Resistance

EEE 3 A. Nerves

OBJECTIVES
Become familiar with the parameters that determine the resistance of an element and be able to calculate the resistance from the given dimensions and material characteristics. Understand the effects of temperature on the resistance of a material and how to calculate the change in resistance with temperature. Develop some understanding of superconductors and how they can affect future development in the industry.
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OBJECTIVES
Become familiar with the broad range of commercially available resistors available today and how to read the value of each from the color code or labeling. Become aware of a variety of elements such as thermistors, photoconductive cells, and varistors and how their terminal resistance is controlled.

INTRODUCTION
This opposition to the flow of charge through an electrical circuit, called resistance, has the units of ohms and uses the ree! letter omega "#$ as its symbol. The graphic symbol for resistance, which resembles the cutting edge of a saw.
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INTRODUCTION

FI . 3.! Resistance symbol and notation.

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INTRODUCTION
This opposition, due primarily to collisions and friction between the free electrons and other electrons, ions, and atoms in the path of motion, converts the supplied electrical energy into heat that raises the temperature of the electrical component and surrounding medium. The heat you feel from an electrical heater is simply due to current passing through a high'resistance material.
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RESISTANCE" CIRCU#AR $IRES The resistance of any material is due primarily to four factors)
* Material * Length * Cross-sectional area * Temperature of the material

RESISTANCE" CIRCU#AR $IRES

The atomic structure determines how easily a free electron will pass through a material. The longer the path through which the free electron must pass, the greater is the resistance factor. ,ree electrons pass more easily through conductors with larger crosssectional areas.
* -n addition, the higher the temperature of the conductive materials, the greater is the internal vibration and motion of the components that ma!e up the atomic structure of the wire, and the more difficult it is for the free electrons to find a path through the material.

RESISTANCE" CIRCU#AR $IRES

The first three elements are related by the following basic e/uation for resistance)

RESISTANCE" CIRCU#AR $IRES

FI . 3.% Factors affecting the resistance of a conductor.

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RESISTANCE" CIRCU#AR $IRES

TAB#E 3.! Resistivity (p) of various materials.

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RESISTANCE" CIRCU#AR $IRES

FI . 3.3 Cases in hich R2 ! R1. For each case" all remaining parameters that control the resistance level are the same.

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RESISTANCE" CIRCU#AR $IRES

Circ&'ar (i's )C(*
-n 3/. "3.1$, the area is measured in a /uantity called circ&'ar mi's "45$. -t is the /uantity used in most commercial wire tables, and thus it needs to be carefully defined. The mil is a unit of measurement for length and is related to the inch by
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RESISTANCE" CIRCU#AR $IRES

Circ&'ar (i's )C(*

FI . 3.+ #efining the circular mil (CM).

FI . 3., $erification of %&. ('.()) *CM + (dmils)(.

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RESISTANCE" CIRCU#AR $IRES

Circ&'ar (i's )C(*

FI . 3.- %,ample '.(. FI . 3.. %,ample '.'.

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$IRE TAB#ES
The wire table was designed primarily to standardi6e the si6e of wire produced by manufacturers. 7s a result, the manufacturer has a larger mar!et, and the consumer !nows that standard wire si6es will always be available. The table was designed to assist the user in every way possible8 it usually includes data such as the cross'sectional area in circular mils, diameter in mils, ohms per 1222 feet at 2294, and weight per 1222 feet.

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$IRE TAB#ES

TAB#E 3.% *merican -ire .age (*-.) si/es.

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$IRE TAB#ES

FI . 3./ 0opular

ire si/es and some of their areas of application. 1.

$IRE TAB#ES

FI . 3.0 %,ample '.1.

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TE(1ERATURE EFFECTS
Temperature has a significant effect on the resistance of conductors, semiconductors, and insulators.
* * * * * * Con2&ctors Semicon2&ctors Ins&'ators In3erre2 A4so'&te Tem5erat&re Tem5erat&re Coe33icient o3 Resistance 11(67C
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TE(1ERATURE EFFECTS

FI . 3.!8 #emonstrating the effect of a positive and a negative temperature coefficient on the resistance of a conductor.

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TE(1ERATURE EFFECTS

FI . 3.!! %ffect of temperature on the resistance of copper.

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TE(1ERATURE EFFECTS

TAB#E 3.3 2nferred absolute temperatures (Ti). 23

TE(1ERATURE EFFECTS

TAB#E 3.+ Temperature coefficient of resistance for various conductors at (34C. 2%

T91ES OF RESISTORS
Fi:e2 Resistors

:esistors are made in many forms, but all belong in either of two groups) fi;ed or variable. The most common of the low' wattage, fi;edtype resistors is the film resistor.

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T91ES OF RESISTORS
Fi:e2 Resistors

FI . 3.!% Film resistors) (a) construction5 (b) types.

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T91ES OF RESISTORS
Fi:e2 Resistors

FI . 3.!3 Fi,ed-composition resistors) (a) construction5 (b) appearance.

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T91ES OF RESISTORS
Fi:e2 Resistors 4arbon'composition resistors are very common.
* Two metal leads are separated by a section of carbon. * The resistance is determined by the purity of the carbon.

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T91ES OF RESISTORS
Fi:e2 Resistors

FI . 3.!+ Fi,ed metal-o,ide resistors of different attage ratings.

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T91ES OF RESISTORS
Fi:e2 Resistors

FI . 3.!, $arious types of fi,ed resistors.

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T91ES OF RESISTORS
Fi:e2 Resistors -ntegrated resistors are micro'miniature components that are constructed using semi'conductor materials other than carbon.
* <everal resistors are often found in a single pac!age. * They are usually restricted to low'power applications.

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T91ES OF RESISTORS
Fi:e2 Resistors =ire'wound resistors use the length of the wire to determine its resistance.
* They are used in high'power applications.

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T91ES OF RESISTORS
Fi:e2 Resistors
>o resistor is perfect.
* -ts actual resistance will fall within a certain range of resistance values.

This range of resistance values is called the tolerance of the component.

* -t is e;pressed as a percentage of the rated "nominal$ value. * ,or e;ample, a 332 # resistor with a 2? tolerance can vary by 330 2% 6.6 * This means that the actual resistance will fall within the range of 33(.( # to 323.% #.
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T91ES OF RESISTORS
Varia4'e Resistors @ariable resistors, as the name implies, have a terminal resistance that can be varied by turning a dial, !nob, screw, or whatever seems appropriate for the application. They can have two or three terminals, but most have three terminals. -f the two' or three'terminal device is used as a variable resistor, it is usually referred to as a rheostat.
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T91ES OF RESISTORS
Varia4'e Resistors -f the three'terminal device is used for controlling potential levels, it is then commonly called a 5otentiometer. 3ven though a three'terminal device can be used as a rheostat or a potentiometer "depending on how it is connected$, it is typically called a potentiometer when listed in trade maga6ines or re/uested for a particular application.
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T91ES OF RESISTORS
Varia4'e Resistors
7 potentiometer is a 3' terminal resistor whose value can be adAusted by the user.
* The resistance between the middle terminal, called the wiper arm, and the two outer terminals changes as the shaft is rotated. * <tandard terminal and resistance designations are shown in the figure.

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T91ES OF RESISTORS
Varia4'e Resistors 7lthough the resistance between the center terminal and the outer terminals changes as the shaft rotates, the resistance between the outer terminals does not. This relationship can be e;pressed as

:74 B :7B C :B4

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T91ES OF RESISTORS
Varia4'e Resistors
Taper is the rate at which potentiometer resistance changes as the shaft rotates.
* There is linear taper and nonlinear taper.

The resistance rating of a pot is the resistance between the outer terminals. Multiturn potentiometers have better resolution.
* 7 smaller change in resistance occurs for the amount of rotation.

ang'mounted potentiometers may use a single shaft to adAust resistance or separate shafts.
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T91ES OF RESISTORS
Varia4'e Resistors
7 rheostat is a 2'terminal variable resistor.
* They are used primarily to control current.

Dotentiometers are commonly wired as rheostats.

* This is done simply by connecting the wiper to either of the outer terminals.

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T91ES OF RESISTORS
Varia4'e Resistors

FI . 3.!- 0otentiometer) (a) symbol5 (b) and (c) rheostat connections5 (d) rheostat symbol.

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T91ES OF RESISTORS
Varia4'e Resistors

FI . 3.!. Molded composition-type potentiometer. "4ourtesy of 7llen'Bradley 4o.$

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T91ES OF RESISTORS
Varia4'e Resistors

FI . 3.!/ Resistance components of a potentiometer) (a) bet een outside terminals5 (b) bet een iper arm and each outside terminal.

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T91ES OF RESISTORS
Varia4'e Resistors

FI . 3.!0 $ariable resistors) (a) 6 mm ( 78'( in.) trimmer (courtesy of 9ourns" 2nc.)5 (b) conductive plastic and cermet elements (courtesy of :oney ell Clarostat)5 (c) three-point ire- ound resistor.

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T91ES OF RESISTORS
Varia4'e Resistors

FI . 3.%8 0otentiometer control of voltage levels.

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CO#OR CODIN AND STANDARD RESISTOR VA#UES

7 wide variety of resistors, fi;ed or variable, are large enough to have their resistance in ohms printed on the casing. <ome, however, are too small to have numbers printed on them, so a system of co'or co2in; is used. ,or the thin'film resistor, four, five, or si; bands may be used. The four'band scheme is described. Eater in this section the purpose of the fifth and si;th bands will be described.
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CO#OR CODIN AND STANDARD RESISTOR VA#UES

FI . 3.%! Color coding for fi,ed resistors.

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CO#OR CODIN AND STANDARD RESISTOR VA#UES

FI . 3.%% Color coding.

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CO#OR CODIN AND STANDARD RESISTOR VA#UES

FI . 3.%3 %,ample '.;;.

FI . 3.%+ %,ample '.;(.

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CO#OR CODIN AND STANDARD RESISTOR VA#UES

FI . 3.%, Five-band color coding for fi,ed resistors.

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CO#OR CODIN AND STANDARD RESISTOR VA#UES

-n most cases, the value of a resistor is indicated by a series of color bands.
* Band 1 is the first digit * Band 2 is the second digit * Band 3 is the multiplier * Band % is the tolerance

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CO#OR CODIN AND STANDARD RESISTOR VA#UES

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CO#OR CODIN AND STANDARD RESISTOR VA#UES

This resistorFs color bands are) orange B 3 blue B ( brown B 1 The resistance value e/uals

(36 10 ) 360
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CO#OR CODIN AND STANDARD RESISTOR VA#UES

The fourth band on the resistor is the tolerance band. ,or a four'band resistor, the tolerance bands are
* :ed B 2? * old B &? * <ilver B 12?

,or the resistor shown, the band is gold so the tolerance is &?.
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CO#OR CODIN AND STANDARD RESISTOR VA#UES

TAB#E 3., <tandard values of commercially available resistors.

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CO#OR CODIN AND STANDARD RESISTOR VA#UES

>o resistor is perfect.
* -ts actual resistance will fall within a certain range of resistance values.

This range of resistance values is called the tolerance of the component.

* -t is e;pressed as a percentage of the rated "nominal$ value. * ,or e;ample, a 332 # resistor with a 2? tolerance can vary by 330 2% 6.6 * This means that the actual resistance will fall within the range of 33(.( # to 323.% #.
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CO#OR CODIN AND STANDARD RESISTOR VA#UES

FI . 3.%- .uaranteeing the full range of resistor values for the given tolerance) (a) (3=5 (b) ;3=.

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CO#OR CODIN AND STANDARD RESISTOR VA#UES S&r3ace (o&nt Resistors

-n general, surface mount resistors are mar!ed in three ways) color coding, three symbols, and two symbols.
* The co'or co2in; is the same as Aust described earlier in this section for through'hole resistors. * The three<s=m4o' approach uses three digits. The first two define the first two digits of the value8 the last digit defines the power of the power'of'ten multiplier.
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CO#OR CODIN AND STANDARD RESISTOR VA#UES S&r3ace (o&nt Resistors

The t>o<s=m4o' mar!ing uses a letter followed by a number. The letter defines the value as in the following list. >ote that all the numbers of the commercially available list of Table 3.& are included.

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CONDUCTANCE
By finding the reciprocal of the resistance of a material, we have a measure of how well the material conducts electricity. The /uantity is called con2&ctance, has the symbol ., and is measured in siemens.

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O?((ETERS
The ohmmeter is an instrument used to perform the following tas!s and several other useful functions)
* Measure the resistance of individual or combined elements. * #etect open-circuit (high-resistance) and shortcircuit (lo resistance) situations. * Chec> the continuity of net or> connections and identify ires of a multilead cable. * Test some semiconductor (electronic) devices.
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O?((ETERS

FI . 3.%/ Measuring the resistance of a single element.

FI . 3.%0 Chec>ing the continuity of a connection.

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O?((ETERS

FI . 3.38 2dentifying the leads of a multilead cable.

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RESISTANCE" (ETRIC UNITS

FI URE 3.3! #efining r in ohm-centimeters.

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RESISTANCE" (ETRIC UNITS

TAB#E 3.- Resistivity (r) of various materials. (%

RESISTANCE" (ETRIC UNITS

FI . 3.3% Thin-film resistor. %,ample '.;1.

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RESISTANCE" (ETRIC UNITS

TAB#E 3.. Comparing levels of r in -cm.

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T?E FOURT? E#E(ENT@T?E (E(RISTOR

-n 5ay 222. researchers at Gewlett Dac!ard Eaboratories led by Dr. <tanley =illiams had an ama6ing announcementHthe discovery of the ImissingJ lin! in basic electronic circuit theory called a memristor.

FI . 3.33 (a) *n image of a circuit ith ;? memristors captured by an atomic force microscope. %ach memristor is composed of t o layers of titanium dio,ide sand iched bet een a lo er common ire and its o n upper ire. *s a voltage is applied across a memristor" the small signal resistance of one of the titanium dio,ide layers is changed" hich in turn is used as a method to register data. (b) symbol. K"a$ 4ourtesy of L. Loshua Mang and :. <tanley =illiams, GD Eabs.N (+

T?E FOURT? E#E(ENT@T?E (E(RISTOR

The four basic circuit /uantities of charge, current, voltage, and megnetic flu; can be related in si; ways. Three relations derive from the basic elements of the resistor, the capacitor, and the inductor. The resistor provides a direct relationship between current and voltage, the capacitor provides a relationship between charge and voltage, and the inductor provides a relationship between current and magnetic flu;. That leaves the relationship between the magnetic field and the charge moving through an element.
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T?E FOURT? E#E(ENT@T?E (E(RISTOR The memristor is a device whose resistance increases with increase in the flow of charge in one direction and decreases as the flow of charge decreases in the reverse direction. ,urthermore, and vastly important, it maintains its new resistance level when the e;citation has been removed.
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SU1ERCONDUCTORS
The field of electricityOelectronics is one of the most e;citing of our time. >ew developments appear almost wee!ly from e;tensive research and development activities. The research drive to develop a superconductor capable of operating at temperatures closer to room temperature has been receiving increasing attention in recent years due to the need to cut energy losses.
* =hat are superconductorsP * =hy is their development so importantP * -n a nutshell, superconductors are conductors of electric charge that, for all practical purposes, have zero resistance.
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SU1ERCONDUCTORS

FI . 3.3+ Rising temperatures of superconductors.

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SU1ERCONDUCTORS

FI . 3.3, #efining the critical temperature Tc. +2

T?ER(ISTORS
The thermistor is a two'terminal semiconductor device whose resistance, as the name suggests, is temperature sensitive.
FI . 3.3- Thermistor) (a) characteristics5 (b) symbol. +3

T?ER(ISTORS

FI . 3.3. @TC (negative temperature coefficient) and 0TC (positive temperature coefficient) thermistors.

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T?ER(ISTORS

FI . 3.3/ 0hotoconductive cell) (a) characteristics. (b) symbol.

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1?OTOCONDUCTIVE CE##
The 5hotocon2&ctive ce'' is a two' terminal semiconductor device whose terminal resistance is determined by the intensity of the incident light on its e;posed surface. 7s the applied illumination increases in intensity, the energy state of the surface electrons and atoms increases, with a resultant increase in the number of Ifree carriersJ and a corresponding drop in resistance.
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1?OTOCONDUCTIVE CE##

FI . 3.30 0hotoconductive cells.

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VARISTORS
Varistors are voltage'dependent, nonlinear resistors used to suppress high'voltage transients8 that is, their characteristics enable them to limit the voltage that can appear across the terminals of a sensitive device or system.

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VARISTORS

FI . 3.+8 $aristors available ;A $ and 1;7 $.

ith ma,imum dc voltage ratings bet een

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A11#ICATIONS
The following are e;amples of how resistance can be used to perform a variety of tas!s, from heating to measuring the stress or strain on a supporting member of a structure. -n general, resistance is a component of every electrical or electronic application.
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A11#ICATIONS
E'ectric Base4oar2 ?eatin; E'ement

Qne of the most common applications of resistance is in household fi;tures such as toasters and baseboard heating where the heat generated by current passing through a resistive element is employed to perform a useful function.

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A11#ICATIONS
E'ectric Base4oar2 ?eatin; E'ement

FI . 3.+! %lectric baseboard) (a) (-ft section5 (b) interior5 (c) heating element5 (d) nichrome coil.

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A11#ICATIONS
Dimmer Contro' in an A&tomo4i'e

7 two'point rheostat is the primary element in the control of the light intensity on the dashboard and accessories of a car.

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A11#ICATIONS
Dimmer Contro' in an A&tomo4i'e

FI . 3.+% #ashboard dimmer control in an automobile.

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A11#ICATIONS
Strain a&;es 7ny change in the shape of a structure can be detected using strain gauges whose resistance changes with applied stress or fle;.

FI . 3.+3 Resistive strain gauge. .&