MANAGER

DEFINITION Manager is the person responsible for planning and directing the work of a group of individuals, monitoring their work, and taking corrective action when necessary. For many people, this is their first step into a management career. Managers may direct workers directly or they may direct several supervisors who direct the workers. The manager must be familiar with the work of all the groups he/she supervises, but does not need to be the best in any or all of the areas. It is more important for the manager to know how to manage the workers than to know how to do their work well. A manager may have the power to hire or fire employees or to promote them. In larger companies, a manager may only recommends such action to the next level of management. The manager has the authority to change the work assignments of team members. A manager's title reflects what he/she is responsible for. An Accounting Manager supervises the Accounting function. An Operations Manager is responsible for the operations of the company. The Manager of Design Engineering supervises engineers and support staff engaged in design of a product or service. A Night Manager is responsible for the activities that take place at night. There are many management functions in business and, therefore, many manager titles. Regardless of title, the manager is responsible for planning, directing, monitoring and controlling the people and their work.

CONCEPTS OF MANAGEMENT (a) Process of management: it includes six ms. 1. Men 2. Money 3. Machine 4. Material 5. Market (b) As a profession: you need proper degree. There are certain legal rules.

SKILL OF A MANAGER In order to have a proper achievement of good and in order to have plan to be properly worked on a manager must have certain skills such as: -

(1) Conceptual skills: A manager must have conceptual knowledge of management. Each principle and concept should be clear in the mind of a manager and he should be effectively able to apply him. (2) Technical skills: it is concerned with the application of skill or knowledge acquired. Management does not simply mean the knowledge of principles of management rather it is its application which makes its effective. (3) Human skills: A manager should have Psychological knowledge. He should able to deal with different persons in different circumstances. (4) Decision making skills: in crucial times a manager should be able to have the ability of making decisions. These decisions must be effective and practical in use as well.

MANAGEMENT AND SOCIAL RESPONSIBILTIES

FOR:

Manager should have social responsibility for the people. Because manager is a person who is very skilled, if he will take interest in the social functions or problem, it will create a good impression on other people living or working under him it will motivate the subordinates working under him. Thus, it creates a favorable impression on the society, which will ultimately helps the business.

Managers have a creative and also communicative skill. As their main task is to have the cordial relations with people inside the organization or outside the organization. They had to interact with his subordinates, superiors and other members relating to business.

So, the managers are very creative and if they will take part in social problems, the society is bound to improve in some kind or others. Managers take the input from the society e.g. education values etc. if managers will take part in social event or they will become responsible towards society, the society is sure to make progress become one man can change the whole environment. It will thus create the source of motivation towards the society.

According to System theory, for the efficient working and smooth working small subsystems should work properly.
AGAINST:

The main function of the manager is to govern his organization smoothly and efficiently.So, he should not make himself responsible towards the society. He should not be able to do his work properly. The social problem should be left for those people. So generally take the responsibility (political parties, interest groups etc) of improving are solving the problem of the society. Manager takes the salary for gobering his organizing properly not for solving the social problem of the society. Thus, manager should not move his mind towards social responsibilities of the society.
OR

There are many thinkers who have supported this, but there are others who have expressed their opinion both sides are given as under:-

Arguments against social responsibility:

1. Contrary to the objective of business: Just as the primary objective of players in the playground is to achieve victory, in the same way the chief objective of business is to enhance its profits by utilizing its, resources. 2. Inefficiency in the system: there is no power other than self-interest, which can get work out of people. It owners of business, by ignoring self-interest, start thinking of social responsibility the whole work-system will turn inefficient. 3. Effects of business values: Business should not have any social responsibility otherwise social values will come to be dominated by business values, which in itself is a painful delaminate. It means that when business is alive to its social responsibility, the people in the beginning will be so thoroughly impressed by it, that in future business will come to occupy a position of predominance the idea of social responsibility of management opinion against. 4. Conflicting consideration: A business manager will be guided by two considerations, namely, private market mechanism and social responsibilities which are opposite to each other.

5. Arbitrary power: Business managers will get arbitrary power in the matter of allocation of resources in the welfare of the society. They should have no right to interfere with the external environment of business. 6. Disregard of marketing mechanism: the doctrine of social responsibilities implies acceptance of socialist view that political mechanism rather than market mechanism is the appropriate way to allocate scarce resources to alternative uses. 7. Burden on customer: if the price in the market for a product does not truly reflect the relative costs of producing mechanism of the market place will be distorted.The consumers will have to pay higher costs. 8. Difficult implementation: the concept of social responsibility is ill conceived and ill defined and is difficult to be implemented.

Argument for social responsibility:

1. Business is a part of society: Since business organizations are a part of society they must have a positive attitude towards the needs of society. Business is only a sub system of society and this sub-system must contribute to the welfare of the main system. 2. Avoidance of govt. regulation: If business does not care of its social responsibility, the govt. has to interfere increasingly in the business system, which adversely affects the progress of business. 3. Long term self-interest of business: the social responsibility of business, if taken care of in the present ensures the success of the organization in the future. 4. Code of conduct: Members of a profession are bound to follow a code of conduct.Code of conduct includes rules connected with profession, honesty and morality, which form its base. 5. Business is a creation of the society and so it should respond to the demands of the society: Since business uses the resources which belong to the society. It is necessary that every business are obliged to use the social resources for the common good of society. 6. The long-term self interests of the business are best served when business assumes social responsibilities: There is a growing realization on the part of the enlightened businessmen that it is in their self-interest to fulfill the demands and aspirations of the society. People who have good environment, education, andopportunity make better employees, customers and neighbours for business than those who are poor, ignorant or oppressed.

7. It is the moral and right thing to do: It is widely agreed that businessmen today have considerable social power. This power is virtually granted to them by the society, which must have a general relationship with social responsibilities. The social responsibilities of businessmen must be proportionate to their social power. If the businessmen do not assume social responsibilities, their social power must be taken away by the society through government controls and regulations and other measures. 8. Public image of business would be improved: The business will retain the needed credibility with the public if it performs its social obligations. It will also avoid conflict with the society in its own interest. Good relation with the workers, consumers and suppliers will lead to success of business. 9. The consumers are well informed: They expect higher quality products at responsible rates. If they dont get fair treatment form business, they will organize themselves and compel the business its social responsibilities.

MANAGERIAL SKILLS

1. Planning skills: the manager must passes the skills of thinking the skills of analyzing the environment, it includes what is happening in the society organization and political system. He must be able to assess or guess the changes in environment, traits offered by the changes in environment. He must be able to match two sets of environment on the basis of external and internal analysis. 2. Organizing skills: organizing skill is needed to specify who will achieve what and how manager must be in a position of identification of specific activities and specific jobs. A manager must be clear about grouping of various jobs, span of management, type of relationship to be established between various people and various jobs. 3. Leading skill: leadership is the ability of individual to influence the people. Recognition of human factor is also included in leading skill of human factor various leadership track like communication and motivation are also included in the leadership skills. 4. Technical skills: technical skills refer to the ability and knowledge in using the equipment, techniques and procedures involved in performing specific tasks. These skills require specialized knowledge and proficiency in mechanics of a particular job. A manager must know which skills should be employed in his particular enterprise and be familiar enough with their potentiality to ask discerning question of his technical advisors.

5. Human skills: human skills consist of the ability to work effectively with other people.These are required to win co-operation of others and to build effective work teams.Human skills are reflected in the way a manager perceives his superiors, subordinates and peers. An awareness of the importance of human skills should be part of managers orientation. 6. Conceptual skills: conceptual skills comprise the ability to see whole organization and interrelationships between its parts. These skills refer to the ability to visualize the entire picture or to consider a situation in its totality. Such skills help the manager to analyse the forces working in a situation and to take a broad and foresighted view of the organization. 7. Diagnostic skills: it includes the ability to determine by analyzing and examination, the nature and circumstances of a particular condition. It is not only the ability to specify why something happened but also the ability to develop certain possible outcomes. It is theability to it through unimportant aspects and quickly gets though the heart of problem. 8. Controlling skill: there are certain standards, which are fixed in a way such that accomplishment of those standards leads to the accomplishment of goals. A manager must keep check on the activities of subordinates and must rectify them if there are any problems. 9. Decision making skills: there are two types of decisions to be taken by the manager. (i) Routine and program decision (ii) Non-routine and non-program decisions.

The course of action to be followed is as under: 1. The manager must be in a position to identify the problem. 2. Reaching to the main cause or the problem. 3. Searching for the alternative solution. 4. Comparing merits and demerits of each solution. 5. Selecting the best course of action. 6. Formulating the plan by the application of the alternatives.

RESPONSIBILITES OF A MANAGER 1. Responsibility towards suppliers: people who supply raw material, mechanical components, financial institutions and advertising agencies. It is the duty or says responsibility of the manager that the suppliers are being paid at the time.

2. Responsibility towards distributors: it is the responsibility of the manager to check regular supply of the product. Product must be checked for the quality, packaging (as in the case of children packaging plays a very important role). There must be free testing of goods that is distribution of samples. There should be fair return on investment that is fair commission must be paid. To motivate them the organisation must reward them, credit facilities must be made available to the middle class people etc. You can survive in the vest way if the industry will survive: a. You can take the advantage by showing collectiveness. b. Compiling with the norms lay down by the association. c. Providing correct information to organisation. d. Sharing latest knowledge. e. Supporting the individual members of the association. f. Indulging in fair and ethical competition. g. Not using any political or other strategies. 3. Responsibility towards union: employees union is recognized as the enemy of the organisation. 4. Responsibility towards govt.: Birth growth and death of any organisation will generate according to statuary provisions and these will be governed by the government of the organisation and this can be done by : i) Sending the correct information. (ii) Taxes and duties must be paid regularly. (iii) Organisation must try to operate as a model citizen. (iv) Organisation must not try to damage the culture of that area and must try to maintain the rich culture of that area. 5. Responsibility towards customers 6. Responsibility towards society 7. Responsibility towards competitors 8. Responsibility towards workers 9. Responsibility towards shareholders or owners

ROLES OF A MANAGER

There are different types of managerial roles some of them are given below:

1. Figurehead: In this role manager performs symbolic duties required by the status of hisoffice. Making speeches, bestowing honors, welcoming official visitors, distributing gifts to retiring employees are examples of such ceremonial and social duties. 2. Leader: This role defines the managers relationship with his own subordinates. The manager sets an example, legitimizes the power of subordinates and brings their needs in accord with those of his organisation. 3. Liaison: It describes the managers relationship with the outsiders. A manager maintains mutually beneficial relations with other organisations, governments, industry groups etc. 4. Monitor: It implies seeking and receiving information about his organisation and external events. An example is picking up a rumor about his organisation. 5. Disseminators: It involves transmitting the informations and judgments to the members of the organisations. The information relates to internal operations and external environment. A manager calling a staff meeting after a business trip is an example of such a role. 6. Spokesman: In this role, a manager speaks for his organisation. He hobbies and depends his enterprise. A manager addressing the trade union is an example. 7. Entrepreneur: It involves initiating changes or acting as a change agent. For example a manager decides to launch a feasibility study for setting up a new plant. 8. Disturbance handler: This refers to taking charge when the organisation faces a problem or crises. For example a strike, feud between subordinates, boss of an important customer. A manager handles conflicts, complaints and competitive actions. 9. Resource allocate: In this role a manager approves budgets and schedules sets priorities and distribute resources. 10. Negotiator: As a negotiator a manager bargains with suppliers, dealers, trade unions agents etc.

CONCLUSION

In modern times when human needs are continuously rising, it is absolutely impossible to fulfill them single-handed. In such a situation the need of group activity is felt.Man cannot produce any single thing by himself alone and there is always the necessity of a human group whose activities and be named collective effort. Thus on human group produce one particular produce while another such group produce something different and hence, human needs are fulfill by collective efforts of different human groups. Now the question arises whether all the peoples comprising a particular human group are competent enough to achieve success in their activities without any outside discussion and control.The obvious to this all-important question can only be in the negative. The reason for such an answer is complex. So long particular human groups for into have their air aims, definite planning, proper distribution of work, defining rights and duties, establishing proper coordination among them, directing and controlling their activities, success cannot be achieved. These are the problems, which give rise to another question, which is equally important, and the question is how to overcome these problems? The answer to this really complex question in inherent in management. Through the medium of management all these abovementioned problems can be solve. The activities of a human group can be efficiently managed on the pre-determined problems can be effectively achieved handling by a manager. It would not be out of place to mention here that the absence of proper management, the activities of a human group are like a ship without a captain. Thus it is evident that success of collective efforts requires some special power. AND THAT POWER IS THE MANAGER, who ensures the success of different activities by the process of management. It is important to classify here that the importance of management is not limited to business alone but it is needed at all those places where human activities take place-for example: educational Institutions, Religious Institution, Govt. departments, unions, forces, families.

DECISION MAKING
DEFINITION The word decision has been derived from the Latin word "decidere" which means "cutting off". Thus, decision involves cutting off of alternatives between those that are desirable and those that are not desirable.In the words of George R. Terry, "Decision-making is the selection based on some criteria from two or more possible alternatives". Decision-making is a process of selection from a set of alternative courses of action, which is thought to fulfill the objectives of the decision problem more satisfactorily than others. It is a course of action, which is consciously chosen for achieving a desired result. A decision is a process that takes place prior to the actual performance of a course of action that has been chosen. In terms of managerial decision-making, it is an act of choice, wherein a manager selects a particular course of action from the available alternatives in a given situation. Managerial decision making process involves establishing of goals, defining tasks, searching for alternatives and developing plans in order to find the best answer fo the decision problem. The essential elements in a decision making process include the following:

1. The decision maker, 2. The decision problem, 3. The environment in which the decision is to be made, 4. The objectives of the decision maker, 5. The alternative courses of action, 6. The outcomes expected from various alternatives, and 7. The final choice of the alternative.

Characteristics of Decision Making

1. Decision making implies that there are various alternatives and the most desirable alternative is chosen to solve the problem or to arrive at expected results. 2. The decision-maker has freedom to choose an alternative.

3. Decision-making may not be completely rational but may be judgemental and emotional. 4. Decision-making is goal-oriented. 5. Decision-making is a mental or intellectual process because the final decision is made by the decision-maker. 6. A decision may be expressed in words or may be implied from behaviour. 7. Choosing from among the alternative courses of operation implies uncertainty about the final result of each possible course of operation. 8. Decision making is rational. It is taken only after a thorough analysis and reasoning and weighing the consequences of the various alternatives.

TYPES OF DECISIONS

a) Programmed and Non-Programmed Decisions: Herbert Simon has grouped organizational decisions into two categories based on the procedure followed. They are: i) Programmed decisions: Programmed decisions are routine and repetitive and are made within the framework of organizational policies and rules. These policies and rules are established well in advance to solve recurring problems in the organization. Programmed decisions have short-run impact. They are, generally, taken at the lower level of management. ii) Non-Programmed Decisions: Non-programmed decisions are decisions taken to meet non-repetitive problems. Non-programmed decisions are relevant for solving unique/ unusual problems in which various alternatives cannot be decided in advance. A common feature of non-programmed decisions is that they are novel and non-recurring and therefore, readymade solutions are not available. Since these decisions are of high importance and have long-term consequences, they are made by top level management.

b) Strategic and Tactical Decisions: Organizational decisions may also be classified as strategic or tactical. i) Strategic Decisions: Basic decisions or strategic decisions are decisions which are of crucial importance. Strategic decisions a major choice of actions concerning allocation of resources and contribution to the achievement of organizational objectives. Decisions like

plant location, product diversification, entering into new markets, selection of channels of distribution, capital expenditure etc are examples of basic or strategic decisions.

ii) Tactical Decisions: Routine decisions or tactical decisions are decisions which are routine and repetitive. They are derived out of strategic decisions. The various features of a tactical decision are as follows: Tactical decision relates to day-to-day operation of the organization and has to be taken very frequently. Tactical decision is mostly a programmed one. Therefore, the decision can be made within the context of these variables. The outcome of tactical decision is of short-term nature and affects a narrow part of the organization. The authority for making tactical decisions can be delegated to lower level managers because: first, the impact of tactical decision is narrow and of shortterm nature and Second, by delegating authority for such decisions to lower-level managers, higher level managers are free to devote more time on strategic decisions.

DECISION MAKING PROCESS

The decision making process is presented in the figure below:

1. Specific Objective: The need for decision making arises in order to achieve certain specific objectives. The starting point in any analysis of decision making involves the determination of whether a decision needs to be made.

2. Problem Identification: A problem is a felt need, a question which needs a solution. In the words of Joseph L Massie "A good decision is dependent upon the recognition of the right problem". The objective of problem identification is that if the problem is precisely and specifically identifies, it will provide a clue in finding a possible solution. A problem can be identified clearly, if managers go through diagnosis and analysis of the problem. Diagnosis: Diagnosis is the process of identifying a problem from its signs and symptoms. A symptom is a condition or set of conditions that indicates the existence of a problem. Diagnosing the real problem implies knowing the gap between what is and what ought to be, identifying the reasons for the gap and understanding the problem in relation to higher objectives of the organization. Analysis: Diagnosis gives rise to analysis. Analysis of a problem requires: Who would make decision? What information would be needed? From where the information is available? Analysis helps managers to gain an insight into the problem.

3. Search for Alternatives: A problem can be solved in several ways; however, all the ways cannot be equally satisfying. Therefore, the decision maker must try to find out the various alternatives available in order to get the most satisfactory result of a decision. A decision maker can use several sources for identifying alternatives: His own past experiences Practices followed by others and Using creative techniques.

4. Evaluation of Alternatives: After the various alternatives are identified, the next step is to evaluate them and select the one that will meet the choice criteria. /the decision maker must check proposed alternatives against limits, and if an alternative does not meet them, he can discard it. Having narrowed down the alternatives which require serious consideration, the decision maker will go for evaluating how each alternative may contribute towards the objective supposed to be achieved by implementing the decision. 5. Choice of Alternative: The evaluation of various alternatives presents a clear picture as to how each one of them contribute to the objectives under question. A comparison is made among the likely outcomes of various alternatives and the best one is chosen.

6. Action: Once the alternative is selected, it is put into action. The actual process of decision making ends with the choice of an alternative through which the objectives can be achieved. 7. Results: When the decision is put into action, it brings certain results. These results must correspond with objectives, the starting point of decision process, if good decision has been made and implemented properly. Thus, results provide indication whether decision making and its implementation is proper.

Characteristics of Effective Decisions

An effective decision is one which should contain three aspects. These aspects are given below: Action Orientation: Decisions are action-oriented and are directed towards relevant and controllable aspects of the environment. Decisions should ultimately find their utility in implementation. Goal Direction: Decision making should be goal-directed to enable the organization to meet its objectives. Effective in Implementation: Decision making should take into account all the possible factors not only in terms of external context but also in internal context so that a decision can be implemented properly

RATIONAL DECISION MAKING MODEL The Rational Decision Making Model is a model which emerges from Organizational Behavior.The process is one that is logical and follows the orderly path from problem identification through solution. It provides a structured and sequenced approach to decision making. Using such an approach can help to ensure discipline and consistency is built into your decision making process. The Six-Step Rational Decision-Making Model 1. Define the problem. 2. Identify decision criteria 3. Weight the criteria 4. Generate alternatives 5. Rate each alternative on each criterion 6. Compute the optimal decision

1) Defining the problem This is the initial step of the rational decision making process. First the problem is identied and then defined to get a clear view of the situation. 2) Identify decision criteria Once a decision maker has defined the problem, he or she needs to identify the decision criteria that will be important in solving the problem. In this step, the decision maker is determining whats relevant in making the decision.This step brings the decision makers interests, values, and personal preferences into the process. Identifying criteria is important because what one person thinks is relevant, another may not. Also keep in mind that any factors not identified in this step are considered as irrelevant to the decision maker. 3) Weight the criteria The decision-maker weights the previously identified criteria in order to give them correct priority in the decision. 4) Generate alternatives The decision maker generates possible alternatives that could succeed in resolving the problem. No attempt is made in this step to appraise these alternatives, only to list them. 5) Rate each alternative on each criterion The decision maker must critically analyze and evaluate each one. The strengths and weakness of each alternative become evident as they compared with the criteria and weights established in second and third steps.

6) Compute the optimal decision Evaluating each alternative against the weighted criteria and selecting the alternative with the highest total score.

DECISION MAKING UNDER VARIOUS CONDITIONS

The conditions for making decisions can be divided into three types. Namely : a) Certainty, b)Uncertainty and c) Risk Virtually all decisions are made in an environment to at least some uncertainty However; the degree will vary from relative certainty to great uncertainty. There are certain risks involved in making decisions.

a) Certainty: In a situation involving certainty, people are reasonably sure about what will happen when they make a decision. The information is available and is considered to be reliable, and the cause and effect relationships are known. b) Uncertainty In a situation of uncertainty, on the other hand, people have only a meager database, they do not know whether or not the data are reliable, and they are very unsure about whether or not the situation may change. Moreover, they cannot evaluate the interactions of the different variables. For example, a corporation that decides to expand its Operation to an unfamiliar country may know little about the country, culture, laws, economic environment, and politics. The political situation may be volatile that even experts cannot predict a possible change in government. c) Risk In a situation with risks, factual information may exist, but it may be incomplete. 1o improve decision making One may estimate the objective probability of an outcome by using, for example, mathematical models On the other hand, subjective probability, based on judgment and experience may be used. All intelligent decision makers dealing with uncertainty like to know the degree and nature of the risk they are taking in choosing a course of action. One of the deficiencies in using the traditional approaches of operations research for problem solving is that many of the data

used in model are merely estimates and others are based on probabilities. The ordinary practice is to have staff specialists conic up with best estimates. Virtually every decision is based on the interaction of a number of important variables, many of which has e an element of uncertainty but, perhaps, a fairly high degree of probability. Thus, the wisdom of launching a new product might depend on a number of critical variables: the cost of introducing the product, the cost of producing it, the capital investment that will he required, the price that can be set for the product, the size of the potential market, and the share of the total market that it will represent.

CONCLUSION The decision-making approaches and theories associated with the subfield of foreign policy analysis are unique in international relations for their attention to the specific human agents behind every foreign policy choice. Rather than agent-general deductive systems, such as found in game theory, a more detailed and particularistic account of human agency is sought. In addition to this agential focus, a decision-making approach mandates that information from multiple levels of analysis be collected and synthesized in a parallel fashion as the actual decision makers collect and synthesize such information. FPA thus becomes a profoundly integrative theoretical enterprise as well. Decision-making approaches and foreign policy analysis can provide some needed connections here. By integrating variables at the supernational and national levels of analysis (the traditional purview of international relations) with variables at subnational levels of analysis (the traditional realm of comparative politics), FPA provides theoretical and empirical linkages that demonstrate how each subfield could usefully inform the other. By emphasizing the decision maker and the decision-making process, by exploring the agency inherent in foreign policy making, by pointing out useful lessons from the study of past foreign policy decision making's successes and failures, FPA has the potential to render the knowledge of the academy useful to real practitioners. Given the immense destructive power that can be unleashed at the international level, it is surely incumbent upon the academy to "bridge the gap" and offer its best insights as a contribution to the peace and safety of the world.

STEPS OF PLANNING PROCESS

PLANNING PROCESS The various steps involved in planning are given below:

a) Perception of Opportunities: Although preceding actual planning and therefore not strictly a part of the planning process, awareness of an opportunity is the real starting point for planning. It includes a preliminary look at possible future opportunities and the ability to see them clearly and completely, knowledge of where we stand in the light of our strengths and weaknesses, an understanding of why we wish to solve uncertainties, and a vision of what we expect to gain. Setting realistic objectives depends on this awareness. Planning requires realistic diagnosis of the opportunity situation.

b) Establishing Objectives: The first step in planning itself is to establish objectives for the entire enterprise and then for each subordinate unit. Objectives specifying the results expected indicate the end points of what is to be done, where the primary emphasis is to be placed, and what is to be accomplished by the network of strategies, policies, procedures, rules, budgets and programs. Enterprise objectives should give direction to the nature of all major plans which, by reflecting these objectives, define the objectives of major departments. Major department

objectives, in turn, control the objectives of subordinate departments, and so on down the line.The objectives of lesser departments will be better framed, however, if subdivision managers understand the overall enterprise objectives and the implied derivative goals and if they are given an opportunity to contribute their ideas to them and to the setting of their own goals.

c) Considering the Planning Premises: Another logical step in planning is to establish, obtain agreement to utilize and disseminate critical planning premises. These are forecast data of a factual nature, applicable basic policies, and existing company plans. Premises, then, are planning assumptions in other words, the expected environment of plans in operation. This step leads to one of the major principles of planning. The more individuals charged with planning understand and agree to utilize consistent planning premises, the more coordinated enterprise planning will be. Planning premises include far more than the usual basic forecasts of population, prices, costs, production, markets, and similar matters. Because the future environment of plans is so complex, it would not be profitable or realistic to make assumptions about every detail of the future environment of a plan. Since agreement to utilize a given set of premises is important to coordinate planning, it becomes a major responsibility of managers, starting with those at the top, to make sure that subordinate managers understand the premises upon which they are expected to plan. It is not unusual for chief executives in well- managed companies to force top managers with differing views, through group deliberation, to arrive at a set of major premises that all can accept.

d) Identification of alternatives: Once the organizational objectives have been clearly stated and the planning premises have been developed, the manager should list as many available alternatives as possible for reaching those objectives. The focus of this step is to search for and examine alternative courses of action, especially those not immediately apparent. There is seldom a plan for which reasonable alternatives do not exist, and quite often an alternative that is not obvious proves to be the best. The more common problem is not finding alternatives, but reducing the number of alternatives so that the most promising may be analyzed. Even with mathematical techniques and the computer, there is a limit to the number of alternatives that may be examined. It is therefore usually necessary for the planner to reduce by preliminary examination the number of alternatives to

those promising the most fruitful possibilities or by mathematically eliminating, through the process of approximation, the least promising ones.

e) Evaluation of alternatives Having sought out alternative courses and examined their strong and weak points, the following step is to evaluate them by weighing the various factors in the light of premises and goals. One course may appear to be the most profitable but require a large cash outlay and a slow payback; another may be less profitable but involve less risk; still another may better suit the company in longrange objectives. If the only objective were to examine profits in a certain business immediately, if the future were not uncertain, if cash position and capital availability were not worrisome, and if most factors could be reduced to definite data, this evaluation should be relatively easy. But typical planning is replete with uncertainties, problems of capital shortages, and intangible factors, and so evaluation is usually very difficult, even with relatively simple problems. A company may wish to enter a new product line primarily for purposes of prestige; the forecast of expected results may show a clear financial loss, but the question is still open as to whether the loss is worth the gain.

f) Choice of alternative plans An evaluation of alternatives must include an evaluation of the premises on which the alternatives are based. A manager usually finds that some premises are unreasonable and can therefore be excluded from further consideration. This elimination process helps the manager determine which alternative would best accomplish organizational objectives.

g) Formulating of Supporting Plans After decisions are made and plans are set, the final step to give them meaning is to numberize them by converting them to budgets. The overall budgets of an enterprise represent the sum total of income and expenses with resultant profit or surplus and budgets of major balance sheet items such as cash and capital expenditures. Each department or program of a business or other enterprise can have its own budgets, usually of expenses and capital expenditures, which tie into the overall budget. If this process is done well, budgets become a means of adding together the various plans and also important standards against which planning progress can be measured.

h) Establishing sequence of activities Once plans that furnish the organization with both long-range and short-range direction have been developed, they must be implemented. Obviously, the organization can not directly benefit from planning process until this step is performed.

TYPES OF PLANNING
In the process of planning, several plans are prepared which are known as components of planning.

Plans can be broadly classified as

a) Strategic plans b) Tactical plans c) Operational plans d) Contingency plans

Operational plans lead to the achievement of tactical plans, which in turn lead to the attainment of strategic plans. In addition to these three types of plans, managers should also develop a contingency plan in case their original plans fail.

a) Strategic plans: A strategic plan is an outline of steps designed with the goals of the entire organization as a whole in mind, rather than with the goals of specific divisions or departments. It is further classified as i) Mission: The mission is a statement that reflects the basic purpose and focus of the organization which normally remain unchanged. The mission of the company is the answer of the question : why does the organization exists? Properly crafted mission statements serve as filters to separate what is important from what is not, clearly state which markets will be served and how, and communicate a sense of intended direction to the entire organization. Mission of Ford: we are a global, diverse family with a proud inheritance, providing exceptional products and services. ii) Objectives or goals: Both goal and objective can be defined as statements that reflect the end towards which the organization is aiming to achieve. However, there are significant differences between the two. A goal is an abstract and general umbrella statement, under which specific objectives can be clustered. Objectives are statements that describe in precise, measurable, and obtainable terms which reflect the desired organizations outcomes. iii) Strategies: Strategy is the determination of the basic long term objectives of an organization and the adoption of action and collection of action and allocation of resources necessary to achieve these goals.Strategic planning begins with an organization's mission. Strategic plans look ahead over the next two, three, five, or even more years to move the organization from where it currently is to where it wants to be. Requiring multilevel involvement, these plans demand harmony among all levels of management within the organization. Top-level management develops the directional objectives for the entire organization, while lower levels of management develop compatible objectives and plans to achieve them. Top management's

strategic plan for the entire organization becomes the framework and sets dimensions for the lower level planning.

b) Tactical plans: A tactical plan is concerned with what the lower level units within each division must do,how they must do it, and who is in charge at each level. Tactics are the means needed to activate a strategy and make it work.Tactical plans are concerned with shorter time frames and narrower scopes than are strategic plans. These plans usually span one year or less because they are considered short-term goals.Long-term goals, on the other hand, can take several years or more to accomplish. Normally, it is the middle manager's responsibility to take the broad strategic plan and identify specific tactical actions.

c) Operational plans The specific results expected from departments, work groups, and individuals are the operational goals. These goals are precise and measurable. Process 150 sales applications each week or Publish 20 books this quarter are examples of operational goals.An operational plan is one that a manager uses to accomplish his or her job responsibilities. Supervisors, team leaders, and facilitators develop operational plans to support tactical plans. Operational plans can be a single-use plan or a standing plan.

i) Single-use plans apply to activities that do not recur or repeat. A one-time occurrence, such as a special sales program, is a single-use plan because it deals with the who, what, where, how, and how much of an activity. Programme: Programme consists of an ordered list of events to be followed to execute a project. Budget: A budget predicts sources and amounts of income and how much they are used for a specific project. ii) Standing plans (Continuing or ongoing plans) are usually made once and retain their value over a period of years while undergoing periodic revisions and updates. The following are examples of ongoing plans: Policy: A policy provides a broad guideline for managers to follow when dealing with important areas of decision making. Policies are general statements that explain how a manager should attempt to handle routine management responsibilities. Typical human

resources policies, for example, address such matters as employee hiring, terminations, performance appraisals, pay increases, and discipline. Procedure: A procedure is a set of step-by-step directions that explains how activities or tasks are to be carried out. Most organizations have procedures for purchasing supplies and equipment, for example. This procedure usually begins with a supervisor completing a purchasing requisition. The requisition is then sent to the next level of management for approval. The approved requisition is forwarded to the purchasing department. Depending on the amount of the request, the purchasing department may place an order, or they may need to secure quotations and/or bids for several vendors before placing the order. By defining the steps to be taken and the order in which they are to be done, procedures provide a standardized way of responding to a repetitive problem. Rule: A rule is an explicit statement that tells an employee what he or she can and cannot do. Rules are do and don't statements put into place to promote the safety of employees and the uniform treatment and behavior of employees. For example, rules about tardiness and absenteeism permit supervisors to make discipline decisions rapidly and with a high degree of fairness.

d) Contingency plans Intelligent and successful management depends upon a constant pursuit of adaptation, flexibility, and mastery of changing conditions. Strong management requires a keeping all options open approach at all times that's where contingency planning comes in. Contingency planning involves identifying alternative courses of action that can be implementedif and when the original plan proves inadequate because of changing circumstances. Keep in mind that events beyond a manager's control may cause even the most carefully prepared alternative future scenarios to go awry. Unexpected problems and events frequently occur. When they do, managers may need to change their plans. Anticipating change during the planning process is best in case things don't go as expected. Management can then develop alternatives to the existing plan and ready them for use when and if circumstances make these alternatives appropriate.

LEADERSHIP
DEFINITION It is a process of influencing the behaviour of other people to work willingly towards the achievement of organisational goals. It involves existence of a leader and followers. So leadership is an exercise to influence the behaviour of the followers towards attainment/achievement of specified goals. Here the person who guides or directs his followers is known as leader.

FEATURES/ELEMENTS OF LEADERSHIP

1. It is a process of influencing the behaviour of followers by the leader. 2. It involves interaction between leader and his followers. 3. It involves advice and guidance to achieve some common goals. 4. It is a process of securing willingness to do the job as per guidelines of the leader. OR 1. Leadership is a process of influence: leadership is a process whose important ingredient is the influence exercised by the leader on goup members. A person is said to have an influence over others when they are willing to carry out his wishes and accept his advice, guidance and direction. Successful leaders are able to influence the behaviour, attitudes and beliefs of their followers. 2. Leadership is the function of stimulation: leadership is the function of motivating people to strive willingly to attain organisational objectives. Leaders are considered successful when they are able to subordinate the individual interests of the employees to the general interests of the organisation. A successful leader guides his subordinates to have their individual goals set by themselves in such a way that they do not conflict with the organisational objectives. When this congruency is achieved, workers act enthusiastically to achieve these goals. 3. Leadership gives an experience of helping attain the common objectives: under successful leadership, every person in the organisation feels that his operation, however minor it may be, is vital to the attainment of organisational objectives. It happens when the manager feels the importance of individuals, gives them recognition and tells them about the importance of activities performed by them.

4. Employees must be satisfied with the type of leadership provided: only short-term productivity of employees can be increased by pressure and punishment. This approach is not in the long-term interests of the organisation. Force generates counter force, which results in a decreased long-term productivity. Long-term interests of the organisation are best served when managers allow subordinates to influence their behaviour, particularly when subordinates are knowledgeable and competent. A good manager recognizes the fact that leadership is a shared function. A good leader shares everything with his followers; he shares credit, he shares blame, he shares ideas, opinion and experience. 5. Leadership is related to a situation: when we talk of leadership, it is always related to a particular situation, at a given point of time and under a specific set of circumstances. That means leadership styles should be different under different circumstances. At one point of time, the subordinates may accept the autocratic behaviour of the leader while at a different point of time and under a different set of circumstance, only participative leadership style may be successful. That is why, it is said that leadership is always particular and not general.

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN LEADERSHIP AND MANAGERSHIP Leadership and managership are not same thing a manager is a leader as well as manager as he influence the behaviour of his subordinates to work willingly towards achievement of organisational goals in the interest of subordinates as well as organisation. A manager can be more effective if he is a good leader. Manager is more than a leader because he performs all the five functions of management (planning, organizing, staffing, directing, and controlling) where as a leader performs only leadership functions which is just a part of directing. A leader need not necessarily be a manager. Leader acquires powers due to acceptance of his role by his followers. Where as a manager acquires powers due to delegation by his superiors.

IMPORTANCE OF LEADERSHIP

1. Helps in guiding and inspiring the employees: leader guides and inspires his subordinates towards higher performance and so helps in achieving the business goals. 2. Creates confidence: leader creates confidence among the employees by understanding and handling the situations as per proper requirement. Sometimes individuals fail to recognize

their qualities and capabilities than he provides psychological support to the followers by his conduct and expression. 3. Improves productivity: the main purpose is to use the available human and non-human resources of the organisation efficiently and efficiency of performance = the product of capability and willingness. By raising willingness leader helps in improving the productivity. 4. Improves job satisfaction: effort from monitory incentives and better physical working conditions, the job satisfaction of employees also depends on the behaviour of their managers. Leaders ensure that managers in organisation should adopt behaviour, which is acceptable to the subordinates. Moreover leaders support and encourage the subordinates to meet particular situations. Overall these activities improve job satisfaction among the employee. A satisfied human resource is always better than unsatisfied. 5. Acts as an intermediary: leader communicates the expectations of the management to the subordinates and also leads the subordinates to resolve their problems and from the management. So leader is a middleman between manager and worker. 6. Acts as a counselor: while taking various decisions by the management, leaders of the workers are also invited to act as a counselor of the subordinates. 7. Enhances group efforts: leadership prepares the people at workplace to perform the job with mutual trust co operative and friendly manner. Subordinates and the management should make collective efforts and give priority to the achievement of organisational objectives. 8. Determination of goals: a leader performs the creative function of laying down goals and policies for the followers. He acts as a guide in interpreting the goals and policies. 9. Organisation of activities: a good leader divides organisational activities among the employees in a systematic manner. The relationships between them are clearly laid down. This reduces the chances of conflict between them. 10. Representation of workers: the leader is a representative of his group. He takes initiative in all matters of interest to the group and attempts to fulfill the psychological needs of the subordinates. 11. Achieving coordination: a leader integrates the goals of the individuals with the organisational goals and creates a commonality o interests. He keeps himself informed about the working of the group and shares information with group for the coordination of its efforts. 12. Providing guidance: a leader guides the subordinates towards the achievement of organisational objectives. He is available for advice whenever a subordinate faces any problem.

13. Building employees Morale: good leadership is indispensable to high employee morale. The leader shapes the thinking and attitudes of the group. He develops good human relations and facilitates interactions between the members of the group. He maintains voluntary cooperation and discipline among followers. 14. Facilitating change: dynamic leadership is the cornerstone of organisational change. An effective leader is able to overcome resistance to change on the part of workers and thus facilitate change.

Leadership vs. managership

FORMAL AND INFORMAL LEADERS

It has been observed above that a manager should also be a good leader. But in actual practice, every manager is not able to provide the kind of leadership desired by his subordinates. This gives rise to informal leaders who do not hold any managerial post in the organisation. A formal leader, on the other hand, is one who possesses organisational authority to direct and control the activities of his subordinates. He can issue orders and instructions to his subordinates by virtue of his formal authority in the organisation. An informal leader is elected by the management, as in case of a formal leader. Sometimes, informal leaders become more acceptable to the workers as compared to the formal leaders. In such a situation, the formal leaders become the position-holders only. They are not able to achieve the voluntary cooperation of the workers in all matters. It is also true that a work-group may have different leaders for different purposes. The members of a workgroup may be influenced by one leader while doing their jobs. But as regards their personal problems,

they may go to another leader as far as their reaction is concerned. Management often tries to suppress informal leaders. But it should be remembered that the trouble they cause reflects the desires of the group. If they are suppressed, the workers may become more antagonistic to management, morale may fall even lower and new informal leaders may step to the fore. Therefore, it is better to work with informal leaders. There are many ways in which a manager can build up good relations with the informal leaders working with him. Among other things, he can pall necessary information to them first, seek their advice on technical and human relations problems, and assign them to train other.

LEADERSHIP STYLES The leadership style we will discuss here are: a) Autocratic style b) Democratic Style c) Laissez Faire Style

a) Autocratic style Manager retains as much power and decision-making authority as possible. The manager does not consult employees, nor are they allowed to give any input. Employees are expected to obey orders without receiving any explanations. The motivation environment is produced by creating a structured set of rewards and punishments. Autocratic leadership is a classical leadership style with the following characteristics: Manager seeks to make as many decisions as possible Manager seeks to have the most authority and control in decision making Manager seeks to retain responsibility rather than utilize complete delegation Consultation with other colleagues in minimal and decision making becomes a solitary process Managers are less concerned with investing their own leadership development, and prefer to simply work on the task at hand.

Advantages Reduced stress due to increased control A more productive group while the leader is watching

Improved logistics of operations Faster decision making

Disadvantages Short-termistic approach to management. Manager perceived as having poor leadership skills Increased workload for the manager People dislike being ordered around Teams become dependent upon their leader

b) Democratic Style Democratic Leadership is the leadership style that promotes the sharing of responsibility, the exercise of delegation and continual consultation.The style has the following characteristics: Manager seeks consultation on all major issues and decisions. Manager effectively delegate tasks to subordinates and give them full control and responsibility for those tasks. Manager welcomes feedback on the results of intiatives and the work environment. Manager encourages others to become leaders and be involved in leadership development.

Advantages Positive work environment Successful initiatives Creative thinking Reduction of friction and office politics Reduced employee turnover

Disadvantages Takes long time to take decisions Danger of pseudo participation Like the other styles, the democratic style is not always appropriate. It is most successful when used with highly skilled or experienced employees or when implementing operational changes or resolving individual or group problems.

c) Laissez-Faire Style This French phrase means leave it be and is used to describe a leader who leaves his/her colleagues to get on with their work. The style is largely a "hands off" view that tends to minimize the amount of direction and face time required.

Advantages No work for the leader Frustration may force others into leadership roles Allows the visionary worker the opportunity to do what they want, free from interference Empowers the group Disadvantages It makes employees feel insecure at the unavailability of a manager. The manager cannot provide regular feedback to let employees know how well they are doing. Managers are unable to thank employees for their good work. The manager doesnt understand his or her responsibilities and is hoping the employees can cover for him or her.

CONCLUSION

Effective leaders are persons who gets things done.They become leaders by attaining knowledge,gaining experience,and learning from mistakes.They remain leaders by inspiring their followers to work together in pursuit of common goal .For some people, leadership is elusive,for others, it comes naturally.It may appear that some people are born to be leaders, but the truth is that the leaders are made, and by their own efforts.

COMMUNICATION
DEFINITION It is the process of transmitting the messages and receiving the response of that message. The person who sends the messages is known as sender and the person who receives the message is known as receiver and the response to the message is known as feed back. Since the feedback requires another message to be communicated by the sender to the receiver. So communication process become a circular process. Allen Lousis communication is the sum of all the things which one person does when he wants to create understanding in the mind of another. It is a continuous process of telling, listening and understanding. George Terry communication is an exchange of facts, ideas, opinions and emotions by two or more persons. In simple words, exchange of ideas/messages, response there off in total is known as communication. Any method of communication like words oral or written, pictures, graphs, diagrams, etc. may be adopted to communicate. Effective communication is that communication in which the receiver is understood actually what the sender wants to convey, and in the same form. Noise is something, which has disturbed the effective sending and receiving of communication.

FEATURES OF COMMUNICATION

1. Co-operative process: it is a process of co-operation because two or more persons are required for the exchange of message i.e. sender(s) and receiver(s). 2. Two way process: it involves both sending the message and receiving the response to that message. Communication is not completed unless the receiver of the message has understood the message and has given his response. 3. Pervasive function: communication is necessary at all levels of management i.e. top, middle and lower level and also in all the depths of the organisation. 4. Continuous process (circular process): it is a continuous process because transmission of messages is going on a continuous process.

5. Flows in all directions: communication may flow upward and downward, between superior and subordinate, horizontally (gang plank) between persons of similar ranks or diagonally between persons at different levels.

ADVANTAGES OF COMMUNICATION

1. Facilitates planning: while making plans several ideas, problems, suggestions etc. Are communicated for an effective planning system and so communication facilitates better planning. 2. Helps in decision making: by providing the required information, needed for making various decisions communication helps a lot because the quality of decision depends on the quality of information available with the decision maker. 3. Facilitates co-ordination: flow of communication is in all directions results a better coordination in all level of management as well as all depth of organisation. 4. Classifies authorities and responsibilities of various positions: by way of communication authority and responsibility of various posts/positions are conveyed (classified) to the position holder. 5. Improves better relations among superiors and subordinates: by effective communication misunderstanding between superiors and subordinates can be removed. Moreover clear and accurate information can be communicated at proper time resulting better relations between the two. 6. Helps in motivating: communication helps in the process of motivation by sharing of information, consultation and discussion of various problems for prompt redressed/solution, quick solution of problems creates satisfaction resulting motivation towards work. 7. Information regarding organisational rules: subordinates should be informed by communicating them, rules and principles of the organisation and any misunderstanding regarding there of must also be clarified. This will necessarily improve the acceptance of organisational rules. 8. Facilitates directing function: communication makes a link between managers and workforce of the organisation resulting a continuous flow of directions, instructions, orders, suggestions, problems etc. so it facilitates directing function. 9. Better public relations: by way of communication customers, suppliers, shareholders, govt. and society may be provided required information. Resulting better co-operation and good relations among all these groups.

10. Improves efficiency: an effective communication helps in understanding ideas, instructions or guidelines in a close and clear way and removes all confusions. Resulting better understanding, better efficiency.

PROCESS OF COMMUNICATION

1. Sender: according to this model, the first element is the source of the communication. The person who initiates the communication process in known as sender, source or communicator. The sender has some need, information, thought, idea or inform which he wants too communicate to some other person to achieve some purpose. By initiating the message, the sender attempts to achieve understanding and a change in the behaviour of the receiver. 2. Encoding or communication symbol: the next element in the process is that of encoding the information to be transmitted. The sender of information organizes his ideas into a series of symbols (words, signs, etc.), which, he feels, will communicate to the intended receiver or receivers. This is known as encoding of message, i.e., converting to communicable codes which will be understood by the receiver of the message. 3. Message: the next element in the process of communication is message. The message is the physical form into which the sender encodes the information. The message may be in any form that could be experienced and understood by one or more of the senses of the receiver. Speech may be heard, written words may be read and gestures may be seen or felt. Thus, a message may taken any of the two form i.e. verbal or non verbal. Verbal message is in the form of word language, while non-verbal would be in the form of gestures like wink, smile, grunt, frown, warming of hand, shaking of head, etc. 4. Communication channel: the next element in the process of communication is the channel or the mode of transmission (such as air for spoken words and paper for letters). The mode of transmission is often inseparable from the message. The channel is the link that connects th sender and the message. Air, sight and sound are important communication channels. The receiver must be considered while selecting a channel. Some people respond better to formal letters or communications, others to the informally spoken words. The channels of communication which are officially recognized by the organisation are known as formal channels. For communication to be effective the channel used should be appropriate for the message as well as the receiver. For an urgent message, telefax, telephone, electronic mail,telegram, radio, television transmission would be appropriate.

5. Receiver: the next element in the process of communication is the receiver, the person who receives the message is called receiver. The communication process is incomplete without the existence of receiver of the message. It is the receiver who receives and tries to understand the message. If the message does not reach the receiver, communication cannot be said to have taken place. The socio-demographic and physiographic characteristics of the receivers influence in selection of an appropriate channel of communication. 6. Decoding: decoding is the process by which the receivers draws meaning from the symbols encoded by the sender. It is affected by the receivers past experience, education, perception, expectations and mutuality of meaning with the sender. The greater the overlap or commonality of the receivers field of experience and sender, the greater success of the probability of expected communication. A model of communication by Wilbur Schramm. It illustrates that an individual with significantly different educational or cultural background ahs to put in greater effort to ensure successful communication. 7. Feedback: after receiving the message, the receiver will take necessary action and send feedback information to the communicator. Feedback is a reversal of the communication process in which a reaction to the senders message is expressed. The receiver becomes the sender and feedback goes through the same steps as the original communication. The feedback is optional and may exist in any degree (from minimal to complete) in any given situation.Generally, greater the feedback, the more effective the communication process is likely to be.For example, early feedback will enable the manager (sender) to know if his instructions have been properly understood and carried out. Two-way communication takes place when the receiver provides feedback to the sender. For instance, giving an instruction to a subordinate and receiving it acceptance is an example of two-way communication. On the other hand, in case of one-way communication, feedback is totally absent. Here the sender communicates without expecting or getting feedback from the receiver. A policy statement from the chief executive is an example of one-way communication. One-way communication takes less time than two-way communication. In certain situations one-way communication is more effective to get work from the subordinates. Two-way communication is superior to one-way communication in the following respects: (i) Two-way communication is more accurate than one-way communication. The feedback allows the sender to refine his communication, so that it becomes more precise and accurate.

(ii) Receivers self-confidence is higher in case of two-way communication, as they are permitted to ask questions and seek clarification from the senders. However, in case of twoway communication, the sender may feel embarrassed when the receiver draws his attention to senders mistakes and ambiguities.

Noise: surrounding the entire spectrum is the noise that affects the accuracy and fidelity of the message communicated. Noise is any factor that disturbs, confuses or otherwise interferes with communication. It can arise at any stage in the communication process. The sender may not be able to encode the message properly or he may not be properly audible. The message may get distorted by other sounds in the environment. The receiver may not hear the message, or comprehend it in a manner not entirely intended by the sender of the message. The channel also may cerate interference by filtering, i.e. allowing some information to pass through and disallowing others. In any case, there is so much of noise or interference in the entire process that there is every possibility of the communication being distorted.

TYPES OF COMMUNICATION

1. On the basis of relationship: (a) formal communication, (b) informal communication. 2. On the basis of flow or types of formal communication: (a) downward communication, (b) upward communication, (c) horizontal communication, (d) diagonal communication.

Formal communication: it refers to the communication which rakes place on the basis of organisational relationship formally established by the management. It is used to transmit official messages within or outside the organisation. It strictly follows the chain of command. It may be verbal but mostly it is expressed in written form to have a proof. Informal communication: it refers to the communication which takes place on the basis of informal or social relations among the people in an organisation. It is developed at its own due to mutual confidence and relations. Generally it is used to transmit personal message and do not follow the principle of chain of command. It is mostly expressed in verbal/oral form. It may take place among the persons having different positions at different level and chain is not a restriction. Network of informal communication is also known as grapevine.

BARRIERS TO EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION

1. So many levels of management: when the message has go through multiple levels of management. These levels may become obstacle in flow of communication. It happened when chain of command is strictly followed. 2. Selective reception: when a part of information is blocked by any person in the channel of communication it is termed as selective reception. In other words only the selected part is further exchanged and remaining is blocked. It happens when information provider is of the view that the information disagrees with in interest.

3. Language barrier: sometimes sender and receiver of message do not understand the same language and in that case messages not communicated. Moreover if the pronunciation of words by sender is not clear it may became an obstacle. 4. Status barrier: the difference is status of sender and receiver may also become obstacle to effective communication. E.g. subordinates bay pass on interpreted (distorted) information to their superiors to please them and do not reveal their mistakes. 5. Poor listening skills: sometimes people are poor listeners and they believe that the information is not enough important to pay attention to it resulting poor communication. 6. Credibility of source: effective flow of communication also depends on trust and confidence of the receiver on the source of information/message and also on sending channel (sender). 7. Physical distance of receiver and sender: physical distance between these two may also become a barrier generally in those circumstances where sender is interested in knowing the reaction of the receiver quickly. But verbal communication is not possible there. 8. Emotional and psychological barriers: these barriers arise from emotions, attitudes and social values of the participants. People may refuse to accept the messages affecting them emotionally. 9. Symbolic barriers: sometimes the some word of language/symbol may carry different meaning to different parties as per their traditions, customs or religion and in that case communication will not be an effective communication. 10. Lack of organisational facilities: in some organisations there are no suggestion boxes regarding complaints and also the subordinate cant disturb the chain of command. Such lack of organisational facilities is also barrier in effective communication. 11. Specialization barrier: when a department or a person treats him more specialized, it will result no attention towards other departments/persons. 12. Complex organisational structure: when organisational structure is of complex nature, the information may get filtered, modified or lost at different levels before reaching to the last level. 13. Semantic problems: effective communication does not only include of transmission of information/idea but also includes that the receiver has understood the information in the same way as was desired by the sender. E.g. announcement in increase in budget is meant for increase by installing new plan and new technology machines and plant. But workers may think that due to increase budget their salary and wages will raise.

OVERCOMING COMMUNICATION BARRIERS

1. Clarity of information: subordinates should be kept informed on policy that affects them on a regular basis. Clear-cut instructions should be issued and follow-up measures should be taken to ensure that the instructions are thoroughly understood and are being implemented. 2. Prompt information: the management should make a practice of passing along the information promptly to everyone concerned so that action, when required, is not delayed. 3. Creation of proper atmosphere: in particular cases, as for instance, when a boss is talking to his subordinate, the atmosphere should be peaceful, so that there is effective communication of instructions and suggestions. 4. Effective listening: the sender must listen to the receivers words attentively, so that the receiver may also listen to the sender at the same time. 5. Feedback: communication should be two-way traffic. There should be some system by which the workers should be able to convey their suggestions and grievances to the top management. Two-way communication is also necessary for feedback for the purpose of control. 6. Effective channels: management should try to cut the roots of the rumours. If the communication channel is well maintained, there will be no room for rumours, lies, guesses and misconceptions. Worker should get open doors for any clarification or consideration at all times. This will also increase the morale of the employees.

PRINCIPLES OF EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION

1. Principle of clarity: the beginning of all communication is some message. The message must be as clear as possible. No ambiguity should creep into it. The message can be conveyed properly only if it has been clearly formulated in the mind of the communicator. 2. Principle of objective: the communicator must know clearly the purpose of communication before actually transmitting the message. The objective may be to obtain information, give information, initiate action, and change another persons attitude and so on. If the purpose of communication is clear it will help in the choice of mode of communication. 3. Principle of understanding the receiver: understanding is the main aim of any communication. The communication must crate proper understanding in the mind of the receiver. Thus according to Killian, communication with an awareness of the total physical and human setting in which the information will be received. Picture the place of work;

determine the receptivity and understanding levels of the receivers; be aware of social climate and customs; question the informations timeliness. Ask what, when and in what manner you would like to be communicated with if you were in the similar environment and position. 4. Principle of consistency: the message to be communicated should be consistent with plans, policies, programmes and goals of the enterprise. The message should not be conflicting with previous communications. It should not crate confusion and chaos in the organisation. 5. Principle of completeness: the message to be communicated must be adequate and complete, otherwise it will be misunderstood by the receiver. Inadequate communication delayed action, poor public relations affects the efficiency of the parties to communication. 6. Principle of feedback: this principle calls for communication a two-way process and providing opportunity for suggestion and criticism. Since the receiver is to accept and carry out the instructions, his reactions must be known to the sender of message. The latter must consider the suggestion and criticism of the receiver of information. But feedback principle is often given a back seat by most managers, which defeats the very purpose of communication. 7. Principle of time: information should be communicated at the right time. The communicator must consider the timing of communication so that the desired response is created in the minds of the receivers.

CONCLUSION Communication is the exchange and flow of information and ideas from one person to another; it involves a sender transmitting an idea, information, or feeling to a receiver (U.S. Army, 1983). Effective communication occurs only if the receiver understands the exact information or idea that the sender intended to transmit. Many of the problems that occur in an organization are (Mistry, Jaggers, Lodge, Alton, Mericle, Frush, Meliones, 2008):

the direct result of people failing to communicate processes that leads to confusion and can cause good plans to fail

Studying the communication process is important because you coach, coordinate, counsel, evaluate, and supervise throughout this process. It is the chain of understanding that integrates the members of an organization from top to bottom, bottom to top, and side to side.

SUPERVISION
DEFINITION

Supervision means the act of watching over the work or tasks of another who may lack full knowledge of the concept at hand. Supervision does not mean control of another but guidance in a work, professional or personal context. Psychology and psychotherapy supervision refers to the system whereby therapists are expected to arrange another therapist for their own benefit or to discuss their work. It is part of professional good practice Supervision is formally defined as a relationship between senior and junior member(s) of a profession that (a) is evaluative, (b) extends over time, (c) serves to enhance the skills of the junior person, (d) monitors the quality of the services offered by the junior person, and (e) acts as gate keeping to the profession (Bernard & Goodyear, 1992, 2004). The purpose of the supervision process is to provide a safe, supportive opportunity for individuals to engage in critical reflection in order to raise issues, explore problems, and discover new ways of handling both the situation and oneself. A critical aspect of supervision lies in its potential to educate. It is the supervisor's responsibility to ensure that:

professional development and an ability to handle the various work tasks is fostered in the supervisee.

an educative forum, and a non-patronising relationship, is established in which the supervisee can comfortably explore issues with the support of the supervisor.

guidance and tutoring are available where necessary.

SUPERVISORY INTERPERSONAL BEHAVIORS Directive Supervision: The supervisors role is to inform, direct, model, and assess employees competencies.

Collaborative Supervision: The supervisors role is to guide the problem-solving process, be an active member of the interaction, and keep the employees focused on their common problems. Nondirective Supervision: The supervisors role is to listen, be nonjudgmental, and provide self-awareness and clarification experiences for employees.

KEY FUNCTION OF SUPERVISION One of the most influential writers on supervision is Charles Kadushin (1992) who defined three main functions of the supervisory process:

Educational - the educational development of the practitioner and the fulfilment of potential. In educational supervision the primary focus is to dispel ignorance and upgrade skill by encouraging reflection on, and exploration of the work.

Support - the practical and psychological support to carry through the responsibilities of the role. In supportive supervision the primary issue is worker morale and job satisfaction. The stresses and pressures of the individual's role can affect work performance and take its toll psychologically and physically. In extreme and prolonged situations these may ultimately lead to burnout. The supervisor's role is to help the worker manage that stress more effectively and provide re-assurance and emotional support.

Administrative/Managerial - the promotion and maintenance of good standards of work, co-ordination of practice with policies of administration, the assurance of an efficient and smooth-running office; This is the quality assurance dimension to supervision. The interpretation here is that the supervisor inducts the coach into the norms, values and best practices of being a practitioner/professional. It is the 'community of practice' dimension ensuring that standards are maintained.

SUPERVISION PROCESS At the start of the supervision process, the parties concerned work out:

regularity of supervision (eg. two hours every month)

aims and objectives of supervision (eg. to address worker issues? to set tasks?) conditions under which supervision is to take place (eg. will matters discussed be strictly confidential?).

Because supervision is a process it does not start and conclude within a set timeframe, it is ongoing and will move through a number of negotiated stages and styles. For example, initial supervision sessions may be held weekly, be more task-orientated and built around establishing a solid supervisory relationship. Later sessions may focus only on one or two current issues, such as a difficult confrontation with a colleague or client. Typically, supervision will become less frequent as the supervisory relationship 'matures'. It should also become more exploratory (that is, of the person and the worker) as trust and rapport is established. Agendas and minutes of supervision sessions may or may not be written. If supervision is more task-orientated and administratively focussed, then written notes are useful to refer back to. Set goals, aims/objectives for supervision to give both parties something to work towards. As well, organise regular evaluation and reviews of supervision.

DEVELOPEMENTAL MATCHES Employee or Group Characteristics Very low levels of development, expertise, and commitment. Fairly low levels of development, expertise, and commitment. Moderate or mixed levels of development, expertise and commitment. High levels of development, expertise, and commitment Nondirective Collaborative Directive Informational Supervisory Approach Directive Controlling

TASK OF A SUPERVISOR

Carry out policies passed down a hierarchy from the level above. Plan short-range action-steps to carry out goals set by the level above. Organize the work group. Assign jobs to subordinates. Delegate projects to subordinates. Direct tasks, jobs and projects. Train subordinates. Enforce rules. Lead and motivate subordinates. Develop group cohesiveness. Solve routine daily problems. Control or evaluate performance of subordinates and the department - performance appraisals.

Discipline subordinates.

"Doing" can take up to 70% of the time - (this varies according to the type of supervisory job - the doing involves the actual work of the department as well as the planning, controlling, scheduling, organizing, leading, etc.).

SUPERVISOR CHARACTERISTICS 1. The managers values. a) What is most important to the supervisor? Company profits Personal growth and development Development of employees

b) Level of confidence in employees The more confidence in the employees, the more the supervisor will involve the employees

2. Personal leadership strengths Effective leaders capitalize on their strengths.

3. Tolerance for ambiguity When employees are involved, the supervisor cannot always be sure of the outcomes. Will the supervisor be comfortable with this uncertainty?.

4. Giving Directions Supervisors practice leadership by giving employees directions. Supervisors should make sure employees understand the directions. Directions should be stated in specific, clear terms. Employees should understand the reason for the directions.

5. Self Concept The image a person has of himself/herself. influences how the supervisor behaves. Someone who believes he or she has the power will act powerful. Someone who thinks himself or herself as intelligent is apt to make careful decisions. When supervisors do something well, they should give themselves credit for their success.

6. Developing and Maintaining Good Relations A supervisor needs support from many people in the organization to be successful. They need the support of their employees. They also need the support of their boss and co-workers.

A supervisor who is liked and respected by employees will inspire them to work harder and better. Supervisors should be role models for employees by following the rules of the company. They should also be fair in the treatment of employees and ethical.

OBJECTIVE OF SUPERVISION MODEL

I. II. III. IV. V.

A safe supervisory relationship, Task-directed structure, Methods addressing a variety of learning styles, Multiple supervisory roles, Communication skills enhancing listening, analyzing, and elaboration

SUPERVISION MODEL

(i) (ii) (iii) (iv)

Fiedlers model Developmental models, Integrated models, and Orientation-specific models.

1. Fiedlers Model Supervisors will be relationship oriented (people oriented) or task oriented depending on: i. leader-member relations, or the extent to which the leader has group members support and loyalty. ii. task structure, or whether there is specified procedures to follow in carrying out the task.
iii. position power, or the leaders formal authority granted by the organization.

Fiedler recommends that a leader determine whether his or her preferred leadership style fits the situation, and, if not, the leader should try to change the characteristics of the situation.

2. Developement Model Worthington (1987) reviewed developmental supervision models and noted patterns. Studies revealed the behavior of supervisors changed as supervisees gained experience, and the supervisory relationship also changed. There appeared to be a scientific basis for developmental trends and patterns in supervision. Stoltenberg and Delworth (1987) highlight content of eight growth areas for each supervisee. Intervention, Skills competence, Assessment techniques, Interpersonal assessment, Client conceptualization, Individual differences, Theoretical orientation, Treatment goals and plans, and professional ethics

3. Integrated model Process, Conceptualization, and Personalization.

4. Orientation-specific models Behavioral supervision views client problems as learning problems; therefore it requires two skills: ( 1) identification of the problem, and (2) selection of the appropriate learning technique (Leddick & Bernard, 1980).

CONCLUSION Supervisors are uniquely positioned through direct daily employee contact to respond to employee needs, problems, and satisfaction. Supervisors are the direct link between management and the work force and can be most effective in developing job training, safety attitudes, safe working methods and identifying unsafe acts and conditions. Supervisors should tend to visualize problems and opportunities in terms of their particular areas of concentration. But to climb the management hierarchy, they must eventually broaden their base and become competent in related specialized areas. Finally, there is a difference in the kinds of decisions made. Because they are in direct contact with operative employees, supervisors must interpret, apply, and make meaningful the directives and requirements laid down by their own managers.

CONCLUSION : MANAGEMENT
Management in business and organizations means to coordinate the efforts of people to accomplish goals and objectives using available resources efficiently and effectively. Management comprises planning, organizing, staffing, leading or directing, and controlling an organization or initiative to accomplish a goal. Resourcing encompasses the deployment and manipulation of human resources, financial resources, technological resources, and natural resources. Since organizations can be viewed as systems, management can also be defined as human action, including design, to facilitate the production of useful outcomes from a system. This view opens the opportunity to 'manage' oneself, a prerequisite to attempting to manage others.

FUNCTION OF MANAGEMENT

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Assalamualaikum w.b.t,

First of all I want to thank Allah Almighty for giving me a chance to accomplish this assignment. This assignment gives me a lot of information about management and how to search certain information using all the materials.

Secondly we want to give our appreciation to Puan Zahurin Binti Husin, Lecturer, CQ605 Principles Of Management for her kindness gives us guidance and help to make this assignment. Without her we cannot successfully finish this assignment. I also want to give my appreciation to both of my parents for giving me morale support to finish this assignment. For my friends thank you so much for your help and support.

Lastly, thanks a lot to the people who give me a lot of inspiration and morale support for encourage me to finish this assignment.

Thank you,

CONTENT

NO 1 2

ITEM Acknowledgement Function Of Management Manager Decision Making Steps Of Planning Types Of Planning Leadership Communication Supervision

References

REFERENCES

www.scribd.com/doc/27153839/Management-Book

http://www.slideshare.net/ashishkbarnwal/leadership-supervision

45883443-Principles-of-Mangement-MG2351.pdf

http://management.about.com/od/policiesandprocedures/g/manager1.html

http://www.rico.com.au/training/life_skills/supervision.html

Lectures & Senior Notes

Principle Of Management Module Wikipedia