BATA DRUMMING OF THE ORU SECO: ITS TRADITION, AND ADAPTABILITY FOR DRUM SET

A THESIS Presented to the Bob Cole Conservatory of Music California State University, Long Beach

In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Master of Music

Committee Members: Ray Briggs, Ph.D. (Chair) Michael Carney, D.M.A. Roger Hickman, Ph.D. College Designee: John Carnahan, M.A.

By Greg Erskine M.M. (B.M.), 2002, Lawrence University California State University, Long Beach May 2009

UMI Number: 1466203

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ABSTRACT BATA DRUMMING OF THE ORU SECO: ITS TRADITION, AND ADAPTABILITY FOR DRUM SET By Greg Erskine May 2009 This paper examines the sacred bata drumming of the Lucumi, an African-based religion found in Cuba. Through transcriptions and analysis an attempt will be made to explain the systematic musical structure and complex rules present in Lucumi music. This paper also explores the techniques required to play bata drums, and breakdowns the challenging aspects of the music. Finally, this paper demonstrates how bata music can be utilized in a Western context, through exploring adaptations for drum set. A variety of sources were used to gain the necessary information about Lucumi culture and music: books and dissertations written by ethnomusicologists, interviews and lessons with Lucumi initiates, and recordings of bata ceremonies and performances. Through this paper, I hope to provide a fresh approach to drum set performance, which is relevant because Afro-Cuban influence has already become present in many modern music styles.

PREFACE This paper examines the sacred batd drumming of the Lucumi, an African based religion found in Cuba. Through transcriptions and analysis an attempt will be made to explain the systematic musical structure and complex rules present in Lucumi music. This paper also explores the techniques required to play batd drums, and breakdowns the challenging aspects of the music. Finally, this paper demonstrates how batd music can be utilized in a Western context, through exploring adaptations for drum set. Chapter one provides a historical background of the Lucumi, covering their origins in Africa, and development in Cuba. Then, because music and religion are so tightly connected, there is an overview of the Lucumi ideology. This section examines the structure of their religion, while presenting its similarities with Catholicism. It also explores the organization of Lucumi ceremonies, focusing on the role of music and drumming. The second chapter centers on the drums used by the Lucumi, batd. It begins by presenting the different types of batd drums and their construction. It then explores the characteristics and role of each drum, both within the set, and in Lucumi worship. The different techniques used to play batd and methods for teaching them are explained. Finally, there is an overview of the characteristics of batd music. The third chapter is devoted to the Oru Seco, a section of the Lucumi ceremony often referred to as the presentation to Ana (the spirit living within the batd drums). The first four sections of iii

this ceremony, referred to as toques, are individually analyzed, focusing on the specific patterns of each drum, their role within the ensemble, and what makes them challenging. This chapter also presents ways in which these toques can be adapted to drum set. An analysis is provided for each adaptation, followed by a transcription, and suggestions for their performance. A variety of sources were used to gain the necessary information about Lucumi culture and music: books and dissertations written by ethnomusicologists, interviews and lessons with Lucumi initiates, and recordings of batd ceremonies and performances. Through this paper, I hope to provide a fresh approach to drum set performance, which is relevant because Afro-Cuban influence has already become present in many modern music styles.

IV

CONTENTS Page PREFACE LIST OF FIGURES CHAPTER 1. THELUCUMI History Lucumf Ideology Worship 2. BATA DRUMS Sacred Drums Technique Transmission of Drumming Tradition Music Elements of Toques 3. THE ORU SECO Methods Notes About the Transcriptions Eleggua: Form, Analysis, Drum Set Adaptations and Performance Suggestions Ogun: Form, Analysis, Drum Set Adaptaitons and Performance Suggestions Ochosi: Form, Analysis, Drum Set Adaptaitons and Performance Suggestions Obaloke: Form, Analysis, Drum Set Adaptations and Performance Suggestions 4. CONCLUSION Benefits of Adapting Batd Toques to Drum Set APPENDIX: GLOSSARY OF TERMS BIBLIOGRAPHY I. 1 1 4 6 9 11 13 15 17 19 20 21 21 29 34 41 45 47 50 53 iii vi

LIST OF FIGURES FIGURE 1. Key 2. Bata key 3. Drum set key 4. Form of Eleggua 5: Bata transcription of Eleggua 6: Abu Kenke 7. Eleggua drum set adaptation one (folkloric style) 8. Eleggua drum set adaptation two (funk style) 9. Form of Ogun 10. Bata transcription of Ogun 11. Ogun drum set adaptation one (folkloric style) 12. Form of Ochosi 13. Bata transcription of Ochosi 14. Ochosi drum set adaptation one (folkloric style) 15. Ochosi drum set adaptation two (funk style) 16. Bata transcription of Obaloke 17. Obaloke drum set adaptation one with variations 18. Obaloke drum set adaptation two (funk style) vi Page 22 22 22 23 24 25 27 28 30 31 33 34 36 38 40 41 43 44

CHAPTER 1 THE LUCUMI Lucumi, commonly referred to as Santeria, is probably the most practiced religion in Cuba, and despite entering American culture in the late 1940s, most Americans are unaware of its existence.1 The genesis of Lucumi faith can be traced to the Yoruba orisha worship of Africa, which through the Atlantic slave trade, has evolved to incorporate many elements of Catholicism, along with various other African religions.2 In order to develop an understanding of the Lucumi and their music, one must first explore their history in Africa and Cuba. History Most slaves brought to Cuba, and the rest of the new world, originated from the kingdoms of Benin, Dahomey, and the city-states of Yoruba.3 At one point in time all of these kingdoms were very powerful, but political governments in Africa at the time did not last long, even before the appearance of Europeans. Empires would generally dissolve into smaller kingdoms shortly after their formation. Repeating the cycle, these smaller kingdoms were left vulnerable to the takeover of other, more powerful kingdoms.

De La Torre, Santeria, xi. Schweitzer, Afro-Cuban bata Drum Aesthetics, 25. De La Torre, Santeria, 2. 1

Leaders of large empires would often capture the warriors of weaker kingdoms and keep them as their personal slaves. It is believed that the first slaves sent to the New World were the personal slaves of the Benin King, which he traded to the Portuguese in exchange for copper bracelets in I486.4 Among all the slaves brought to Cuba, the Yoruba seem to have played the largest role in the formation of Santeria. The term Yoruba is used to refer to the Yorubaspeaking Oyo people located between the Niger River and the Nigeria-Dahomey border. The Yoruba were once considered to be the most artistically, politically and religiously advanced group in West Africa.5 As a result of western Oyo military campaigns, citizens in the eastern Yoruba regions made up the majority of slaves sold to the Spanish, who were then shipped to Cuba. Spain first began colonizing Cuba for its strategically important location during the early sixteenth century. Often referred to as the Spanish gateway,6 Cuba served as a resting point for fleets on their journey across the Atlantic. Its initial development was focused around creating urban centers for the natural harbors. During this period the Spanish crown authorized the importation of slaves for use in its colonies, which resulted

Sandoval, Africa to Cuba and Beyond, 4. Sandoval, Africa to Cuba and Beyond, 6. Bascom, The Focus of Cuban Santeria, 44 2

in a vast surge of Africans to the island. By 1532 slaves made up over 65% of the island's population.7 Once in Cuba, slaves were mainly sent to urban centers, like Havana. Initially, conditions for them were not as harsh as they were for slaves in North America. The rough living environment in Cuba, such as poverty, smugglers, and other hardships, made colonists and slaves mutually dependent on each other for survival.8 Even the Catholic Church felt that slavery was against the "natural law," and was justified only as a "temporary" state necessary to Christianize Africans.9 Spanish law gave slaves the right to personal security, personal property, and admittance to the Catholic faith.10 They were also given cabildos, "social clubs designed for Africans to have an outlet for social expression and community development."11 Cabildo houses, or meeting places, were organized with members of similar ethnic ties, or geographic African descent. Members within a cabildo felt a sense of brotherhood, and were considered part of the same "nacion" (nation).12 These houses were used for both social events, which involved drinking and dancing, as well as

Bascom, The Focus of Cuban Santeria, 44. Bascom, The Focus of Cuban Santeria, 49. Sandoval, Africa to Cuba and Beyond, 21. Bascom, The Focus of Cuban Santeria, 46. Bascom, The Focus of Cuban Santeria, 47. Bascom, The Focus of Cuban Santeria, 47. 3

10

11

12

religious affairs. At first the Catholic Church allowed slaves to practice their own religion; the general attitude was that slaves should be converted through a method of using their own customs as a means to bring them to the church. In an effort to develop

relations between slaves and the church (a relationship referred to as confradias), clergy would attend the cabildos, where they would preach to the slaves. Converting to Catholicism promised additional rights for slaves: sanctioning of marriage, parenthood and fraternization.14 Through this confradias (relationship between slaves and the Spanish), many elements of Catholicism found their way into the religious practices in cabildos. Out of this infusion of African religions and Catholicism, Lucumi was born. Lucumi Ideology The ideological beliefs found in the Lucumi religion contain unmistakable parallels with Catholicism. Just like Catholics, the Lucumi believe the universe consists of two planes: Aye (earth), and Orun (the metaphysical, or heaven).15 They also believe in a spiritual hierarchy, which ranges from Oludumare (the almighty god), to the orisha16 (lesser spirits), and humans. Oludumare is believed to be the creator of everything, and because he is beyond the comprehension of human understanding, orisha serve as intermediaries between him and man. Just like the catholic saints, orisha have many

13

Bascom, The Focus of Cuban Santeria, 47. Bascom, The Focus of Cuban Santeria, 46. Cornelius, Personalizing Public Symbols Through Music Ritual, 44. In Lucumi language this word is both singular and plural 4

14

15

16

human-like qualities, which are recorded in mythological stories called pataki. Some orisha are believed to predate man, while others are historical figures, such as Changothe third Yoruba king of Oyo, who became deified after his death.17 Orisha are also connected to each other through kinships ties and social encounters, and are closely related to different elements of Aye, such as thunder, iron and rivers.18 Egun, or ancestors, are also very important in the Lucumi faith and are worshiped separately from orisha. After death, humans are believed to live a spiritual existence, as Egun, in which they can watch over and protect their families.19 Some Egun are believed to be evil, and when angered, can posses a practitioner, which is considered to be shameful. Practitioners of the Lucumi faith go by many different names: santos, santero, santera, babalocha, and iyalocha. Their membership into the faith consists of three basic levels: those who have received elekes (necklaces of the orisha), those who have received guerreros (four specific orisha), and those who have gone through Kari Ocha (an initiation ceremony). In the initial entry, after receiving elekes, a member is attached to a santero, who will then be referred to as padrino (godparent). In the next phase, members must go through a process in which they receive the guerreros, or four orisha (Elegun,

17

Bascom, The Focus of Cuban Santeria, 58. Bascom, The Focus of Cuban Santeria, 58. Bascom, The Focus of Cuban Santeria, 63. Cornelius, Personalizing Public Symbols Through Music Ritual, 52. 5

18

19

20

Ogun, Ochosi, and Osun), from a priest, referred to as a babalawo. Finally, the initiate is assigned an orisha who acts almost like a guardian angel. In the process called Kari Ocha, a babalawo helps the orisha be "seated" into the initiate's head.21 Worship Religious ceremonies, usually taking place in the house of a santo, can be organized for a number of reasons: to pay homage to an orisha, to have an initiate's Kari Ocha, to commemorate one's admittance into the religion, or to express gratitude for the support an orisha has given or in anticipation of it. These ceremonies, which

incorporate singing, dancing, and drumming, are considered to be a party for both the people and orisha to enjoy.23 They often take months to plan and are referred to by various names: bembes, tambores, toques, guemileres, and presentations to Ana. The typical structure of a bembe consists of three main sections: the Oru, the Iban Balo, and the Cerrado. The purpose of the Oru is to pay homage to the orisha; it usually starts with the Oru Seco (translates to dry), which consists of only batd drumming, and then ends with the Oru cantado, where songs are sung for the orisha accompanied by batd drums. During the Oru Seco, twenty-two toques (rhythmic compositions performed by a set of batd) are used to honor each of the twenty-two orisha. This process takes place in front of an altar in a small room, and usually lasts

Bascom, The Focus of Cuban Santeria, 76. Amira and Cornelius, The Music of Santeria, 21. Bascom, The Focus of Cuban Santeria, 96. 6

between twenty and thirty minutes. Sometimes attendees of the bembe will quietly observe the Oru Seco, but often they will just wait in a larger room until it is completed. While the Oru Seco is not always required at every bembe, it is often considered to be the most sacred section since it is played directly to the orisha.24 Chapter three will closely examine four toques of the Oru Seco. The Oru cantado is used to honor each santero present at the bembe. During this process songs, accompanied by batd, are sung for one orisha at a time. When a santero hears the songs associated with his personal orisha, he is supposed to come forward and dance. The Oru cantado is lead by the apon (lead singer), who is also in charge of leading the call and response. Once the Oru is completed, the Iban Bah, or fiesta, begins. This section uses dance, songs and praise to invoke the orisha to mount (possess) the attendees. Once a person enters a trance, and becomes possessed by an orisha, the drummers are required to keep playing: stopping while one is possessed is considered to be abandonment of the orisha, a sin punishable by that orisha.25 During the Iban Balo the apon will usually sing many songs for the orisha being celebrated, but is free to choose different songs that he feels will increase the level of energy in the room.

Amira and Cornelius, The Music ofSanteria, 21. Nodal, The Social Evolution of the Afro-Cuban Drum, 166. Amira and Cornelius, The Music ofSanteria, twenty-two . 7

The final section of a bembe is called the Cerrado, or close, and is used to formally end the event. In this section a short liturgy is given, followed by songs and rhythms meant to divide human and orisha into their separate domains, Orun and Aye.21 During the Cerrado, a bucket of water sits next to the batd at the end of the ceremony, it is emptied out by a santero, who then dances with the empty bucket before placing it upside down next to the drummers. Once the empty bucket has been set down, the drummers may finally stop.

27

Bascom, The Focus of Cuban Santeria, 206. 8

CHAPTER 2 BATA DRUMS Batd are double-headed drums, whose hourglass shape are said to represent the ax of Chango, the Orisha who "owns" the drums.28 A set of batd contains three separate drums, each played by a different drummer. In Havana style these drums are laid horizontally across the laps of the players, so that the larger side is played with the right hand, and the smaller side by the left. In Matanzas style, drummers often reverse the drums so that the smaller side is in the right hand, but this paper focuses on only the Havana style of performance. The smaller drumhead is referred to as the cha (translates to butt); this side produces a high frequency slap sound. The larger drumhead is called the enu (mouth), and can produce a variety of tones, which are used for conversation between the drums. Traditionally, batd were cut from one piece of wood. It was believed that because the batd drum is a symbol of unity, it should be hollowed out from a single log.29 Today, manufactures often produce batd through a process of gluing together slats of wood. This method is much easier and less wasteful. In spite of losing some symbolic integrity, slatted drums often sound just as good as hollowed out drums, and can be produced at a

28

Amira and Cornelius, The Music ofSanteria, 15. Amira and Cornelius, The Music ofSanteria, 15. 9

29

much lower price. Manufacturers also prefer to construct batd with a hardware method for tuning, rather than the traditional rope method. Hardware drums are constructed with metal lugs screwed into both ends of the drum. These lugs are connected to a metal hoop in which the head is set. To tune, the player simply tightens the tuning screws with a wrench. Some santeros are opposed to hardware drums because they believe "Chango's drums" should not contain any metal or iron, since these materials are associated with Ogun, Chango's enemy.30 The traditional method for tuning contains no metal at all, instead, a system of ropes are wrapped around the drum and attached to a wood hoop in which the head is set. This method is far more time consuming and requires daily maintenance, which is why many batd drummers outside of the religion prefer hardware drums. Two different types of skins are used on batd: goatskin (cut from a male goat), and calfskin. Goatskin is the most common material used with traditional rope drums; it is slightly thinner than calfskin and produces a warmer tone. Calfskin is more commonly used on hardware drums; it is thicker than goatskin, and has a louder, more powerful tone and slap. Often times a thin ring of clay is pressed into the enu head in order to help produce a warmer tone, and eliminate some of the ring. This piece of clay is considered to be the belly button of the drum and is referred to as the ida (In Lucumi) oxfardela (Spanish). Some drummers wrap the iyd drum with strings of bells, which ring freely as

Amira and Cornelius, The Music ofSanteria, 14. 10

the drum is being played. These bells are called tchaworo, and are often associated with Ochiin, Chango's wife, although not all santeros agree with this.31 Sacred Drums Fundamento are sacred batd drums that may only be played by those who have undergone a special initiation. Drummers outside of the religion may only play on nonsacred drums, which are referred to as aberikula. In order to be considzredi fundamento, a set of batd must undergo a lengthy process in which ceremonies, songs and offerings are used to consecrate them. During these ceremonies other sacred Fundamento are played in the presence of the new drums, in order to "send the new drums their voice."32 After this process is completed, the drums are considered sacred and contain a living spiritAha, the orisha of drums and sounds. Those outside of the religion know little about this orisha.33 Once a drum has been consecrated, it will remain that way unless it becomes damaged or destroyed. Before use in a ceremony, fundamento must be "fedAka Inale." This is a process in which the drums are placed on a mat while a babalawo (priest) kills a rooster or chicken, and mixes its liver, heart, feet and wings with a mixture of water and alcohol.34 This mixture is placed next to the drums, after being heated, so

31

Amira and Cornelius, The Music ofSanteria, 15. Nodal, The Social Evolution of the Afro-Cuban Drum, 167. Cornelius, Personalizing Public Symbols Through Music Ritual, 42. Nodal, The Social Evolution of the Afro-Cuban Drum, 166. 11

32

33

34

the drums can "eat the food's spirits."

When not in use, fundamento are never allowed

to touch the floor; they must be hung from the ceiling in a special room in which only Santeros are allowed to enter. A set of batd contains three drums: the iyd (largest drum), itotele (middle sized), and okonkolo (smallest drum). Each drum has its own characteristics and purpose within the music. The okonkolo drum is often associated with Eleggua, who is childlike, small and mischievous.36 Its role is mostly that of a timekeeper; it usually plays on the stronger pulses and has the least complicated parts. The chachd and end produce only one sound each; these two tones are assigned the syllables "Ki" (open tone), and "La" (slap). The iyd player utilizes these syllables so the he can verbally teach the okonkolo player his parts while playing the iyd. The most common pattern played by the okonkolo is referred to as "Ki La." In this pattern, the "Ki" lands on the pickup notes, and the "La" is placed on the pulses. This is the first pattern used in the Oru Seco and is used constantly throughout. All batd drummers must become proficient on the okonkolo before advancing to the itotele. The itotele is considered to be more of a responder than a timekeeper, however, the itotele player must be careful to maintain a steady sense of time. This drum is often considered to be the most difficult, because the performer must respond to every "call" played by the iyd player. Calls are parts played by the iyd, outside of its regular pattern

Nodal, The Social Evolution of the Afro-Cuban Drum, 166. Schweitzer, Afro-Cuban bata Drum Aesthetics, 97. 12

or variations, which require a response from the itotele. Oftentimes calls are short and the itotele player must anticipate what the iyd player is going to do in order to respond appropriately and in time. When not responding to calls, the itotele usually completes hocketed melodies between its open tone and the iyd, while its chachd side generally fills in the time between the pulses. Quite often, when in 12/8, the itotele player must play slaps with the left hand on the second eighth note of every beat, while the right hand plays various patterns against it. This is very difficult and requires a high level of coordination and inter-independence between hands. The iyd (mother) is the lead drum and is responsible for nearly every element of the music from tempo and flow to beginning and stopping. In cases where there is singing, the iyd player is also responsible for calling the other drummers into the appropriate toques (patterns). This requires a vast knowledge and deep understanding of the hundreds of songs and toques. The iyd player must be able to quickly recognize a song, and immediately pick the correct toque to accompany it based on whom it is for, the tempo, and the level of energy. While the iyd player has basic parts that he is expected to play for each toque, he is given some freedom to do variations that can change the feel or flow of a toque, while maintaining the rhythmic structure of the basic pattern. Only after becoming proficient on both the okonkolo and itotele is a batd drummer aloud to learn the iyd. Technique There are four basic tones produced on a batd drum: open, muff, slap and touches. A different technique is used for each tone, and each drum requires slightly 13

different hand positions. In general, the larger the drum, the greater the amount of hand needed to make contact with the head. It is also important to remember that, no matter what tone is being played, the drum should be struck using force from bending the wrist, rather than the arms. Using force from the arms is tiring and dangerous for the player's back and shoulders. Playing for extended periods of time, which usually happens with batd music, can be difficult, if not impossible while using poor technique. To produce an open tone, the first three or four fingers of the right hand are used to strike the enu side. In order for this tone to be clear, it is important that the fingers quickly roll off of the head, so it is free to vibrate. Leaving one's hand on the head will result in an unclear, or muff tone. To produce a clear open tone on the okonkolo, only the fingertips should make contact with the head. On the itotele, the hand needs to slide further over the head so that contact is being made with the area from the fingertips to between the second and third knuckles. When playing the iyd, the hand should be all the way over the head, so that even parts of the palm are hitting. Muff tones require the same basic technique as open tones, but the hand will remain on the head after striking, producing a shorter, slightly higher pitch. Slaps are accomplished through keeping the fingers very relaxed, and slightly curved, so that they produce a crisp staccato tone. Extra force is not necessary to accomplish a slap; beginners often do this, usually resulting in hand injuries. Slaps are the most difficult technique and require the most time to develop. The last kind of tone played on batd is called a touch. Touches are not meant to be as loud as the other tones; they are instead used as a method to help keep the time. 14

When playing difficult rhythms, tapping the fingers gently on each pulse will keep the batd drummer anchored to the beat. Touches will often be audible to the listener, but they should never distract from the other tones or clutter the rhythms being played. Keeping the drum from sliding off of one's lap is another technique that must be developed. Batd, especially rope drums, tend to slide to the opposite side of which they are being struck. If the pattern being played alternates between the left and right hand, then sliding is usually not a problem, but if multiple tones are being produced on one side, the drum will tend to slide to the other side. In order to keep the drum from sliding, it is important that both hands remain rested on the drum when not in the process of striking. This requires that, after playing a tone, the weight of the hand get shifted back so the palm rests on the rim of the drum. Sometimes straps are wrapped around the legs to keep the batd from sliding, but beginners are often not allowed to use straps so that they are forced to learn good technique. When playing a tone, it is also important that the opposite head be dampened to eliminate any sympathetic vibration. Sympathetic vibrations can be especially loud on rope drums, and make it hard to distinguish the different tones. Transmission of Drumming Tradition Traditionally, only believers with high moral standards were allowed to learn how to play batd drums. If a person wanted to learn, he must first become an assistant to the drummers, referred to as ayamboki.37 Yamboki are responsible for repairing, cleaning,

Nodal, The Social Evolution of the Afro-Cuban Drum, 167. 15

and moving the drums. They are also expected to attend all rituals to learn the patterns,
TO

which they will later practice by themselves.

Once the olubata (master drummer)

agrees to teach the student, he will always start with the okonkolo parts. The olubata will teach parts by singing and by playing them on the drum. It is common for teachers to stand in front of the student and reach backwards to play the drum, which is resting on the student's lap. Typically a student will study the okonkolo for two years before advancing to the itotele; then the itotele will be studied for several more years. In order to learn the iyd parts, a batd drummer must first prove himself competent on both the okonkolo and itotele. Typically, the iyd takes three to four years of study before the student is ready to play in a ceremony. Once a drummer becomes competent on the iyd, he is considered a "kpuataki."39 Each batd toque is a miniature piece, used to honor, or make salutes to a specific orisha. Toques are comprised of four different structural elements: roads, calls, conversations, and variations. A road can be defined as a major section of the toque; a typical toque will contain between one and five roads. Usually each road has its own unique personally, which is attributed to one of the different characteristics of the orisha whom it is for. Within a toque, calls are played by the iyd player in order to cue the other drummers that either a new road or a conversation is about to start. Conversations are

Bascom, The Focus of Cuban Santeria, 85. Nodal, The Social Evolution of the Afro-Cuban Drum, 167. 16

short interactions that usually take place between the iyd and itotele player. Some conversations are played just once before returning to the basic part, while others are repeated until called out by the iyd player. Calls can sometimes be difficult to distinguish from variations, so it is important that the itotele and okonkolo players remain focused and ready for a call at all times. Variations are embellishments that the iyd player can do to help change the flow or energy at any given moment. To play a variation the iyd player must "take the basic rhythm and, while maintaining its basic structural outline, reinterpret the structure to produce a new pattern"40 Music Elements of Toques The tones and melodies produced between the iyd and itotele are frequently used to mimic the language and songs of the Lucumi. Some Lucumi words spoken through the drums are unmistakable, such as "Di-de," which means let's move on, or proceed.41 This phrase is frequently spoken on the iyd through an open tone followed by a muff. "Di-de" is most often used at the end of a toque to cue the other drummers to stop so they can proceed to the next toque. The most typical meters found in batd music are 4/4 and 12/8, although odd time signatures such as 7/4 or 3/4 are frequently used as well. It is important to note that toques continually switch between duple and triple feels. This change can take place between major sections, like roads, but frequently happen on smaller levels, as in the

Schweitzer, Afro-Cuban bata Drum Aesthetics, 53. Schweitzer, Afro-Cuban bata Drum Aesthetics, 66. 17

middle of phrases. It is important for a batd player to always think in duple even when playing in triple, and vice versa. A cross between duple and triple feels is often used as well: this produces a swing feel that cannot be transcribed by standard western notation. This is often referred to as "fix," a combination of feels in four and six.42 Learning this feel is difficult and requires listening and studying with a teacher: one cannot learn batd through reading music alone. Some toques also allow for improvisation by both the iyd and itotele player. Usually these improvisations are short and have a strict structure to them. It may be difficult, for the untrained ear, to distinguish these improvisations from call and responses. A closer examination of the different uses of improvisation in the Oru Seco will be explored in the following chapter.

42

Spiro, The Conga Drummer's Guidebook, 38. 18

CHAPTER 3 THE ORU SECO In the Oru Seco, a toque is played for each orisha in the Lucumi pantheon. Beginning with Eleggua, orisha of the crossroads, there is a specific order that must be followed each time the Oru Seco is played. Most houses play them in the following order: Eleggua, Ogun, Ochosi, Obaloke, Inle, Babalu Aye, Osain, Osun, Obatala, Dada, Oggue, Aggayu, Orunmila, Oricha Oko, Ibeyi, Chango, Yegua, Oya, Ochun, Yemaya, Obba, and Oddudua. Despite having a strict structure and order, the amount of time spent on each toque will vary based on how the iyd player prefers to play it; typically they all last between one and four minutes. The following section examines the first four toques of the Oru Seco: Eleggua, Ogun, Ochosi, and Obaloke, and applies them to drum set. First, a transcription of the traditional toque is provided, followed by a brief paragraph describing the personal characteristics of the corresponding orisha. Next, an analysis of the toque's form and structure is presented, both verbally and with a graphic illustration. Then there is an analysis of the traditional toque, focusing on: rhythmic feel, rules, uses of conversation and improvisation. Finally, an analysis of the drum set adaptations is provided, followed by the methods used for each orchestration, a transcription, and performance suggestions

19

All of the transcriptions are derived from recordings of lessons and interviews I have had with Santeros and other teachers. Even though I have made these transcriptions as accurate as possible, it should be stressed that no one should learn batd through transcriptions alone. It is impossible to capture the feel and purpose behind a toque without the help of a teacher. It should also be noted that, because batd toques involve six heads being played at a single time, they are tricky to play on drum set. A drum set player only has four limbs, so it is physically impossible to play toques without omitting notes here and there. In the process of composing these adaptations for drum set, I only omitted notes that, when missing, would not take away from the overall structure and texture of the toque. Methods Two primary methods are used for the drum set adaptations; I will refer to them as "folkloric style," and "funk style." The folkloric style attempts to keep the adaptation as true to the original parts as possible. To achieve this, the feet play the original okonkolo parts. To produce a timbre that is comparable to the okonkolo, a cowbell should be played with the right foot and a pitch block with the left foot. These can be mounted on brackets and played with pedals that are set next to the bass drum and hi-hat pedals. The iyd and itotele parts will be played on the tom-toms, snare drum, and a cowbell (mounted to the bass drum) with sticks. Despite staying true to the original parts and sounding like a true batd ensemble, the folkloric style of adaptation has its drawbacks too. Because the feet are occupied with cowbells and pitch blocks, the bass drum and hi-hat, defining components of a drum set, are not used at all. Even though

20

these are original and unique adaptations, they end up sounding similar to conga adaptations that have already been invented without the bass drum and hi-hat. The "funk style" of adaptation will take more liberties with the original parts in order to incorporate the bass drum, hi hat and cymbals. These adaptations sound more idiomatic to the instrument and are more practical in a jazz or fusion environment. Some toques work very well within the context of a whole band, while others may be too rhythmically complex and will work better in a solo context. Notes About the Transcriptions A number within a box will be used to label each road, and letters within a box will be used to label variations, see Figure 1. A box containing the term "conv" followed by a number will be used to label conversations. Calls will simply be labeled as such, and bars with repeats should be repeated as many times as the iyd player wishes. Anytime there is a meter change between 4/4 and 12/8, the pulse should always stay the same: quarter note equals dotted quarter note. Notes in parentheses should be played quieter than regular notes, or be ghosted. Eleggua: Form. Analysis, Drum Set Adaptations and Performance Suggestions Eleggua is responsible for bringing together forces for social gatherings. He is celebrated first because he is the messenger between human and the orisha; it is for this reason that he is often referred to as the orisha of the crossroads. He is also the provider of opportunities, so nothing can be accomplished without his approval.43 Eleggua is

Summers, Studies in batd, 42. 21

known to be a trickster and can cause accidents if he feels insulted or ignored.

0 0 0 |Convl| |Conv2 A B C

Roads

Conversations

Variations

FIGURE 1. Key.
Slap Open Tone

lya

Itotelc

Jfl-Jr

Muff

Okonkolo

Ghost note

FIGURE 2. Batd key.

l-l
Right Hand

J .1

1
"*
4

3
9 + +

J=L
+ + m ' (

Left Hand
s

+=

Cowbell RfdeCyrn Hi-hat | Floor Tom Middle Tom High-Tom Hi-hat (side) (muff) S n a r e Middle Tom BassD l Drum Cowbell RideCym. (open) (toot) High-Tom Drur Floor Tom " (muff) chblock _ ^ I .. F (mouth) (bell) Pttchblock ^ ^ (muff) (left foot) (rjgM|oot)

FIGURE 3. Drum set key.

44

Schweitzer, Afro-Cuban bata Drum Aesthetics, 102. 22

; Q ] [c5K7Ti; I [c^i\
FIGURE 4. Form of Eleggua.

0 1 0

There are only two conversations in this toque, and they both occur in the first road. The first one is played only once, while the second one is repeated at the discretion of the iyd player. The call out of the second conversation can either go back to the first road or directly into the second: if the iyd player wants to go into the second road, he will do a loud slap on beat four. This toque, just like Eleggua, has complex characteristics. Being the first toque, many potential students are scared away from batd after their first lesson. The opening call is perhaps the most difficult of any toque, because the first note sounds like the downbeat when, in actuality, it is a double pickup note before the downbeat. Another complex element of this piece is the constant battle between duple and triple, which is most evident in the itotele patterns. In the first road the itotele starts in triple, but on beat four it has two duple-eighth notes. The second road is the exact opposite: the itotele plays everything in duple, except beat three, which has two triple eighth notes. In the third road, friction is created between the entirely duple itotele part, and the triple based okonkolo part. Finally, in the fourth road, the conflict between duple and triple resolves with every part switching to triple based patterns. Another challenging issue for the itotele player is that, in the first and fourth roads, he has to play the second eighth note of every beat with his left hand, while his 23

right hand plays part of the melody (split between the iyd). This is the weakest beat for most musicians, but the itotele player must become fully comfortable with it in order to play through the Oru Seco. The fourth road is especially challenging because the second eighth note of every beat must be played over a long four-bar phrase. It is suggested that the itotele player practice the first two measures independently of the second two before putting the entire pattern together.

Iya Itotele

**-

*HF

Okonkolo tt^ Conv. 1

B ^ J T J P ? JTJ JTJ.TTJJ>J f j r i 1M- TJJ>J >J J"^_JJ_ J )J J J JJ J > fConv. 2

JTJjJ J J ]

-*J^ J~3- r -T3J Jr J! HJJ >J P

J3Call into 2nd Road ^

^OJP[2]

JJlJnjiyjn ; J71JJJ.TC> JT3 + + P j j .P- : ?J3J33*J P - H+ + +

s
fl-J^

J l J1-H-* J > J?- rJ^Jl-r J> J J>I >J J:

> J: J: J: J 3 ^ J j > J J J J^QvJ y j J>J

,
+

^ ^ m
+ + +
-yf-

,
+

,
+

,
+

J j j j j Jj .fr

J^rJ^ yJJJfrJJ >J

FIGURE 5: Bata transcription of Eleggua.

24

The fourth road is interesting because it has a long four bar phrase, which mimics the melody of a song for Eleggua, "Abukenke." This melody is played as open tones on the enu, which are split between iyd and itotele. As you can see from Figure 6, the iyd "sings" the lower pitch with the text, "A-bu," and the itotele "sings" the higher note "Ken ke." In the first adaptation I used the "folkloric" approach, in which the feet play the okonkolo pattern. This can be challenging at times because the feet have to play in triple continually, while the hands go in and out of duple. To perform this adaptation, one must become fully comfortable with playing two against three. It is suggested that each road be practiced separately before piecing the entire toque together.

Itotele ttIya Voice

4JL*.

J-^L

41-

J=3=3
:
A-

-*3-

j>" j J
buKen ke

J Ji ^ j JJ i i f
Abu ken ke

FIGURE 6: AbuKenke.

Slaps from the iyd and itotele parts are orchestrated on the snare drum and cowbell, which are to be played by the left hand. Some sections have a combination of duple and triple slaps, which are very difficult to play with only the left hand. To resolve this, the right hand occasionally plays the itotele slaps on the cowbell. In the second conversation, for example, the right hand plays the cowbell on the first and last beats. 25

With the majority of slaps covered with the left hand, the right hand is free to play the entire melody produced from the enu parts. This approach feels natural and is similar to playing piano: the melody is in the right hand, and the accompanying parts are in the left. To make the melody easier to play with one hand, I orchestrated the itotele's enu note on the middle torn, rather than the hi-tom. The middle torn is closer to the floor torn, which helps to avoid any awkward stick crossings. The second road has a lot of muff tones, which may be difficult for some drummers. If needed, muffs can be played as basic open tones, but they should be at a softer dynamic in order to keep them distinctive from the original open tones. The fourth road can also be difficult because the right hand must quickly go from cowbell to floor torn. It is suggested that, after playing the cowbell, the performer flip the wrist over to play the floor torn. This is quicker than sliding the entire arm back. In the second adaptation I used the "funk" method: the hi-hat mimics itotele slaps and iyd tones played on the bass drum. Optional muff tones are notated in the bass drum part; these can be executed by firmly pushing the bass drum beater into the head. For the distinction between open and muff tones to be noticeable, the bass drum must have only minimal dampening. The okonkolo is simulated on the ride cymbal with the right hand. To differentiate between tones, the bell of the cymbal should be used on each pulse to mimic the slaps. This pattern is similar to a jazz ride pattern, so it should feel natural to drum set players. In the transcription, I notated the right hand separately from the other instruments; it is much easier to read this way, because the right hand is fairly 26

independent from the other parts. The left hand completes the orchestration by placing iyd slaps on the snare drum, and itotele tones on the hi-tom.

RighHand 1II ffi * Left Hand | II ff ?

J
E

B J J > j

J*

,h/7jjj < T J\ J

r]

rprprprprpr
Conv. 2

Conv. 1

^j'
J>J JJ
Call in to 2nd Road

-n.
,jX
3 ^

JT} JJ J 7

VJ

pr pr pr
__

==3; J ya r j) ^ = ^ pT pT pT p

-rc^-TJ ^n-71^ -T3

y
I

J>J v J

++

++

pr pr pr p
B

_ri

pr pr pr p
+ + +

" _ = :

i ^ i ^

pr pr pt p

Jtt J V J . ^ ^ I J'J J'J J'J JJJl J V J . J'J ^ 1 > W * 3 J3J

^

i 7J 7 ^ ^ > 7 J-U ^ - ^ ^ ^= J J i V = ^ ^ pt pt pt p pt ^ ft p pt pt p r p pt pt pt i p
Jg\g,

+ +

FIGURE 7. Eleggua drum set adaptation one (folkloric style).

In the second road, I put the (duple) itotele upbeats on the cowbell with the left hand, while the left foot plays the second (triple) eighth note. This makes the beat work better for a funk or jazz context because it feels more stable. 27

I changed the orchestration in the third road so that it is easier to play and to draw attention to certain tones. Since the okonkolo part has an interesting motive, I featured its enu tones on the cowbell. The right hand switches between snare drum and cymbal to mimic the slaps of the iyd and okonkolo. Since the iyd and itotele both have slaps on beats one and three, I used only the snare drum on these beats, rather than the cymbal, because it is more powerful.

Pi I D

Righ Hand Left Hand

ff^j \ II B ,

* = = *

1 H

1^1

hi

j'j. n u
Conv. 2

sS

9
h

Conv. 1

M
*

M
#

JL
C i

1
" y

M
* v ~ <

M
5t *

1 !

aS
o

S
2*

*CT
J- 1 =^ J.

#2

Call into 2nd Road

1 M MM 1 > ,J M

M M

h
*

,3

5*

a
Tl II
t-m

fes p. n, J n, r^i ?r pr pr p
7 - ^
*
O O O O O O O

W
O O O O D D

AJ

A J vNJ AJ

vNJ *hJ A J vhJ ffl

AJ

AJ A J A J

vNJ A J vNJ AJ

:aJz
; M

5? ^ 5

<

J4HJ

TTl

.,

1,

5T

-M

"

#i

jt

jt **JLy#

FIGURE 8. Eleggua drum set adaptation two (funk style).

28

In the fourth road, I took an entirely different approach. The hi-hat, played by both the left foot and right hand mimics the okonkolo parts and the itotele slaps. To distinguish the different tones, the bell of the hi-hat should be used on downbeats to imitate the okonkolo slaps. The second eighth note should be played with the hi-hat slightly open to represent the okonkolo slap. Finally, to represent the okonkolo''s enu tone, the third eighth note is played with the foot pedal. I also re-orchestrated the itotele tones to be on the snare drum, rather than the hi-tom. This is a stylistic choice that I think sounds funkier and makes it more applicable in an ensemble context. It is unconventional to play the second eighth note of each beat with the left foot, but this is a good challenge for drummers. I suggest that the drum set player practice the foot pattern while improvising on top with the hands. Mastering this toque will create independence in the left foot, which provides new ideas that can be used in a jazz context. Ogun: Form, Analysis, Drum Set Adaptaitons and Performance Suggestions Ogun is the orisha of iron, weapons and war.45 He is a hard worker and is portrayed to carry a machete, which he uses to clear paths through the forest.46 Ogun is believed to provide believers with courage and strength, and helps to defend the earth.47 Ogun has a simple ABAB form, which needs little explanation. There are two options for ending this toque, which the iyd player can choose from. The first is to

Altmann, Cantos Lucumi a los Orichas, 285. Summers, Studies in batd, 49. Altmann, Cantos Lucumi a los Orichas, 285. 29

simply use the "Di De" phrase to stop before beginning the next toque. The second is to just begin the call into the next toque, which will abruptly interrupt the last road of Ogun. Most iyd players prefer the latter for its dramatic effect.

J.

JL*

I I X I

A*

FIGURE 9. Form of Ogun.

It is unusual in the Oru Seco for there to be doubling between drums, but this toque utilizes quarter note slaps in both the itotele and okonkolo. Even the iyd has a slap on every other downbeat, resulting in three slaps occurring at once. These relentless slaps dominate the texture and, creates a vivid portrayal of Ogun: orisha of iron and weapons. When listening to this toque, it is easy to imagine a blacksmith pounding iron into weapons, or a warrior slashing his way through the forest with a machete. Both of these metaphors are often used in pataki to depict Ogun. This toque also has a motive located in the second road, in which the enu of the iyd has two open notes followed by a muff. The itotele immediately responds to it with a variation of the same motive: a muff followed by two open notes. The only problematic issue in this toque is the call in. Because there is no count off, the first two notes are often mistaken for eighth notes, when in fact they consist of a dotted eighth, followed by a sixteenth note. It is vital that the itotele player make his entrance exactly on beat four, so it is suggested that he mentally prepare for the call 30

before it happens. The okonkolo part is pretty simple and remains constant throughout the toque. It is crucial, however, that the okonkolo player continually push the tempo forward. Slowing down can be detrimental to the toque and its depiction of Ogiin chopping through the forest.

a
Iya Itotele Okonkolo

" t ZJ * LT *

.ML

m ^

si

+A

j ^^-n
:
-yf-

1 :J
*

J J J

*+
*-*-

:J ^ T 3 J

J1J j~3 J = i
B

Iya variations for 1 st road

' A

II l :

J^ 9

Jr- -4

-fl-

x*x 3 ^ C=t

Iya variation for 2nd road

A-JUJ
FIGURE 10. Bata transcription of Ogun.

ii J

liJ

J > r~3

The iya player has some freedom in the first road to do variations, just as long as the pick up to beat four is still played on the enu. To increase the intensity, slaps can be played on weaker beats. An example of these slap variations is notated in Variation B. Extra notes can also be played on the enu, just as long as they do not occur on beat four. Two enu variations are notated in variation A and C. Before entering into the second road, it is typical for the iya to play variation C three times.

31

Due to its simplicity, the toque for Ogiin lends itself easily to drum set. Because the okonkolo and itotele slaps double on each pulse, there are only five separate voices, making the orchestration for drum set much easier than other toques. The overwhelming quarter note pulse also makes this toque idiomatic on drum set and applicable in an ensemble context. Using the "folkloric" method, this adaptation puts the okonkolo parts in the cowbell and pitch block, which are to be played by the feet. This frees up the hands so they only have to cover the itotele and iyd parts. In the first road, the left hand plays both the iyd slaps and enu tones of the itotele. Since there is only one itotele tone, the left hand is free to play any of the iyd slap variations, just as long as beat four is played on the torn. I chose to notate the enu tone of the itotele on the hi-tom, rather than the middle torn, because it is closer to the snare drum, making it easier for the left hand to reach. The right hand plays the iyd's enu tone on the floor torn, along with a quarter note pulse on the cowbell to mimic the doubled slaps of the itotele and okonkolo. These quarter notes also sound nice on the cymbal, but since this toque is for Ogun, the orisha of iron, the cowbell seemed more appropriate. In the second road the quarter notes are split between the hands: the left hand plays beats one and two, while the right hand plays beats three and four. I chose to split them so that the iyd motive could be kept in the right hand. This sticking is more natural because the original part is played by the iyd player's right hand. The only difficult aspect of this adaptation is that the hands have to move quickly between the cowbell and toms. The right hand does this in the first road on beat three,
32

while the left hand does this in the second road on beat two. It is suggested that the performer bend the wrists in order for the torn to be reached by a rotation of forearm, rather than using the whole arm to switch planes. This method is far more precise, and less strenuous. Because this toque is simpler than most, I felt it necessary to notate only one adaptation. There is a simple modification, however, that can make this toque more practical for an ensemble situation. Simply move the okonkolo pattern to the bass drum and hi hat. While it may seem illogical to orchestrate the smallest instrument on the bass drum, the function of these two instruments is similar. The bass drum often serves as a timekeeper in drum set music, which is the exact role of the okonkolo in batd music. When put on the bass drum, the okonkolo pattern ends up sounding very similar to funk patterns used on drum set.

Right Hand

II t \

i rJ>

Ey

nj

a
r. ^ o ^ j ,

Left Hand

iiftJ~3j J^k J

j*r

>J>>

tjr

Lff
^

ur
D

Snare Drum Variations For the 1st Road

m
itfitfl
g

" Qvpypt
0E

mu

S=fe ii J.JyJ'ff

FIGURE 11. Ogun drum set adaptation one (folkloric style).

33

Ochosi: Form, Analysis, Drum Set Adaptations and Performance Suggestions Ochosi is the orisha of the hunt. He is portrayed in paintings and idols to carry a bow and arrow and is often dancing.48 When in pursuit of a goal, believers can turn to Ochosi for help with concentration and stamina.49 Like Eleggua and Ogiin, Ochosi is a warrior who fights to protect believers from harm.50 Ochosi is also the brother of Ogun, and relies upon him to clear a path for hunting.51 In return, Ochosi provides Ogun with food. This interdependence serves as a lesson that believers must rely on each other.52

[T] [Convl| Q] \2\ [|] |Conv2l [|] f\ [T] |Conv3l [J]

FIGURE 12. Form of Ochosi.

Ochosi has many sections, and the form can be somewhat confusing. The following are the most important structural elements of Ochosi. Conversation one is repeated as many times as the iyd player wishes. To call back to the first road, the iyd

48

Summers, Studies in batd, 52. Altmann, Cantos Lucumi a los Orichas, 285. Schweitzer, Afro-Cuban bata Drum Aesthetics, 102. Schweitzer, Afro-Cuban bata Drum Aesthetics, 108. Schweitzer, Afro-Cuban bata Drum Aesthetics, 108. 34

49

50

51

52

player should play the regular call used to start the toque. The itotele and okonkolo player should respond to this call just as they did in the beginning. During the call into the second road, the itotele can switch to sixteenth-note up-beat slaps at any point. After the third road begins, the tempo should continue to accelerate. The conversation in this road is cued by an accented slap by the iyd on the second eighth note of beat two, which the itotele player will respond to on beat four with open tone eighth notes. To call back into the basic part, the iyd player uses the same call used to enter the third road. Conversation three is not repeated, but the iyd player may call it as many times as he wishes. The call into the fifth road should always happen after conversation three. The fifth road is repeated until the iyd player calls to end. Ochosi, the hunter, is saluted in this toque with several musical elements that depict a hunt. The first example of this is in the second road, where the itotele has slaps on the sixteenth note upbeats. These slaps stand out from the overall texture and are reminiscent of running footsteps, as in a chase. Batd drummers often refer to this section as the "agare," which translate to "the hunt." The itotele pattern is difficult, so it is suggested that the itotele player use touches on every beat with the right hand in order to stay rooted in time. In the third road, the itotele switches to slaps on every beat, which is suggestive of the previous toque for Ogun. This reference to Ogun, along with the accelerating tempo, depicts an image of Ogun clearing a path through the forest while Ochosi is hunting. Because the okonkolo plays on every eighth note, it is crucial that the okonkolo player

35

persists to push the time forward. The intensity should continue to build, as the tempo increases until the very end.

E
Iya Itotele Okonkolo

Convl

HHPA&OJI

+
-

-m

APAB jsppip.
J jy Jj iJVSVl,

?JJ? ^tJPi ^ J~30y~303

3UH /

/ /

.p. j . p. p.

Call into third road

1
f J J J 3 -x^
Call into fourth road [J]

r^?-n m.m
yJ J J J?J J J J 3 i m
Conv2

#->

..Jly iy j>J3
y//I_JL

J J J r}
Conv3 Call

:J J J fl:
-*f-

y^Jl :J JJr-S-i

H,

y/-*/Response r-s -X#

J)J J J

-*-

s
ii i ri?

Calltoend

iai isir-911si
r-S-

-?-*7 J 7 Jy-J=
r~s-

*+

*v^-v/-

J Jd + J >J +

M-

lA
/ / / A

^4
+

VA

FIGURE 13. Bata transcription of Ochosi.

36

Rhythmic motives are passed between the drums in two sections of this toque. The first occurs in the first conversation as two sixteenth notes followed by a rest. The okonkolo starts this motive on every downbeat, while the iyd permeates the pattern over a sixteenth note. The itotele also has this motive on the second eighth note of every other beat. All the parts combined create a steady stream of sixteenth notes, which contrasts to the first road's quarter-note pulse feel. The second motive occurs in the third conversation as four eighth notes on the enu. The iyd is first to play this pattern on beat three of the conversation. The itotele then responds with the identical pattern on beat three of the following measure. This quick call and response builds intensity before entering the final road. The first drum set adaptation of Ochosi uses the folkloric approach, with the okonkolo in the feet. The right hand plays only the enu tones, and the left hand plays mostly iyd slaps. Occasionally, when the texture gets thick, the left hand must play some of the itotele tones that are too difficult for the right hand to play. These tones are orchestrated on the middle torn so they can be easily played by the right hand. I chose to leave out the itotele slaps since they have the smallest textural role. The cowbell, representing the okonkolo open tones, plays on the same beats as the itotele slaps anyway. In the first conversation the right hand is able to play the two-note motive (mentioned earlier) of both the itotele and iyd. Because the muffs from the iyd part are only a sixteenth note away from the iyd tones, I put them in the left hand. It would be too difficult for the right hand to switch planes from floor torn to middle torn in only a single sixteenth note. 37

Right Hand

E iJjPjiJ jJ

m
[I]

Convl

T T tT S T

Left Hand

rf f t r f f f r f Fff f F T

m
Jy j J J

Call into third road

I: J A M

JlJyJ? J ^ig^j3^r^j3 ff r fr f iT tTxTtTcT

^W^ uaAM
ttrTnIff ECrftliT
Conv3 Call

B3W
Response

a
W=F?

S ^ ^ f e ^

^t

=J3H J .K-hJ 1 r^j>j i

S i

t_ltT rT rrtlrT
a
r-S ~~l

rf rfrrrf rf rf ffrf
Call to end
-31

ni * ii
1-31-S-1

r-S-

J:IJ
v J v J

1s-

w=^*
r-3-

r 31 131131 13-

+ +

vJ

vJ

Mffrrr

tltT tllltLlI tit

E5b J i J J

FIGURE 14. Ochosi drum set adaptation one (folkloric style).

In the second road I wanted to draw attention to the sixteenth-note upbeats, from the itotele part, so I put them on the cowbell, with the left hand. This pattern is very quick, so the left hand is unable to continue playing iyd slaps. Instead, I put these slaps in the right hand, but some of them are still too hard to play because the right hand is busy

38

playing the iyd's enu tones. Thus the right hand is only given those slaps that occur before an open tone on the floor torn: omitting the ones that happen before a muff. The tempo of the fourth road should be very quick, which makes it difficult for the right hand to play all of the enu tones. To solve this, I put the itotele''s single open note in the left hand. This sticking should be kept for the fifth road as well. The two-note motive of the second road makes for an interesting drumbeat. The independent physical movements of each limb resemble a dance, which requires practice for the performer to become comfortable. Because the feet are constantly moving, the drummer should use his hips as the center of gravity. The second adaptation uses the "funk" approach, placing the iyd tones in the bass drum and okonkolo slaps in the hi-hat. The left hand plays iyd slaps on the snare drum, along with itotele tones on the hi-tom. The right hand primarily plays okonkolo tones on the ride cymbal, occasionally helping out the left hand with iyd slaps and itotele tones. In the first road, I chose to omit beats three and four of the okonkolo pattern so that the right hand could play iyd slaps instead. The left hand is unable to play these because they are too close to the itotele tones. Accents were added to the itotele slaps in the second road, because these make the beat sound funkier. The performer can use the written in accents, but is encouraged to experiment with different accents. The bass drum part can also be varied to mimic the variations that iyd players normally use here. Once again muffs are written into the bass drum part, these are optional.

39

Right Hand | II f $
Left Hand

mZU

si 1

nJ

M,

Call into 3rd Road

|Conv2

. J JJJ

JJ.

ij, JU J 'T JJTJ31

g LC5lU call

[J

3^J *
o o o

JTT2_ J U J J I B J Z

, jjg JOBjjJJ. jjg jaflipa

rj-i Response

3 j> p j j i q

f ^ H
o o

> 4 ^
Call to end
o o o o

"IT^
o o o

j J JJ jTJijyjiJIJ

FIGURE 15. Ochosi drum set adaptation two (funk style).

In the fourth road extra notes were added to the okonkolo pattern because they sound nice in a jazz context. The original okonkolo part only has quarter notes, but the performer is free to play any samba or jazz ride patterns here. The final road has eighth

40

notes on the cymbal, but it may be easier to reduce them to quarter notes, as the tempo gets faster. Obaloke: Form, Analysis, Drum Set Adaptations and Performance Suggestions Obaloke is the lord of the mountain. He lives alone in the deserted heights and rugged rocks of white stone, giving rescue to Obatala.53 He also represents stability and those who are steadfast, and firm in character.54

Iya Itotele Okonkolo

J- J- I J. HP-

JU J V J JU iU -b J> y J J>J J>J * fc J^L_JL1 ^J 1 J>J>J J- iLj. J J>J>J J. Jg_

Slap Variation

Iya Improvisations

II J$J}/-/-\
Itotele Improvisations

^M^
B

ii JJJJ/yi

/ / / T J J>J

II /

3^J-

II / - / - ? j J>J

FIGURE 16. Bata transcription of Obaloke.

Obaloke has the most basic form, which consists of only one road. This toque is rhythmically simple as well: each drum has a slap on a different eighth note, which creates a constant stream of eighth notes. What makes this toque interesting is the improvisation and interplay between the iya and itotele. The iya has an open tone on beat
53

Altmann, Cantos Lucumi a los Orichas, 285. Summers, Studies in bata, 57. 41

54

one, which the itotele responds to on beats three and four (with open tones). The iyd may play enu variations at any point, as long as they land between beats one and three. These variations serve as a call in which the itotele must respond. To respond, the itotele may play any variation that takes place between beat three and the end of the measure. The itotele must respond every time the iyd does a variation. Calls can be given in repeated succession, but as soon as the iyd plays the basic part, so must the itotele player. The trickiest part about these improvisations is that the slaps from the original part must continue with the left hand while variations are being played with the right. For the iyd player, the left hand must play a slap on the pickup note to every beat. The itotele player must maintain a slap on the second eighth note of every beat. While there are several common variations that most batd drummers play, these variations are supposed to be improvised and creativity is encouraged. I have provided sample improvisations for both drums in figure 17; they are arranged from simplest to most complex. Every time this toque is played, both the iyd and itotele player should start simple before doing more complicated variations. Typically, variation A is played several times before the improvisations grow in complexity. I have included two highly contrasting adaptations for Obaloke. Because this toque consists of only one road, drum set adaptations are only practical for use as a single drumbeat or as an exercise. The first adaptation is more of a coordination and soloing exercise, while the second one is a linear funk beat that would work nicely with an ensemble.

42

RighHand EBEffi j
Left Hand

i=i

Jr

IH ^ E S t f=fr
-
-st-

JH

n.

TL TL

Iya Variations A
1 II

4-*-

> > J Jii v

* - -*-

J y

r
^

ppf
^

r
ff=?

p? f

?f

T n, n v ^ r pv f r pr
Itotele Variations

v ^v n .
f
B

^ U
f'
J

ppf

pf
j>. J

*= JE

= J

J J-

n .. n .. fi.
r ? pf
^

* fl:

r
J>J

y nv -Hv r ppf r
*

^ n

^f

J^f

B=J

=^n- J r
?F

<H

.. <n .. n ,. <n
r

n n . H . ri 5=5=
r ? pf

p?f

FIGURE 17. Obaloke drum set adaptation one with variations.

Just like the folkloric adaptation for Ochosi, the first adaptation requires a lot of balance and coordination. The feet are assigned to the okonkolo part, which is
43

rhythmically busy. The left hand is given both of the iyd and itdtele slaps, while the right hand has the enu tones. The purpose of this adaptation is to develop the coordination of improvising with the right hand, while the feet and left hand play the supporting parts. This is difficult because the left hand, starting on the weakest beat, must go from the cowbell to the snare drum. It is suggested that one variation be practiced at a time, in order to develop a vocabulary to solo with. I have included four variations for both the iyd and itdtele. I encourage the performer to invent his own variations that mimic the batd drums and to include muff tones, like variation C. Instead of using double stops in the hands, like the other adaptations, the second adaptation is strictly linear; every eighth note subdivision is played between the left and right hands, except the first. I left the first note empty so that only the bass drum and hihat are heard this sounds funkier. My instrumentation for the subdivisions are based only on the context that it would be used in a funk groove: they are not meant to mimic the slaps from which they derive. This beat sounds great as written, but the performer is free to do variations with the torn and bass drum to mimic iyd and itdtele improvisation.

RighHand

II fr \

J>

J,

J>

Left Hand 3E

f
FIGURE 18. Obaloke drum set adaptation two (funk style).

44

CHAPTER4 CONCLUSION The Lucumi have a rich history and beautifully complex system of religious traditions, which derived from a fusion of European and African cultures. There is an estimated 100 million practitioners of orisha worship (which includes Lucumi) so there needs to be a better understanding of these religions among the general public.55 In chapter one, I provided a brief background of the Lucumi and their ideological beliefs, but one chapter is not nearly enough to explore their intricate culture fully. There are many books on this subject, but the Lucumi have traditionally preferred to use oral tradition as a means to preserve their culture. Because there is such a close link between Lucumi music and religion, studying batd can also serve as a great method to learn about the culture. Before a student is taught how to play a new toque, the teacher always explains whom the toque is for, and what role that orisha plays in the religion. Many batd teachers are also practitioners of the Lucumi faith, so their students acquire first hand knowledge, while becoming a part of the oral tradition. Batd drumming can also serve as a vehicle to teach musicianship. Like any other music ensemble, playing in a batd trio requires the ability to play in unison with other

Clark, Santeria, 2. 45

performers while maintaining an individual role within the group. In any given toque, each drum has its own complex rhythmic pattern, but when played together, a rhythmically harmonious texture is created. This teaches students how to contribute to an ensemble without interfering with the overall product. The toque for Obaloke is a great example of a single entity being created through the combination of three distinct parts. In this toque, the okonkolo serves as the timekeeper with slaps on all pulses. The itotele has slaps on the second eighth note of every pulse and has end variations on the latter half of the measure. The iyd has slaps on the last eighth note of each pulse and does variations on the first half of the beat. Put together, these patterns produce a steady stream of eighth note slaps that never double and the alternating variations between the iyd and itotele enu notes create a single rhythmic phrase. To the untrained ear, this toque sounds like it is being played by a single person. Learning to play batd also develops coordination, good aural skills, and rhythmic competence. There are only four tones produced on a batd drum, but these tones require vastly different techniques. Quite often, like in the itotele part of Ogiin, a slap and an open tone must be produced at the same time. This requires the left hand to play forcefully with relaxed fingers, while the right hand plays gently with firm fingers. The simultaneous use of these contrasting techniques requires a great deal of coordination and independence of limbs. Once a batd drummer masters this toque, he or she will be able to apply these coordination skills to other instruments that require the separation of limbs. As mentioned in chapter three, batd patterns are always taught aurally without the use of written music. This develops a student's listening skills, as he must repeat and 46

memorize patterns played by the leader. Teachers often demonstrate parts without explaining where the pulse is, making them especially difficult to learn. The call to Eleggua, for example, does not start on the pulse, which is often confusing to students. After initially learning the part with an incorrect understanding of its position within the pulse, the student then has to shift his understanding of the call. This is mentally challenging, but is effective in developing rhythmic competence. Some toques consist of long phrases made up of difficult rhythms; these also develop a person's sense of rhythm. The fourth road of Eleggua, for example, is not only challenging because of its long four bar phrase, it also contains a difficult combination of duple and triple eighth notes. The itotele part is especially challenging because, during this entire road, he must also maintain the second eighth-note of each beat with his left hand. This pattern requires a lot of patience and growth from the itotele player, but once it is memorized, the student will be able to learn other patterns with greater ease. Benefits of Adapting Batd Toques to Drum Set While the ensemble lessons of batd drumming do not carry over, many other skills, mentioned earlier, can be learned through drum set adaptations of toques. The drum set requires extraordinary coordination when playing batd patterns. Instead of two hands used to play multiple tones, as in batd, the drum set requires all four limbs to move independently of each other. Mastery of these adaptations will provide the drum set player with a new sense of coordination. These adaptations will also greatly improve a drummer's rhythmic capacity. In toques like Eleggua, batd drummers must become comfortable with playing duple 47

patterns while other parts are in triple. When adapted to drum set, these contrasting patterns all have to be played by one drummer. This is much more difficult than learning the original toque on batd, and will provide the student with a much stronger rhythmic lesson. Besides their educational use, the adaptations created for this paper also provide a fresh source of beats for the drum set, which are rhythmically interesting and unique. Adapting folkloric rhythms to drum set is not a new concept; rumba, bembe, and samba have all come to be standard beats in the drum set palette. Some of these adaptations appeared as early as the 1930's in songs like: "Caravan," by Juan Tizol, "Minnie the Moocher," and "The Congo-Congo," by Cab Calloway.56 Many great bebop musicians, such as Dizzy Gillespie and Stan Kenton, also started incorporating traditional AfroCuban and Afro-Brazilian rhythms in the late 1940's.57 With this surge of Afro-Cuban and Brazilian rhythms being adapted to drum set, it is a surprise that batd rhythms have not yet become popular for drum set use. The drum set adaptations in this paper are also significant because they incorporate the use of non-traditional tones and instruments. Muff tones, for example, are not traditionally played on the drum set. All of the "folkloric style" adaptations of this paper utilize these tones. The role of the toms is also different; each of these adaptations features toms as the main focus of the beat. Typically toms are only used for

Malabe and Weiner, Afro-Cuban Rhythms for Drum set, 6. Malabe and Weiner, Afro-Cuban Rhythms for Drum set, 6. 48

fill-ins. They are seldom incorporated into a beat. Finally, it is not common for cowbells and pitch blocks to be played by the feet in drum set music. As discussed in chapter four, the bass drum and hi-hat are defining characteristics of the drum set, replacing them with other instruments is not common. It is for this reason that I provided two methods of adaptations. Since both the "funk" and "folkloric" adaptations have their benefits and drawbacks, using a combination of the two is highly encouraged. In a solo context, the performer can switch between styles for each road. This will require a lot of foot shifting, but musically, it will be very exciting.

49

APPENDIX GLOSSARY OF TERMS

50

GLOSSARY OF TERMS Aberikula Aka Inale Ana Apon Aye Babalawo Babalocha Batd Bembe Cabildos Cerrado Chachd Confradias Egun Elekes Enu Fundamento Guerreros Iban Balo Ida Itotele lyd Iyalocha Kari Ocha Kpuataki Nation Okonkolo Olubata Oludumare Orisha Oru cantado Oru Seco Orun Padrino Santera Santerfa Bata drums that are not consecrated Feeding the drums The orisha that is said to live within a consecrated batd Vocal soloist Earth Religious specialist Initiated male santo Double-headed drum used in Lucumi ceremonies A Lucumi ceremony which incorporates batd drums and singing Social clubs designed for African slaves in Cuba to have an outlet for social expression and community development The final section of a bembe The smaller head on a batd A brotherhood between cabildos and the Catholic Church Ancestors Necklace The larger side of a batd drum Consecrated batd drums A ceremony where the initiate receives four different orisha. The second section of a bembe Piece of clay stuck to the enu heads of the iyd and itotele The middle sized batd drum The largest batd drum Initiated female santera Initiation ceremony Iyd player A reference to African geographic and ethnic origins The smallest batd drum Master batd drummer The almighty creator in the Lucumi pantheon Lucumi orisha, often compared to catholic saints Section of the Oru which has singing Section of the Oru which has no singing or dancing The metaphysical world, home of Oludumare Name given to the santero in charge of training a new initiate Female member of the Lucumi Another term for Lucumi 51

Santero Santo Tambor Tchaworo Toque Yamboki

Male member of the Lucumi Male member of the Lucumi Another term for bembe Bells strung around the iyd drum A rhythmic composition Assistant to batd drummers

52

BIBLIOGRAPHY

53

BIBLIOGRAPHY Altmann, Thomas. Cantos Lucumi a los Orichas. Brooklyn, New York: Descarga, 1998. Amira, John, and Steven Cornelius. The Music ofSanteria: Traditional Rhythms of the Batd Drums. Temple, AZ: White Cliffs Media, 1999. Bascom, William R. "The Focus of Cuban Santeria." Southwestern Journal of Anthropology 6, no. 1 (Spring, 1950): 64-68. Bradon, George. Santeria from Africa to the New World. Indianapolis: Indiana University Press, 1993. Clark, Mary Ann. Santeria: Correcting the Myths and Uncovering the Realities of a Growing Religion. Westport, CT: Praeger Publisher, 2007. Cornelius, Steven. "Personalizing Public Symbols Through Music Ritual: Santeria's Presentation to Ana." Latin American Music Review 16, no. 1 (Summer 1995): 42-57. De La Torre, Miguel A. Santeria: Beliefs and Rituals of a Growing Religion in America. Cambridge: Wm.B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., 2004. Houk, James T. Spirits, Blood, and Drums: The Orisha Religion in Trinidad. Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1995. Malabe, Frank, and Bob Weiner. Afro-Cuban Rhythms for Drum set. Manhattan: Manhattan Music, Inc., 1990. Marcuzzi, Michael. A Historical Study of the Ascendant Role of batd Drumming in Cuban Orisa Worship. Toronto: York University, 2005. Nodal, Roberto. "The Social Evolution of the Afro-Cuban Drum." The Black Perspective in Music 11, no. 2 (Autumn 1993): 157-177. Nunez, Luis M. Drumming the Gods: Selections from Traditional Santeria Drumming. New Orleans: Luis M. Nunez, 1995. Sandoval, Mercedes Cros. Africa to Cuba and Beyond. Gainesville, FL: University Press of Florida, 2006. 54

Schweitzer, Kenneth. Afro-Cuban batd Drum Aesthetics: Developing Individual and Group Technique, Sound, and Identity. Maryland: Kenneth Schweitzer, 2003. Spiro, Michael. The Conga Drummer's Guidebook. Petaluma, CA: Sher Music Co., 2006. Suchlicki, Jaime. Cuba: From Columbus to Castro and Beyond. Dulles, VA: Brassey's Inc., 2002. Summers, Bill. Studies in batd: Sacred Drum of the Yoruba. Saint Louis: Bill Summers, 2002.

55