF2 %2FBulF-+=%2= 0= %.html. Here$s an O)to9er 2 % report &rom Gawren)e Givermore -ational Ga9oratories a9out its &irst su))ess&ul shot. There is a 9e&ore an" an a&ter photo o& the hohlraumJ the "amage is <uite impressive. https:FFwww.llnl.govFnewsFnewsreleasesF2 % FnnsaF-+=--SA=% =% = 2.html

$ore sites on ma1netic fusion confinement

This 2 =se)on" ;ui)*Time vi"eo )lip shows plasma generation insi"e the Tore Supra To*ama* &usion rea)tor: http:FF&usione".gat.)omFimagesFToreSupraTur)o.mpg.

$ore sites on Anternational Thermonuclear *,.erimental <eactor (AT*<

The o&&i)ial site &or 4TE+ is http:FFwww.iter.orgF. 4t )ontains mu)h news a9out progress o& 4TE+. Other pages &rom the site are re&eren)e" 9elow.

This page &rom the site, http:FFwww.iter.orgFma)h shows a large "iagram o& the interior o& the propose" ma)hine that has lin*s that appear as !ou s)roll over the parts o& the ma)hine. These )an then open to more in&ormation a9out ea)h part. This page &rom 4TE+ provi"es "etaile" s)hemati)s o& man! parts o& the propose" "esign, in)lu"ing ver! large enlargements o& the s)hemati)s: http:FFwww.iter.orgFal9umFme"iaF0P2 = P2 te)hni)al. Another 4TE+ page has availa9le over %2 vi"eo )lips o& various &a)ets o& the pro?e)t, in)lu"ing "esign, )onstru)tion, international )ooperation, an" s)ien)e an" te)hnolog!. The )lips are also organiDe" 9! topi). Un&ortunatel! the )lips are high resolution an" "on$t seem to 9u&&er wellJ the! are ver! )hopp!. Sou "o have the option o& "ownloa"ing high resolution )opies o& the vi"eos, 9ut the! too "ownloa" ver! slowl!. 5http:FFwww.iter.orgFvi"eo6 54 thin*

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the other )ountries &un"ing an" 9uil"ing the rea)tor have higher internet spee"s than we "o here in the U.S.6 An 1=page 9oo*let &rom the Euratom 3ran)h o& the European Commission, entitle" W-u)lear Energ! +esear)h: The Sustaina9ilit! ChallengeX provi"es a 9it o& 9a)*groun" on 4TE+ an" a ni)e timeline o& 9oth &ission an" &usion resear)h an" "evelopment, &rom %2, Y 2 % : http:FFe).europa.euFresear)hFenerg!Fp"&Fsustaina9ilit!.p"&. Here is a poster "es)ri9ing how 4TE+ will pro"u)e a &usion rea)tion: http:FFwww.&utureleap.)omFwp=)ontentFuploa"sF2 %,F ,Fsungraphi)=*ath.?pg. A /:2, vi"eo )lip "es)ri9ing the "evelopment an" )onstru)tion o& the 4TE+ &a)ilit! in Aix= en=8roven)e, (ran)e )an 9e viewe" at http:FFwww.!outu9e.)omFwat)h'v[*"&;U&tpv%;. This )lip &o)uses primaril! on the international )ooperation nee"e" to get it )onstru)te", rather than the s)ien)e 9ehin" it. Here$s another one a9out 4TE+: http:FFwww.!outu9e.)omFwat)h'v[*"&;U&tpv%;. The &irst 27 se)on"s are "one 9! a 3ritish narrator. The next 2=%F2 minutes "es)ri9e 4TE+J this portion o& the )lip ma! 9e "one in the U.S., sin)e we are liste" &irst in the group o& )ountries )ooperating to )onstru)t the rea)tor. 4t has more te)hni)al )ontent than the previous )lip. The last , minutes returns to the original narrator. Au"io level is in)onsistent 9etween the three se)tions.

$ore sites on cold fusion

This page provi"es a ,1=minute vi"eo o& parts o& the a)tual %212 press )on&eren)e at the Universit! o& Utah at whi)h 8ons an" (leis)hmann ma"e the 5in6&amous announ)ement o& their "is)over!: 4t in)lu"es <uestions &rom the au"ien)e an" answers &rom 9oth the resear)hers an" universit! a"ministrators. http:FF)ol"&usionin&ormation.)omF)ol"=&usion=press=)on&eren)e=at=universit!=o&=utah=%212F. The last eight minutes are vi"eo ta*en in the 9asement o& the resear)h la9 where 8ons an" (leis)hmann "i" their wor*. (leis)hmann an" another s)ientist explain the a)tual experiment, e<uipment an" anal!ti)al instruments use" in it. -ote: 9e )are&ul in !our )hoi)e o& other in&ormation &rom the host site upon whi)h the vi"eo is store": it is a ver! pro=)ol" &usion siteJ ?ust loo* at the &irst senten)e o& the )aption un"er the vi"eo. Here is a %2:2. vi"eo o& the April 2 2 airing o& a C3S W/ :inutesX report 9! S)ott 8elle! )alle" WCol" (usion is Hot AgainX that interviewe" s)ientists a9out )ol" &usion resear)h 9eing "one presentl!: http:FFwww.)9snews.)omFvi"eoFwat)hF'i"[.2/0,, n. This site is ver! o9viousl! pro=)ol" &usion: http:FF)ol"&usionnow.orgF. Here is an almost=2=hour vi"eo on )ol" &usion resear)h. The &irst hour is one television show hoste" 9! Bames #oohan, S)ott! o& Star Tre* &ame. The se)on" hour is a pseu"o= investigative show, one o& the series 8henomenon: The Gost Ar)hives, hoste" 9! #ean Sto)*well. 5http:FFwww.!outu9e.)omFwat)h'v[?1?+2-/T8O 6 This portion treats the )ol" &usion "e9ate as a )onspira)!. The vi"eo provi"es mu)h in&ormation &or stu"ents to evaluate. The -atural 8hilosoph! Allian)e %2th annual )on&eren)e, Bul! 20, 2 %2, &eature" E"mun" Storms as its guest spea*er. He presente" a %=hour tal* on WWhat is Col" (usion an"

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Wh! Shoul" Sou Care',X whi)h )an 9e &oun" here: http:FFwww.!outu9e.)omFwat)h' v[;E%W1-)SsSE>list[TGmTS@US2)mSw This 33C pro"u)tion is sai" to 9e Wan ol" "o)umentar! 5%22.6,X re=pu9lishe" on Septem9er 20, 2 %2. 4t provi"es "o)umentar! )lips &rom various resear)hers at the time o& the 8ons=(leis)hmann pu9li)ation, as well as &ollow=up interviews at later times, o& 9oth s*epti)s an" supporters ali*e. This vi"eo also will give stu"ents mu)h in&ormation to evaluate. http:FFwww.!outu9e.)omFwat)h'v[%*9OT1sCWG1>list[TGmTS@US2)mSw

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(or a ver! 9rie&, 9ut )lever, "is)ussion o& the li&e )!)le o& stars an" where elements )ome &rom, see WThe! Came &rom Outer Spa)eX at http:FFwww.astro)entral.)o.u*Fstar"ust.html.

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