Material Engineering All Slides ME

Lecture Notes By Dr Tanweer Hussain
SCIENCE VS. ENGINEERING
SCIENCE
Analysis: ask questions, look for patterns, develop knowledge Produce knowledge Characteristic activity: research ( learn about nature) Study of what is Tryscience.org
ENGINEERING
Synthesis: integrate bits of knowledge to create something new Produce processes and things (part of technology) Characteristic activity: creative design Study of what never was Tryengineering.org
WHAT IS MATERIALS ENGINEERING?

It is the field of engineering that encompasses the spectrum of materials types and how to use them in manufacturing. Materials engineering is different from Materials science. Materials science involves investigating the relationships that exist between the structures and properties of materials, whereas, Materials engineering, on the basis of these structureproperty correlations, design or engineer the structure of a material to produce a predetermined set of properties. From a functional perspective, the role of a materials scientist is to develop or synthesize new materials, whereas a materials engineer is called upon to create new products or systems using existing materials, and/or to develop techniques for processing materials. What is a Material? Everything we see and use is made of materials Engineers make things. They make them out of materials. Why Study Materials Engineering? In order to be a good designer, an engineer must learn what materials will be appropriate to use in different applications. Any engineer can look up materials properties in a book or search databases for a material that meets design specifications, but the ability to innovate and to incorporate materials safely in a design is rooted in an understanding of how to manipulate materials properties and functionality through the control of the materials structure and processing techniques.
Engineering Materials Advanced Materials
Metals
Ceramics
Polymers
Composites
Metals and Alloys Atoms in metals and their alloys are arranged in a very orderly manner, and in comparison to the ceramics and polymers, are relatively dense . Metals have High electrical conductivity, good formability, Castable, machinable. An alloy is a metal that contains additions of one or more metals or non-metals. Metals and alloys have relatively high strength, high stiffness, ductility or formability, and shock resistance. Ceramics Thermally insulating, Refractories. Ceramics can be defined as inorganic crystalline materials. Beach sand and rocks are examples of naturally occurring ceramics. Traditional ceramics are used to make bricks, tableware, toilets, bathroom sinks, refractories (heatresistant material), and abrasives. In general, due to the presence of porosity (small holes), ceramics do not conduct heat well; they must be heated to very high temperatures before melting. Ceramics are strong and hard, but also very brittle. Advanced ceramics are materials made by refining naturally occurring ceramics and other special processes. Glasses Optically transparent. Glass is an amorphous material, often, but not always, derived from a molten liquid. The term amorphous refers to materials that do not have a regular, periodic arrangement of atoms.
Polymers (Greek; Polys + mers = many + parts)Lecture Notes By Dr Tanweer Hussain Polyethylene Food packaging Easily formed into thin, flexible, airtight film. Electrically insulating and moisture-resistant. Polymers are typically organic materials. They are produced using a process known as polymerization. Polymeric materials include rubber (elastomers), PE, nylon, PVC, PC, PS, and silicone rubber. and many types of adhesives. Polymers typically are good electrical and thermal insulators although there are exceptions such as the semiconducting polymers
Composites The main idea in developing composites is to blend the properties of different materials. The design goal of a composite is to achieve a combination of properties that is not displayed by any single material, and also to incorporate the best characteristics of each of the component materials. Advanced Materials Semiconductors Used in Silicon Transistors and integrated circuits. Unique electrical behaviour, converts electrical signals to light, lasers, laser diodes, etc. Biomaterials Biomaterials are employed in components implanted into the human body to replace diseased or damaged body parts. These materials must not produce toxic substances and must be compatible with body tissues (i.e., must not cause adverse biological reactions). Smart Materials These materials are able to sense changes in their environment and then respond to these changes in predetermined manners. Smart material include some type of sensors, and actuators. Piezoelectric actuators expand and contract in response to an applied electric field . Nanomaterials Nanomaterials may be any one of the four basic types; metals, ceramics, polymers, & composites. the term is limited to dealing with particles whose dimensions range in size from a few nanometres up to around 100 nm.
SOME EXAMPLES OF ADVANCED MATERIALS

Engineers had developed many types of materials with respect to their use and suitable conditions, as discussed earlier, to meet the rushing needs of technology. Such as Liquid crystals, superconductors, semiconductors, biosynthetic materials, nanomaterials, smart materials and so on. Here we shall discuss only Liquid crystals and Superconductors.
Liquid Crystals One of the rising types of advanced materials is Liquid Crystals. Liquid crystals are produced from organic compounds and is thought of as the phase of matter between the solid and liquid state of a crystal.The study of liquid crystals began in 1888 when an Austrian botanist named Friedrich Reinitzer observed that a material known as cholesteryl benzoate had two distinct melting points. In his experiments, Reinitzer increased the temperature of a solid sample and watched the crystal change into a hazy liquid. As he increased the temperature further, the material changed again into a clear, transparent liquid. In liquid crystals it is observed that when a crystalline solid is melted it first convert into a turbid liquid phase, which can flow as liquid, but it has crystalline structure in it. After providing more heat it becomes clear liquid. The turbid liquid phase is known as Liquid Crystal. A liquid crystalline state exist between two temperatures, the melting point and the clearing point or temperature. Liquid crystals are always anisotropic.
WHAT IS MATERIALS ENGINEERING?

One common item that presents some interesting material property requirements is the container for carbonated beverages. The material used for this application must satisfy the following constraints: (1) provide a barrier to the passage of carbon dioxide, which is under pressure in the container; (2) be nontoxic, non-reactive with the beverage, and, preferably, recyclable; (3) be relatively strong and capable of surviving a drop from a height of several feet when containing the beverage; (4) be inexpensive, including the cost to fabricate the final shape; (5) if optically transparent, retain its optical clarity; and (6) be capable of being produced in different colours and/or adorned with decorative labels. All three of the basic material typesmetal (aluminium), ceramic (glass), and polymer (PE plastic)are used for carbonated beverage containers. All of these materials are nontoxic and un-reactive with beverages. In addition, each material has its pros and cons.
For example, the aluminium alloy is relatively strong (but easily dented), is a very good barrier to the diffusion of carbon dioxide, is easily recycled, cools beverages rapidly, and allows labels to be painted onto its surface. On the other hand, the cans are optically opaque and relatively expensive to produce. Glass is impervious to the passage of carbon dioxide, is a relatively inexpensive material, and may be recycled, but it cracks and fractures easily, and glass bottles are relatively heavy. Whereas plastic is relatively strong, may be made optically transparent, is inexpensive and lightweight, and is recyclable, it is not as impervious to the passage of carbon dioxide as the aluminium and glass. For example, you may have noticed that beverages in aluminium and glass containers retain their carbonization (i.e., fizz) for several years, whereas those in two-litre plastic bottles go flat within a few months.
Materials Structure
The properties of some materials are directly related to their structures. The structure of a material usually relates to the arrangement of its internal Components. There are four levels of materials structure: Subatomic structure involves electrons within the individual atoms and interactions with their nuclei. Atomic structure involves arrangement of atoms in materials and defines interaction among atoms (interatomic bonding). Microscopic structure involves arrangement of small grains of material that can be identified by microscopy. Macroscopic structure relates to structural elements that may be viewed with the naked eye.
Macroscopic structure Atomic level Subatomic level Microscopic structure
Atomic Structure (Arrangement of Atoms)

All matters are made up of atoms containing a nucleus of protons and neutrons and surrounding clouds, or orbits, of electrons. Atoms can transfer or share electrons; in doing so, multiple atoms combine to form molecules. Molecules are held together by attractive forces called bonds. Metallic bonds: Metals and alloys form metallic bonds. Metals have relatively few electrons in their outer orbits; thus, they cannot complete the outer shell of other self-mated atoms. Instead, the metallic elements have electropositive atoms that donate their valence electrons to form a cloud of electrons surrounding the atoms, whereby the available electrons are shared by all atoms in contact. The resultant electron cloud provides attractive forces to hold the atoms together and results in generally high thermal and electrical conductivity. Covalent bonds: ln a covalent bond, the electrons in outer orbits are shared by atoms to form molecules. The number of electrons shared is reflected by terms such as single bond, double bond, etc. Polymers consist of large molecules that are covalently bonded together. Solids formed by covalent bonding typically have low electrical conductivity and can have high hardness. Ionic bonds: When one or more electrons from an outer orbit are transferred from one material to another, a strong attractive force develops between the two ions.
Crystalline Structure Of Metals
why we study the crystal structure of metals? By studying the crystal structure of metals, information about various properties can be inferred. By relating structure to properties, one can predict processing behaviour or select appropriate applications for a metal. Metals with face-centered cubic structure, for example, tend to be ductile whereas hexagonal close-packed metals tend to be brittle.
Difference between Unit Cell and Single Crystal A unit cell is the smallest group of atoms showing the characteristic lattice structure of a particular metal. It is the building block of a crystal, A single crystal consists of a number of unit cells. All unit cells interlock in the same way and have the same orientation For a crystalline solid, when the periodic and repeated arrangement of atoms is perfect or extends throughout the entirety of the specimen without interruption, the result is a single crystal. Single crystals exist in nature, but they may also be produced artificially. Examples include; turbine blades and electronic microcircuits, which employ single crystals of silicon and other semiconductors.
Polycrystalline Materials Most crystalline solids are composed of a collection of many small crystals or grains; such materials are termed polycrystalline..
Lecture Notes By placed Dr Tanweerover Hussain The Figure shows three thin disk specimens some printed matter. It is obvious that the optical properties of each of the three materials are different; the one on the left is transparent, whereas the disks in the center and on the right are, respectively, translucent and opaque. All of these specimens are of the same material, aluminum oxide, but the:
Leftmost one is what we call a single crystalthat is, it is highly perfectwhich gives rise to its transparency. The center one is composed of numerous and very small single crystals that are all connected; the boundaries between these small crystals scatter a portion of the light reflected from the printed page, which makes this material optically translucent. The specimen on the right is composed not only of many small, interconnected crystals, but also of a large number of very small pores or void spaces. These pores also effectively scatter the reflected light and render this material opaque.
Thus, the structures of these three specimens are different in terms of crystal boundaries and pores, which affect the optical transmittance properties. Furthermore, each material was produced using a different processing technique.
When
molten metal solidifies, crystals begin for form independently of each other. They have random and unrelated orientations. Each of these crystals grows into a crystalline structure or GRAIN. The number and size of the grains developed in a unit volume of the metal depends on the rate at which NUCLEATION (the initial stage of crystal formation) takes place
Is this what I mean by grain?
GRAINS AND GRAIN BOUNDARIES
FIGURE 1.10 SCHEMATIC ILLUSTRATION OF THE STAGES DURING THE SOLIDIFICATION OF MOLTEN METAL; EACH SMALL SQUARE REPRESENTS A UNIT CELL. (A) NUCLEATION OF CRYSTALS AT RANDOM SITES IN THE MOLTEN METAL; NOTE THAT THE CRYSTALLOGRAPHIC ORIENTATION OF EACH SITE IS DIFFERENT. (B) AND (C) GROWTH OF CRYSTALS AS SOLIDIFICATION CONTINUES. (D) SOLIDIFIED METAL, SHOWING INDIVIDUAL GRAINS AND GRAIN BOUNDARIES; NOTE THE DIFFERENT ANGLES AT WHICH NEIGHBORING GRAINS MEET EACH OTHER.
Rapid cooling smaller grains Slow cooling larger grains
Grain boundaries the surfaces that separate individual grains
Body-Centered Cubic Crystal Structure
Face-Centered Cubic Crystal Structure
Hexagonal Close-Packed Crystal Structure
ATOMIC PACKING FACTOR For BCC For FCC For HCP

APF 0.68 APF 0.74 APF ?
Volume of atoms in unit cell APF Volume unit cell Total number of atom s in unit cell Volume of unit atoms Volume unit cell
Show that the atomic packing factor for the BCC crystal structure is 0.68. Show that the atomic packing factor for the FCC crystal structure is 0.74. What is the atomic packing factor for the HCP crystal structure?. Show that for HCP the c/a ratio is 1.633
3 3 a2 Area of a Hexagon 2
Numerical Problems
1. Calculate the volume of an BCC unit cell in terms of the atomic radius R. 2. Calculate the volume of an FCC unit cell in terms of the atomic radius R. 3. Calculate the volume of an HCP unit cell in terms of the atomic radius R.
Allotropy Allotropy is the ability of an element to exist in different structural forms while in the same state of matter. The allotropes depend on both the allotropy temperature and the external pressure. For example, the allotropes of carbon include diamond (where the carbon atoms are bonded together in a tetrahedral lattice arrangement), graphite (where the carbon atoms are bonded together in sheets of a hexagonal lattice). Graphite is the stable polymorph at ambient conditions, whereas diamond is formed at extremely high pressures. Also, pure iron has a BCC crystal structure at room temperature, which changes to FCC iron at 912 C
IMPERFECTIONS IN THE CRYSTAL STRUCTURE OF METALS

The arrangement of the atoms or ions in engineered materials contains imperfections or defects. These defects often have a profound effect on the properties of materials. Following are the basic types of imperfections: point defects, line defects (or dislocations), and surface defects. Point defects-vacancy, missing atoms, interstitial atom extra atom in the lattice or impurity foreign atom that has replaced the atom of pure metal. Linear defects also called dislocations. Planar imperfections such as grain boundaries and phase boundaries. Volume or bulk imperfections-voids, inclusions, other phases, cracks. In many applications, the presence of such defects is useful. For example, defects known as dislocations are useful for increasing the strength of metals and alloys; however, in single crystal silicon, used for manufacturing computer chips, the presence of dislocations is undesirable. Often the defects may be created intentionally to produce a desired set of electronic, magnetic, optical, or mechanical properties. For example, pure iron is relatively soft, yet, when we add a small amount of carbon, we create defects in the crystalline arrangement of iron and transform it into a plain carbon steel that exhibits considerably higher strength.
IMPERFECTIONS IN THE CRYSTAL STRUCTURE OF METALS (CONTD.)
POINT DEFECTS: (a) vacancy, (b) interstitial atom, (c) small substitutional atom, (d) large substitutional atom, (e) Frenkel defect, and (f) Schottky defect.
IMPERFECTIONS IN THE CRYSTAL STRUCTURE OF METALS (CONTD.)

Vacancies: A vacancy is produced when an atom or an ion is missing from its normal site in the crystal structure. When atoms or ions are missing (i.e., when vacancies are present), the overall randomness or entropy of the material increases, which increases the thermodynamic stability of a crystalline material. All crystalline materials have vacancy defects. Vacancies are introduced into metals and alloys during solidification, at high temperatures, or as a consequence of radiation damage. Interstitial Defects: An interstitial defect is formed when an extra atom or ion is inserted into the crystal structure at a normally unoccupied position. Interstitial atoms such as hydrogen are often present as impurities, whereas carbon atoms are intentionally added to iron to produce steel. A substitutional defect is introduced when one atom or ion is replaced by a different type of atom or ion. A Frenkel defect is a vacancy-interstitial pair formed when an ion jumps from a normal lattice point to an interstitial site. A Schottky defect, is unique to ionic materials and is commonly found in many ceramic materials. When vacancies occur in an ionically bonded material, a stoichiometric number of anions and cations must be missing from regular atomic positions if electrical neutrality is to be preserved. For example, one Mg+2 vacancy and one O-2 vacancy in MgO constitute a Schottky pair.
DISLOCATIONS
Dislocations are line imperfections in an otherwise perfect crystal. They typically are introduced into a crystal during solidification of the material or when the material is deformed permanently. There are three basic types of dislocations.
Screw Dislocations The screw dislocation can be illustrated by cutting partway through a perfect crystal and then skewing the crystal by one atom spacing.
Edge Dislocations An edge dislocation can be illustrated by slicing partway through a perfect crystal, spreading the crystal apart, and partly filling the cut with an extra half plane of atoms. Mixed Dislocations
SLIP AND SLIP SYSTEM
Slip is the movement of an edge dislocation across the crystal lattice under a shear stress.
DEFORMATION & STRENGTH OF SINGLE CRYSTALS

A single crystal exhibits different properties when tested in different directions and this property is called Anisotropy Elastic deformation- a single crystal is subject to an external force, but returns to its original shape when the force is removed Plastic deformation-a permanent deformation when the crystal does not return to its original shape.
Two Basic Mechanisms for Plastic Deformations

Slipping of
one plane of atoms over another adjacent plane (slip plane) under shear stress Twinning- the second and less common mechanism of plastic deformation where a portion of the crystal forms a mirror image of itself across the plane of twinning
Permanent deformation of a single crystal under tensile load. The highlighted grid of Lecture Notes By Dra Tanweer Hussain atoms emphasizes the motion that occurs within the lattice. (A) deformation by slip. The b/a ratio influences the magnitude of the shear stress required to cause slip. (B) deformation by twinning, involving the generation of a twin around a line of symmetry subjected to shear. Note that the tensile load results in a shear stress in the plane illustrated.
CONCEPT OF STRESS AND STRAIN
Work hardening, or strain hardening , IfNotes we By apply a stress S1 that is greater than the Lecture Dr Tanweer Hussain yield strength Sy, it causes a permanent deformation or strain. When the stress is removed, a strain of e1 remains. Our new test specimen would begin to deform plastically or flow at stress level S1. We define the flow stress as the stress that is needed to initiate plastic flow in previously deformed material. Strain hardening results in an increase in the strength of a material due to plastic deformation. Plastic deformation = adding dislocations Strain Hardening Mechanism
flow at stress level S1
the new flow Each time we apply a higher stress is S2 stress, the flow stress and tensile strength increase, and the ductility decreases
PRODUCTION OF IRON
Iron ores are rocks and minerals from which metallic iron can be economically extracted. The ores are usually rich in iron oxides and vary in colour from dark grey, bright yellow, deep purple, to rusty red. The iron itself is usually found in the form of magnetite (Fe3O4), hematite (Fe2O3), goethite (FeO(OH)), limonite (FeO(OH)n(H2O)) or siderite (FeCO3).
Smelting To convert it to metallic iron it must be smelted or sent through a direct reduction process to remove the oxygen. Oxygen-iron bonds are strong, and to remove the iron from the oxygen, a stronger elemental bond must be presented to attach to the oxygen. Carbon is used because the strength of a carbon-oxygen bond is greater than that of the iron-oxygen bond, at high temperatures. Thus, the iron ore must be powdered and mixed with coke, to be burnt in the smelting process.
Iron Pure iron rarely exists outside of the laboratory. Iron is produced by reducing iron ore to pig iron through the use of a blast furnace. From pig iron many other types of iron and steel are produced by the addition or deletion of carbon and alloys. The following paragraphs discuss the different types of iron and steel that can be made from iron ore. PIG IRON. Pig iron is composed of about 93% iron, from 3% to 5% carbon, and various amounts of other elements. Pig iron is comparatively weak and brittle; therefore, it has a limited use and approximately ninety percent produced is refined to produce steel. Cast-iron pipe and some fittings and valves are manufactured from pig iron. Carbon 3.04.5% Manganese 0.152.5% Phosphorus 0.12.0% Silicon 1.03.0% Sulphur 0.050.1%
WROUGHT IRON. Wrought iron is made from pig iron with some slag mixed in during manufacture. Almost pure iron, the presence of slag enables wrought iron to resist corrosion and oxidation. The chemical analyses of wrought iron and mild steel are just about the same. The difference comes from the properties controlled during the manufacturing process. Wrought iron can be gas and arc welded, machined, plated, and easily formed; however, it has a low hardness and a low-fatigue strength.
CAST IRON. Cast iron is any iron containing greater than 2% carbon alloy. Cast iron has a high compressive strength and good wear resistance; however, it lacks ductility, malleability, and impact strength.
Iron Ore Wrought Iron
Pig Iron
Conventional Blast Furnace
Lecture Notes By Dr Tanweer Hussain Modern Blast Furnace
1: Iron ore + Calcareous sinter 2: coke 3: conveyor belt 4: feeding opening, with a valve that prevents direct contact with the internal parts of the furnace 5: Layer of coke 6: Layers of sinter, iron oxide pellets, ore, 7: Hot air (around 1200C) 8: Slag 9: Liquid pig iron 10: Mixers 11: Tap for pig iron 12: Dust cyclon for removing dust from exhaust gasses before burning them in 13 13: Air heater 14: Smoke outlet (can be redirected to carbon capture & storage (CCS) tank) 15: feed air for Cowper air heaters 16: Powdered coal 17: cokes oven 18: cokes bin 19: pipes for blast furnace gas
PRODUCTION OF IRON
Iron is the fourth most plentiful element in the earths crust, it is rarely found in the metallic state. Instead, it occurs in a variety of mineral compounds, known as ores, the most attractive of which are iron oxides coupled with companion impurities. To produce metallic iron, the ores are processed in a manner that breaks the ironoxygen bonds. Ore, limestone, coke (carbon), and air are continuously introduced into specifically designed furnaces and molten metal is periodically withdrawn. The production of iron in a blast furnace is a continuous process. The furnace is heated constantly and is re-charged with raw materials from the top while it is being tapped from the bottom. Iron making in the furnace usually continues for about ten years before the furnace linings have to be renewed. Blast furnace is a furnace for smelting of iron from iron oxide ores (hematite, Fe2O3 or magnetite, Fe3O4). Coke, limestone and iron ore are poured in the top, which would normally burn only on the surface. The hot air blast to the furnace burns the coke and maintains the very high temperatures that are needed to reduce the ore to iron. The reaction between air and the fuel generates carbon monoxide. This gas reduces the iron oxide in the ore to iron. Fe2O3(solid) + CO(gas) Fe(solid) + CO2(gas)
Lecture Notes By Dr Tanweer Hussain BLAST FURNACE CHEMISTRY FOR THE PRODUCTION OF IRON
The significant reactions occurring within the Blast Furnace can be described as follows: 1. Iron is extracted from its ores by the chemical reduction of iron oxides with carbon in a furnace at a temperature of about 800C - 1900C. 2. Coke, the source of chemical energy in the blast furnace, is burnt both to release heat energy and to provide the main reducing agent: 3. Calcium oxide, formed by thermal decomposition of limestone, reacts with the silicon oxide present in sand, a major impurity in iron ores, to form slag (which is less dense than molten iron). Overall, the chemical processes can be summarized by these equations: All of the phosphorus and most At 500o C of the manganese will enter the 3Fe2O3 +CO -> 2Fe3O4 + CO2 molten iron. Oxides of silicon Fe2O3 +CO -> 2FeO + CO2 and sulphur compounds are o At 850 C partially reduced, and these Fe3O4 +CO -> 3FeO + CO2 elements also become part of the resulting metal. Other At 1000o C FeO +CO -> Fe + CO2 contaminant elements, such as calcium, magnesium, and At 1300 oC aluminium, are collected in the CO2 + C -> 2CO limestone-based slag and are At 1900o C largely removed from the C+ O2 -> CO2 FeO +C -> Fe + CO system.
PRODUCTION STEEL Lecture NotesOF By Dr Tanweer Hussain When iron is smelted from its ore by commercial processes, it contains more carbon than is desirable. In order to convert the pig iron into steel, it must be melted and reprocessed to reduce the carbon to the correct amount, at which point other elements can be added. This liquid is then continuously cast into long slabs or cast into ingots. Approximately 96% of steel is continuously cast, while only 4% is produced as cast steel ingots. The ingots are then heated in a soaking pit and hot rolled into slabs, blooms, or billets. Slabs are hot or cold rolled into sheet metal or plates. Billets are hot or cold rolled into bars, rods, and wire. Blooms are hot or cold rolled into structural steel, such as I-beams and rails. In modern foundries these processes often occur in one assembly line, with ore coming in and finished steel coming out. Sometimes after steels final rolling it is heat treated for strength, however this is relatively rare. Iron as obtained from blast furnace contains from 3-4% of Carbon, and variable amount of silicon, manganese sulphur and phosphorus.
1. Dead mild steel up to 0.15% carbon 2. Low carbon or mild steel 0.15% to 0.45% carbon 3. Medium carbon steel 0.45% to 0.8% carbon 4. High carbon steel 0.8% to 1.5% carbon
STEEL MAKING PROCESSES

Bessemer Process Crucible Process Open Hearth Process Electric Process (Arc, Induction) Duplex Process Linz Donnawitz Process Kaldo Process Modern Process
Bessemer Process Bessemer process was invented in1875 by Thomas Gilchrest. In Bessemer process the molten pig iron from blast furnace is poured into converter. The converter is made of steel plates lined inside with refractory material. In the bottom of converter vessels, a no of holes are introduced through which air is blown at a pressure of 200-250KN/m2. Based on full capacity, the converter is charged with 100-150 ton, and this charge is carried out from 10 to 15 ton at different time intervals. Their first oxidizes silicon, and manganese which together with iron oxide rise to the top from slag. During this air blowing process the carbon begins to burn and blowing continued, until 0.25% of carbon is eliminated. In Bessemer process acids are used to burn and eliminated silicon and phosphorus. The finished steel is then poured into ladles and from ladle it is poured into ingot moulds for subsequently rolling and forging process.
Crucible Process In Crucible process wrought iron together with a small amount of pig iron, necessary alloying metals and slagging materials are placed in a clay or clay-graphite crucible, covered with an old crucible bottom and melted in a gas or coke-fired furnace. After the charge is entirely molten, with sufficient time allowed for the gases and impurities to rise to the surface, the Crucible is withdrawn, the slag removed with a cold iron bar, and the resulting steel poured into a small ingot which is subsequently forged to the desire shape. There are three types of Crucible Furnaces: (a) lift-out crucible, (b) stationary pot, from which molten metal must be ladled, and (c) tilting-pot furnace
Open Hearth Process The open-hearth furnace is rectangular and rather low, holding from 15 to 200 ton of metal in a saucer-like shallow pool. It is heated either by producer gas, oil, tar, mixed blast furnace and coke oven gas, pitch, mixture of creosote and pitch and heavy fuel oil. Flames come from first one end and then the other. Waste gases pass through regenerators. The furnace is charged with ore and limestone. The lime stone begins to decompose in carbon di-oxide and calcium oxide.
A. gas and air enter B. pre-heated chamber C. molten pig iron D. hearth E. heating chamber F. gas and air exit.
Electric Furnace An Electric Arc Furnace (EAF) is a furnace that heats charged material by means of an electric arc. An electric arc furnace used for steelmaking consists of a refractory-lined vessel, usually water-cooled in larger sizes, covered with a retractable roof, and through which one or more graphite electrodes enter the furnace. Arc furnaces differ from induction furnaces in that the charge material is directly exposed to an electric arc, and the current in the furnace terminals passes through the charged material.
An induction furnace is an electrical furnace in which the heat is applied by induction heating of metal. The advantage of the induction furnace is a clean, energy-efficient and well-controllable melting process compared to most other means of metal melting.
The one major drawback to Electric furnace usage in a foundry is the lack of refining capacity; charge materials must be clean of oxidation products and of a known composition and some alloying elements may be lost due to oxidation.
Induction furnace is based on the principle of heating by induced currents. If a conductor is placed within a coil through which an alternating current is flowing, a current is induced in the conductor. By the normal la of electricity this conductor is heated. The magnitude of the current generated depends on: _the physical dimensions of the coil; _the resistivity of the conductor and _the frequency of the current.
Linz-Donawitz (LD) or Basic oxygen steel (BOS) Process Lecture Notes making By Dr Tanweer Hussain The basic oxygen steel-making process is as follows: 1. Molten pig iron from a blast furnace is poured into a large refractory-lined container called a ladle. Besides the BOS vessel is one-fifth filled with steel scrap. 2. The metal in the ladle is sent directly for basic oxygen steelmaking or to a pretreatment stage. Pre-treatment of the blast furnace metal is used to reduce the refining load of sulphur, silicon, and phosphorus. In desulfurising pre-treatment, several hundred kilograms of powdered magnesium are added. Sulphur impurities are reduced to magnesium sulphide in a violent exothermic reaction. The sulphide is then raked off. Similar pre-treatment is possible for desiliconisation and dephosphorisation using lime as reagents. The decision to pretreat depends on the quality of the blast furnace metal and the required final quality of the BOS steel. 3. Fluxes (lime or dolomite) are fed into the vessel to form slag, which absorbs impurities of the steelmaking process. During blowing the metal in the vessel forms an emulsion with the slag, facilitating the refining process.
Kaldo Process:
The Kaldo process, is a modification of LD process. It was originally developed in Sweden by Prof. Kalling. This process is based on the advantage of evolution of heat by high phosphorus(2%) pig iron to as low as 0.02% P. The converter in Kaldo Process is inclined at 150 to 200 with the horizontal, and rotated at a speed of 25-30 r.p.m. The oxygen lance is introduced through the open end of the vessel, which also acts as the outlet for the exhaust gases. The use of oxygen allows simultaneous removal of carbon and phosphorus from the (p 1.85%) pig iron. The rotation of the converter ensures better slag-metal reaction.
MODERN STEEL MAKING PROCESS
Vacuum Induction Melting process: This process is similar to the induction melting process with suitable arrangement for creating a vacuum. This process is used for making super alloys containing nickel and cobalt as base metals. It is very suitable process for further remelting for investment casting. Due to vacuum prevailing in the chamber , non-metallic inclusions can be minimized and composition of chemically reactive elements like titanium , boron and aluminium can be controlled accurately. New alloys of steel possessing greater uniformly and reproducibility of properties accompanied by greater strength, creep resistance, etc can be produced. Consumable Electrical Vacuum Arc Melting Process: It is direct arc steel melting process in which the electrode is consumed during melting. This process was originally used for titanium. Since this process eliminates hydrogen, oxygen, and volatile materials, it is extensively used for special-purpose steels, as in moving parts of aircraft engines, due to need of high strength, uniformity of properties, greater toughness and freedom from tramp and volatile elements. Electric slag refining (ESR) Process: This process is commonly known as ESR. It is a larger form of the original welding process . It is the electrical resistance heating process that remelts the preformed electrode into a water-cooled crucible. Due to resistance to flow of current, the metal melts and drops onto the crucible through a layer of slag around the ingot. The process is used for making high alloy, high quality steels for obtaining superior properties normally not achieved in conventional processing. For example, ultra high strength weldable steel.
EQUILIBRIUM PHASE DIAGRAM

A phase may be defined as a homogeneous portion of a system that has uniform physical and chemical characteristics.
One-component or Unary Phase Diagram (P-T Diagram) An equilibrium phase diagram is a graphic mapping of the natural tendencies of a material or a material system, assuming that equilibrium has been attained for all possible conditions. There are three primary variables to be considered: temperature, pressure, and composition. The simplest phase diagram is a pressuretemperature (PT) diagram for a fixedcomposition material. Areas of the diagram are assigned to the various phases, with the boundaries indicating the equilibrium conditions of transition. PT phase diagrams are rarely used for engineering applications. Most engineering processes are conducted at atmospheric pressure, and variations are more likely to occur in temperature and composition.
Notes By Dr Tanweer Hussain COMPLETE SOLUBILITY IN BOTH Lecture LIQUID AND SOLID STATES The upper line is the liquidus line, the lowest temperature for which the material is 100% liquid. Above the liquidus, the two materials form a uniform-chemistry liquid solution. The lower line, denoting the highest temperature at which the material is completely solid, is known as a solidus line. Below the solidus, the materials form a solid-state solution in which the two types of atoms are uniformly distributed throughout a single crystalline lattice. Between the liquidus and solidus is a freezing range, a two-phase region where liquid and solid solutions coexist.
Binary Phase Diagram CONDITIONS FOR UNLIMITED SOLID SOLUBILITY 1. Size factor: The atoms or ions must be of similar size, with no more than a 15% difference in atomic radius. 2. Crystal structure: The materials must have the same crystal structure; otherwise, there is some point at which a transition occurs from one phase to a second phase with a different structure. 3. Valence: The ions must have the same valence; otherwise, the valence electron difference encourages the formation of compounds rather than solutions.
Lecture Notes By Dr Tanweer Hussain PARTIAL SOLID SOLUBILITY Many materials do not exhibit complete solubility in the solid state. Each is often soluble in the other up to a certain limit or saturation point, which varies with temperature.
INSOLUBILITY If one or both of the components are totally insoluble in the other, the diagrams will also reflect this phenomenon. The following Figure illustrates the case where component A is completely insoluble in component B in both the liquid and solid states.
THE GIBBS PHASE RULE This rule represents a criterion for the number of phases that will coexist within a system at equilibrium, and is expressed by the simple equation: F+P=C+N where, P is the number of phases present. The parameter F is termed the number of degrees of freedom or the number of externally controlled variables (e.g., temperature, pressure, composition), F is the number of these variables that can be changed independently without altering the number of phases that coexist at equilibrium. The parameter C in above equation represents the number of components in the system. Components are normally elements or stable compounds and, in the case of phase diagrams, are the materials at the two extremities of the horizontal compositional axis. Since pressure is constant (1 atm), the parameter N is 1temperature is the only non compositional variable. Gibbs equation now takes the form (F + P = C + 1) Furthermore, the number of components C is 2 (Cu and Ag), and (F + P = 2 + 1=3) Now consider the case of single-phase fields on the phase diagram. Because only one phase is present, P . 1 and (F + P = 3-1=2) This means that to completely describe the characteristics of any alloy that exists within one of these phase fields, we must specify two parameters; these are composition and temperature, which locate, respectively, the horizontal and vertical positions of the alloy on the phase diagram.
INTERPRETATION OF PHASE DIAGRAMS Lecture Notes By Dr Tanweer Hussain In a phase diagram, for each point of temperature and composition, following three pieces of information can be obtained: 1. The phases present: The stable phases can be determined by simply locating the point of consideration on the temperaturecomposition mapping and identifying the region of the diagram in which the point appears. 2. The composition of each phase: If the point lies in a two-phase region, a tie-line must be constructed. A tie-line is simply an isothermal (constant-temperature) line drawn through the point of consideration, terminating at the boundaries of the single phase regions on either side. The compositions where the tie-line intersects the neighbouring single-phase regions will be the compositions of those respective phases in the twophase mixture. 3. Amount of each phase: i. The tie line is constructed across the two-phase region at the temperature of the alloy. ii. The overall alloy composition is located on the tie line. iii. The fraction of one phase is computed by taking the length of tie line from the overall alloy composition to the phase boundary for the other phase, and dividing by the total tie line length.
iv. The fraction of the other phase is determined in the same manner.
The three-phase reaction that occurs upon cooling through 183C can be written as:
The leadtin phase diagram
Figure given below summarizes the various forms of three-phase reactions that may Lecture Notes By Dr Tanweer Hussain occur in engineering systems, along with the generic description of the reaction shown below the figures. These include the eutectic, peritectic, monotectic, and syntectic reactions, where the suffix -ic denotes that at least one of the three phases in the reaction is a liquid. If the same prefix appears with an -oid suffix, the reaction is of a similar form but all phases involved are solids. Two such reactions are the eutectoid and the peritectoid. The separation eutectoid produces an extremely fine two-phase mixture, and the combination peritectoid reaction is very sluggish since all of the chemistry changes must occur within (usually crystalline) solids. If components A and B form a compound, and the compound cannot tolerate any deviation from its fixed atomic ratio, the product is known as a stoichiometric intermetallic compound and it appears as a single vertical line in the diagram
IRONCARBON PHASE DIAGRAM Lecture Notes By Dr Tanweer Hussain
Lecture Notes By Dr Tanweer Hussain IRONIRON CARBIDE PHASE DIAGRAM
Steel, composed primarily of iron and carbon, is the most important of the engineering metals. For this reason, the ironcarbon equilibrium diagram assumes special importance. We normally are not interested in the carbon-rich end of the Fe-C phase diagram and this is why the full ironcarbon (Fe-C) diagram is not normally encountered, but we examine the Fe-Fe3C diagram as part of the Fe-C binary phase Diagram. In the Figure, stoichiometric intermetallic compound, Fe-Fe3C, is used to terminate the carbon range at 6.67 wt% carbon. Immediately after solidification, iron forms a BCC structure called -ferrite. On further cooling, the iron transforms to a FCC structure called , or austenite. Finally, iron transforms back to the BCC structure at lower temperatures; this structure is called , or ferrite. Both of the ferrites ( and ) and the austenite are solid solutions of interstitial carbon atoms in iron. Eutectic : L + Fe3C (4.30 wt% C, 1147 C) upon cooling, a liquid phase is transformed into the two solid phases at the temperature TE; the opposite reaction occurs upon heating.
Lecture Notesintermetallic By Dr Tanweer Hussain The fourth single phase is the stoichiometric compound which goes by the name cementite, or ironcarbide. Like most intermetallics, it is quite hard and brittle, and care should be exercised in controlling the structures in which it occurs. Alloys with excessive amounts of cementite, or cementite in undesirable form, tend to have brittle characteristics. Because cementite dissociates prior to melting, its exact melting point is unknown, and the liquidus line remains undetermined in the high-carbon region of the diagram.
EUTECTOID is a solid-state reaction in which one solid phase transforms to two other solid phases: S = S1 + S2 (0.77 wt%C, 727 C)
The main microscopic constituents of iron and steel are as follows: 1. Austenite 2. Ferrite 3. Cementite 4. Pearlite AUSTENITE () is a solid solution of free carbon and iron in gamma iron. On heating the steel, after upper critical temperature, the formation of structure completes into austenite which is hard, ductile and non-magnetic. It is able to dissolve large amount of carbon. It is formed when steel contains carbon up to 1.8% at 1130C. On cooling below 723C, it starts transforming into pearlite and ferrite. Austenitic steels cannot be hardened by usual heat treatment methods and are non-magnetic. FERRITE () contains very little or no carbon in iron. It is the name given to pure iron crystals which are soft and ductile. The slow cooling of low carbon steel below the critical temperature produces ferrite structure. Ferrite does not harden when cooled rapidly. It is very soft and highly magnetic. CEMENTITE is a chemical compound of carbon with iron and is known as iron carbide (Fe3C). Cast iron having 6.67% carbon is possessing complete structure of cementite. Free cementite is found in all steel containing more than 0.83% carbon. It increases with increase in carbon % as reflected in Fe-C Equilibrium diagram. It is extremely hard. The hardness and brittleness of cast iron is believed to be due to the presence of the cementite. It decreases tensile strength. This is formed when the carbon forms definite combinations with iron in form of iron carbides which are extremely hard in nature. The brittleness and hardness of cast iron is mainly controlled by the presence of cementite in it. It is magnetic below 200C.
PEARLITE is a eutectoid alloy of ferrite and cementite. It occurs particularly in medium and low carbon steels in the form of mechanical mixture of ferrite and cementite in the ratio of 87:13. Its hardness increases with the proportional of pearlite in ferrous material. Pearlite is relatively strong, hard and ductile, whilst ferrite is weak, soft and ductile. It is built up of alternate light and dark plates. These layers are alternately ferrite and cementite. When seen with the help of a microscope, the surface has appearance like pearl, hence it is called pearlite. Hard steels are mixtures of pearlite and cementite while soft steels are mixtures of ferrite and pearlite. As the carbon content increases beyond 0.2% in the temperature at which the ferrite is first rejected from austenite drop until, at or above 0.8% carbon, no free ferrite is rejected from the austenite. This steel is called eutectoid steel, and it is the pearlite structure in composition.
P-135, Introduction to Basic Manufacturing Processes and Workshop Technology
METAL ALLOYS There are two types of metal alloys Ferrous Alloys Non-Ferrous Alloys Compared to other engineering materials, the carbon steels offer high strength and high stiffness, coupled with reasonable toughness. Unfortunately, they also rust easily and generally require some form of surface protection, such as paint, galvanizing, or other coating. The plain-carbon steels are generally the lowest-cost steel material and should be given first consideration for many applications. The differentiation between plain-carbon and alloy steel is often somewhat arbitrary. Both contain carbon, manganese, and usually silicon. Copper and boron are possible additions to both classes. Steels containing more than 1.65% manganese, 0.60% silicon, or 0.60% copper are usually designated as alloy steels. Also, a steel is considered to be an alloy steel if a definite or minimum amount of other alloying element is specified. The most common alloy elements are chromium, nickel, molybdenum, vanadium, tungsten, cobalt, boron, and copper, as well as manganese, silicon, phosphorus, and sulphur in amounts greater than are normally present. If the steel contains less than 8% of total alloy addition, it is considered to be a low-alloy steel. Steels with more than 8% alloying elements are high-alloy steels.
EXTRACTION OF COPPER
IMPORTANT ORES OF COPPER Copper pyrite or chalcopyrite (CuFeS2). Chalocite (Cu2S) or copper glance. Malachite green [CuCO3.Cu(OH)2]. Azurite blue [2CuCO3.Cu(OH)2]. Bornite (3Cu2S.Fe2S3) or peacock ore. Melaconite (CuO) etc. EXTRACTION OF COPPER FROM SULPHIDE ORE Large amount of copper are obtained from copper pyrite (CuFeS2) by smelting. Ores containing 4% or more copper are treated by smelting process. Very poor ores are treated by hydro-metallurgical process (Leaching, Solution concentration and purification, Metal recovery). EXTRACTION OF COPPER BY SMELTING PROCESS Following steps are involved in the extraction of copper. 1. CONCENTRATION The finely crushed ore is concentrated by Froth-Floatation process. Froth flotation is a process for separating minerals from gangue by taking advantage of differences in their hydrophobicity. The finely crushed ore is suspended in water containing a little amount of pine oil. A blast of air is passed through the suspension. The particles get wetted by the oil and float as a froth which is skimmed. The gangue sinks to the bottom.
2. ROASTING The concentrated ore is then roasted in a furnace in the presence of a current of air. Sulphur is oxidized to SO2 and impurities of arsenic (As) and antimony (Sb) are removed as volatile oxides. The following reaction takes place during the roasting process. 2CuFeS2 + O2 Cu2S + 2FeS + SO2 S + O2 SO2 4As + 3O2 As2O3 4Sb + 3O2 2Sb2O3 Cuprous sulphide and ferrous sulphide are further oxidized into their oxides. 2Cu2S + 3O2 2Cu2O + 2SO2 2FeS + 3O2 2FeO + 2SO2 3. SMELTING The roasted ore is mixed with coke and silica (sand) SiO2 and is introduced in to a blast furnace. The hot air is blasted and FeO is converted in to ferrous silicate (FeSiO3). FeO + SiO2 FeSiO3 Cu2O + FeS Cu2S + FeO FeSiO3 (slag) floats over the molten matte of copper.
Lecture Notes By Dr Tanweer Hussain 4. BESSEMERIZATION Copper metal is extracted from molten matte through bessemerization . The matte is introduced into Bessemer converter which uphold by tuyers. The air is blown through the molten matte. Blast of air converts Cu2S partly into Cu2O which reacts with remaining Cu2S to give molten copper. 2Cu2S + 3O2 2Cu2O + 2SO2 2Cu2O + Cu2S 6Cu + SO2 The copper so obtained is called "Blister copper" because, as it solidifies, SO2 hidden in it escapes out producing blister on its surface.
IMPURITIES IN BLISTER COPPER AND THEIR EFFECTS Blister copper is 99% pure. It contains impurities mainly iron but little amount of As, Zn, Pb, Ag and Au may also be present. These impurities adversely affect the electrical as well as mechanical properties of copper. Therefore, they must be removed.
EXTRACTION OF ZINC
ZINC Ores are found in the forms of 1) Zinc sulphide 2) Smithsonite (ZnCO3) 67% Zn 3) Hemimorphite or (Zn4Si2O7(OH)2.H2O). 54.2% Zn 4) Zincite (ZnO) 5) Willemite (Zn2SiO4) 58.5%. EXTRACTION OF ZINC FROM SULPHIDE ORE There are two methods of zinc extraction 1) Pyrometallurgy 2) Hydrometallurgy EXTRACTION OF ZINC & ALUMINIUM BY SMELTING PROCESS Following steps are involved in the extraction of zinc . 1. CONCENTRATION The finely crushed ore is concentrated by Froth-Floatation process. Froth flotation is a process for separating minerals from gangue by taking advantage of differences in their hydrophobicity. The finely crushed ore is suspended in water containing a little amount of oil. A blast of air is passed through the suspension. The particles get wetted by the oil and float as a froth which is skimmed. The gangue sinks to the bottom.
2. ROASTING The concentrated ore is then roasted in a furnace in the presence of a current of air. 3. SMELTING The roasted ore is mixed with coke and silica (sand) SiO2 and is introduced in to a blast furnace, where the hot air is blasted.
HEAT TREATMENT
Heat treatment is the term used to describe the controlled heating and cooling of metals and alloys for the purpose of altering their structures and properties. Heat treatment is the process of combination of heating and cooling operations, timed and applied to metals and alloys in their solid state to obtain desired properties. AIM OF HEAT TREATMENT The aim is to obtain a desired microstructure to achieve certain predetermined properties (physical, mechanical, magnetic or electrical). The same metal or alloy can be made weak and ductile for ease in manufacture, and then retreated to provide high strength and good fracture resistance for use and application
Lecture Notes By Dr Tanweer Hussain SOFTENING HEAT TREATMENT
Annealing

Full Annealing Process Annealing Stress-relief Annealing Spheroidization Annealing
Normalizing Tempering
ANNEALING
The term annealing refers to a heat treatment in which a material is exposed to an elevated temperature for an extended time period and then slowly cooled. Annealing is carried out to (1) relieve stresses; (2) increase softness, ductility, and toughness; and/or (3) produce a specific microstructure. Annealing is a heat treatment used to eliminate some or all of the effects of cold working. Annealing at a low temperature may be used to eliminate the residual stresses produced during cold working without affecting the mechanical properties of the finished part.Any annealing process consists of three stages: (1) heating to the desired temperature, (2) holding or soaking at that temperature, and (3) cooling, usually to room temperature. Time is an important parameter in these procedures. During heating and cooling, temperature gradients exist between the outside and interior portions of the piece; their magnitudes depend on the size and geometry of the piece. If the rate of temperature change is too great, temperature gradients and internal stresses may be induced that may lead to warping or even cracking. PROCESS ANNEALING is a heat treatment that is used to negate the effects of cold work that is, to soften and increase the ductility of a previously strain-hardened metal. Process annealing is applied to low carbon steels (<0.25% carbon) and is also known as recrystallization annealing. In process annealing, the steel is heated to a temperature below the lower critical line A1 held long enough to induce recrystallization of the dominant ferrite phase, and then cooled at a desired rate (usually in still air). Since the entire process is performed at temperatures within the same phase region, the process simply induces a change in phase morphology (size, shape, and distribution).
STRESS-RELIEF ANNEAL also known as By sub-critical annealing is employed to Lecture Notes Dr Tanweer Hussain reduce the residual stresses in large steel castings, welded assemblies, and cold-formed products. Parts are heated to temperatures below the A1(between 550 and 650C or 1000 and 1200F), held for a period of time, and then slow cooled to prevent the creation of additional stresses. Times and temperatures vary with the condition of the component, but the basic microstructure and associated mechanical properties generally remain unchanged. SPHEROIDIZATION ANNEALING : When high-carbon steels are to undergo extensive machining or cold forming, a process known as spheroidization is often employed. Here the objective is to produce a structure in which all of the cementite is in the form of small spheroids or globules dispersed throughout a ferrite matrix. This can be accomplished by a variety of techniques, including (1) prolonged heating at a temperature just below the A1followed by relatively slow cooling, (2) prolonged cycling between temperatures slightly above and slightly below the or (3) in the case of tool or high-alloy steels, heating to 750 to 800C (1400 to 1500F) or higher and holding at this temperature for several hours, followed by slow cooling.
NORMALIZING: In plastically deformed metals (for example, by rolling operation),

the grains are irregularly shaped and relatively large, but vary substantially in size. An annealing heat treatment called normalizing is used to refine the grains (i.e., to decrease the average grain size) and produce a more uniform and desirable size distribution; fine-grained pearlitic steels are tougher than coarse-grained ones. One should note a key difference between full annealing and normalizing. In the full anneal, the furnace imposes identical cooling conditions at all locations within the metal, which results in identical structures and properties. With normalizing, the cooling will be different at different locations. Properties will vary between surface and interior, and different thickness regions will also have different properties. When subsequent processing involves a substantial amount of machining that may be automated, the added cost of a full anneal may be justified, since it produces a product with uniform machining characteristics at all locations.
TEMPERING is a process of heat treating, which is used to increase the toughness

of iron-based alloys. It is also a technique used to increase the toughness of glass. For metals, tempering is usually performed after hardening, to reduce some of the excess hardness, and is done by heating the metal to a temperature below its "lower critical temperature. Tempering is usually performed after quenching, which is rapid cooling of the metal to put it in its hardest state.
ANNEALING
Annealing is done to improve ductility (the ability to be drawn and extruded) and reduce brittleness. Annealing consists of softening the metal by heating it between 30 & 50 degrees C above it upper critical point and allowing it to cool slowly. This can be done in either hot sand, ashes of a fire or by leaving the metal in an oven or furnace until cooled.
NORMALISING

The main purpose of normalizing is to obtain a structure that is uniform throughout the work piece and is free from any locked up stresses. Similar to annealing, but the cooling rate is accelerated by taking the work piece from the furnace and allowing it to cool in free air. This more rapid cooling results in a finer grain structure which in turn leads to improved physical properties and improved finishes when machining.
TEMPERING

Tempering is done to remove some of the brittleness and hardness of steel after hardening. Suitable temperatures for tempering vary considerably Tempering by colour still provides an accurate and reliable method of dealing with plain carbon steels
Lecture Notes By Dr Tanweer Hussain HARDENING HEAT TREATMENT
Overall Hardening Heat Treatment Surface hardening by changing the surface chemistry
QUENCHING
To harden by quenching, a metal (usually steel or cast iron) must be heated above the upper critical temperature and then quickly cooled. Depending on the alloy and other considerations (such as concern for maximum hardness vs. cracking and distortion), cooling may be done with forced air or other gases, (such as nitrogen). Liquids may be used, due to their better thermal conductivity, such as water, oil, a polymer dissolved in water, or a brine. Upon being rapidly cooled, a portion of austenite (dependent on alloy composition) will transform to martensite, a hard, brittle crystalline structure. The quenched hardness of a metal depends on its chemical composition and quenching method.
HARDENING
Hardening of steels is done to increase the strength and wear properties. Carbon steel is heated 30 & 50 degrees C above the upper critical point and then quenched quickly The quicker the steel is cooled the harder it will be.
POLYMERS
(Poly=many+ Mers=unit ) Notes By Dr Tanweer Hussain Lecture
Polymers consist of chains of molecules. Polmolecules consisting of one unit (known as a monomer) or a few units (known as oligomers) that are chemically joined (by covalent bonding) to create these giant molecules. Most polymers are organic, meaning that they are carbon-based; however, polymers can be inorganic (e.g., silicones based on a Si-O network).
What is Polymerization?
Polymerization is the process by which small molecules consisting of one unit (known as a monomer) or a few units (known as oligomers) are chemically joined to create these giant molecules. Polymerization normally begins with the production of long chains in which the atoms are strongly joined by covalent bonding.
Classification of Polymers Lecture Notes By Dr Tanweer Hussain There are several ways of classification of polymers based on some special considerations. The following are some of the common classifications of polymers: Classification Based on Source Under this type of classification, there are three sub categories. 1. Natural polymers These polymers are found in plants and animals. Examples are proteins, cellulose, starch, resins and rubber. Naturally occurring polymers are derived from plants and animals, these materials include wood, rubber, cotton, wool, leather, and silk. 2. Semi-synthetic polymers Cellulose derivatives as cellulose acetate (rayon) and cellulose nitrate, etc. are the usual examples of this sub category. 3. Synthetic polymers A variety of synthetic polymers as plastic (polythene), synthetic fibres (nylon) and synthetic rubbers (Buna S) are examples of man-made polymers extensively used in daily life as well as in industry. The synthetics can be produced inexpensively, and their properties may be managed to the degree that many are superior to their natural counterparts. Plastics are materials that are composed principally of naturally occurring and modified or artificially made polymers often containing additives such as fibers, fillers, pigments, and the like that further enhance their properties.
Classification Based on Structure Lecture Notes By Dr Tanweer Hussain 1. Linear polymers These polymers consist of long and straight chains. The examples of Polymers are high density polythene, polyvinyl chloride, etc. These are represented as:
2. Branched chain polymers These polymers contain linear chains having some branches, e.g., low density polythene. These are depicted as above: 3. Cross linked or Network polymers These are usually formed from bi-functional and tri-functional monomers and contain strong covalent bonds between various linear polymer chains, e.g. bakelite, melamine, etc. These polymers are depicted as above:
Classification Based on Molecular Lecture Forces Notes By Dr Tanweer Hussain Under this category, the polymers are classified into the following four sub groups on the basis of magnitude of intermolecular forces present in them. 1. Elastomers: These are rubber like solids with elastic properties. In these elastomeric polymers, the polymer chains are held together by the weakest intermolecular forces. These weak binding forces permit the polymer to be stretched. A few crosslinks are introduced in between the chains, which help the polymer to retract to its original position after the force is released as in vulcanised rubber. 2. Thermoplastic polymers These are the linear or slightly branched long chain molecules capable of repeatedly softening on heating and hardening on cooling. These polymers possess intermolecular forces of attraction intermediate between elastomers and fibres. Some common thermoplastics are polythene, polystyrene, polyvinyls, etc
3. Thermosetting polymers These polymers are cross linked or heavily branched molecules, which on heating undergo extensive cross linking in moulds and again become infusible. These cannot be reused. Some common examples are bakelite, urea-formaldehyde resins, etc.
Fibres: Fibres are the thread forming solids which possess high tensile strength and high modulus. These characteristics can be attributed to the strong intermolecular forces like hydrogen bonding. These strong forces also lead to close packing of chains and thus impart crystalline nature. The examples are polyamides (nylon 6, 6), polyesters (terylene), etc.
Polymers of Commercial Importance
Lecture Behaviour Notes By Dr Tanweer Hussain Stress-Strain of Polymers
The fracture strengths of polymeric materials are low relative to those of metals and ceramics. As a general rule, the mode of fracture in thermosetting polymers (heavily cross linked networks) is brittle (curve B). The behaviour for a plastic material, curve B, is similar to that for many metallic materials; the initial deformation is elastic, which is followed by yielding and a region of plastic deformation. Finally, the deformation displayed by curve C is totally elastic; this elasticity is displayed by a class of polymers termed the elastomers.
The influence of temperature on the stressstrain characteristics of poly(methyl methacrylate)
The stressstrain behaviour for brittle, plastic, and highly elastic polymers.
CERAMICS
The word Ceramic is derived from a Greek word keramikos which means burnt earth. In traditional ceramics (untill mid of 21st century), the primary raw material was clay. The products considered in traditional ceramics are china-ware, porcelain, bricks, tiles, and, in addition, glasses and high-temperature ceramics. But industrial ceramics (or advanced ceramics ) are non-metallic inorganic materials, including metal oxides, borides, carbides, and nitrides as well as complex mixture of these materials. Because most of the ceramics are composed of at least two elements, and often more, their crystal structures are generally more complex than those for metals. Ceramics can be crystalline, amorphous or mixture of both. Crystalline ceramics have a characteristically brittle behaviour. The atomic bonding in ceramics ranges from purely ionic to totally covalent; many ceramics exhibit a combination of these two bonding types, the degree of ionic character being dependent on the electro-negativities of the atoms.
For those ceramic materials for which the atomic bonding is predominantly ionic, the crystal structures may be thought of as being composed of electrically charged ions instead of atoms.
GENERAL PROPERTIES OF CERAMICS High Youngs Modulus and high melting points(Strong bonds (covalent and /or ionic)) Limited electrical and thermal conductivity
Low thermal shock resistance (Coefficients of thermal expansion and thermal

conductivity are low) Refractory (Stability at high temperature (NO CREEP)) Resistance to oxidation/corrosion (Chemical stability)
Classification of Lecture Notes By Dr Ceramics Tanweer Hussain
Glass 1. Based on SiO2 + additives Traditional Ceramics 1. Porous ceramics (bricks, pottery, china) 2. Compact ceramics (porcelain, earthware) 3. Refractory ceramics (SiC, Al2O3, ZrO2, BeO, MgO). Industrial / Advanced Ceramics 1. Magnetic Ceramics 2. Electronics (Piezoelectric, capacitor dielectric, spark plugs and Ferroelectrics) 3. Electro-optics: LiNbO3 4. Abrasive ceramics: nitrides and carbides Si3N4, SiC 5. Superconductive ceramics ( yttrium barium copper oxide ceramic, YBa2Cu3O7) 6. Biomaterials : Hydroxyapatite 7. Automotive ceramics 8. Nuclear Ceramics 9. Tribological ceramics (resistant to wear and friction)
Lecture Notes By Dr Tanweer Hussain Alumina (Al2O3) is used in applications where a material must operate at high temperatures with high strength. Alumina is also used as a low dielectric constant substrate for electronic packaging that houses silicon chips. One classic application is insulators in spark plugs. Some unique applications are being found in dental and medical use. Diamond (C) is the hardest naturally occurring material. Industrial diamonds are used as abrasives for grinding and polishing. It is, of course, also used in jewelry. Silica (SiO2) is probably the most widely used ceramic material. Silica is an essential ingredient in glasses and many glass-ceramics. Silica-based materials are used in thermal insulation, refractories, abrasives, as fiber-reinforced composites, and laboratory glassware. In the form of long continuous fibers, silica is used to make optical fibers for communications. Powders made using fine particles of silica are used in tires, paints, and many other applications. Silicon carbide (SiC) provides outstanding oxidation resistance at temperatures even above the melting point of steel. SiC often is used as a coating for metals, carboncarbon composites, and other ceramics to provide protection at these extreme temperatures. SiC is also used as an abrasive in grinding wheels and as particulate and fibrous reinforcement in both metal matrix and ceramic matrix composites. It is also used to make heating elements for furnaces.
Silicon nitride (Si3N4) has properties similar to those of SiC, although its oxidation resistance and high temperature strength are somewhat lower. Both silicon nitride and silicon carbide are likely candidates for components for automotive and gas turbine engines, permitting higher operating temperatures and better fuel efficiencies with less weight than traditional metals and alloys. Titanium dioxide (TiO2) is used to make electronic ceramics such as BaTiO3. Fine particles of TiO2 are used to make suntan lotions that provide protection against ultraviolet rays. Zirconia (ZrO2) is used to make many other ceramics such as zircon. Zirconia is also used to make oxygen gas sensors that are used in automotives and to measure dissolved oxygen in molten steels. Zirconia is used as an additive in many electronic ceramics as well as a refractory material. The cubic form of zirconia single crystals is used to make jewelry items. Boron Nitride (BN) Because of excellent thermal and chemical stability, boron nitride ceramics are traditionally used as parts of high-temperature equipment. Boron nitride has a great potential in nanotechnology. Nanotubes of BN can be produced that have a structure similar to that of carbon nanotubes. The carbon nanotubes can be metallic or semiconducting, whereas a BN nano-tube is an electrical insulator. BN nanotubes are more thermally and chemically stable than carbon nanotubes which favors them for some applications.
COMPOSITE MATERIALS
Composites are produced to give a combination of properties that cannot be attained by a single material but when two or more materials or phases are used together. A composite material is a microscopic or macroscopic combination of two or more distinct materials with a recognizable interface between them. A common example of a composite is concrete. It consists of a binder (cement) and a reinforcement (gravel). Composite materials may be selected to give unusual combinations of stiffness, strength, weight, high-temperature performance, corrosion resistance, hardness, or conductivity. Composites highlight how different materials can work in synergy. Materials that have specific and unusual properties are needed for a host of high-technology applications such as those found in the aerospace, underwater, bioengineering, and transportation industries. The individual materials that make up composites are called constituents. Most composites have two constituent materials: a binder or matrix, and a reinforcement. The reinforcement is usually much stronger and stiffer than the matrix, and gives the composite its good properties. The matrix holds the reinforcements in an orderly pattern. Because the reinforcements are usually discontinuous, the matrix also helps to transfer load among the reinforcements. In composites , the constituent materials must be chemically dissimilar and separated by a distinct interface.
1ST CLASSIFICATION OF COMPOSITE MATERIALS

Composite materials can be classified in different ways. One of the classification system for composite materials is based on the matrix phase. We list the classes here: 1. Metal Matrix Composites (MMCs) include mixtures of ceramics and metals, such as cemented carbides and other cermets, as well as aluminium or magnesium reinforced by strong, high stiffness fibers. 2. Ceramic Matrix Composites (CMCs) are the least common category. Aluminum oxide and silicon carbide are materials that can be imbedded with fibers for improved properties, especially in high temperature applications. 3. Polymer Matrix Composites (PMCs). Thermosetting resins are the most widely used polymers in PMCs. Epoxy and polyester are commonly mixed with fiber reinforcement, and phenolic is mixed with powders. Thermoplastic moulding compounds are often reinforced, usually with powders
2ND CLASSIFICATION OF COMPOSITE MATERIALS

Composites can also be placed into following three categories based on reinforcing materials: particle-reinforced, fiber-reinforced, and structural composites based on the shapes of the materials. Concrete, a mixture of cement and gravel, is a particulate composite; fibreglass, containing glass fibres embedded in a polymer, is a fibrereinforced composite; and plywood, having alternating layers of wood veneer, is a laminar composite.
PARTICLE-REINFORCED COMPOSITES Lecture Notes By Dr Tanweer Hussain
In particle-reinforced composites, particles of distinct materials are embedded together to form the composite. The particulates can be large particles (such as gravels, as in case of concrete) or very small particles (< 0.25 microns). Thus large-particle composites and dispersion-strengthened composites are the two sub classifications of particle-reinforced composites.
Large-Particle Composites: In large particle composites, particlematrix interactions is not treated on the atomic or molecular level. Here the matrix refers to the bonding medium which is continuous and surrounds the other phase. The degree of reinforcement or improvement of mechanical behaviour depends on strong bonding at the matrixparticle interface. A very common large-particle composite is concrete, which is composed of cement (the matrix) and sand and gravel (the particulates).
Dispersion-Strengthened Composites: For dispersion-strengthened composites, particles are normally much smaller, with diameters between 0.01 and 0.1 mm (10 and 100 nm). Particlematrix interactions that lead to strengthening occur on the atomic or molecular level. Dispersion-strengthened composites are examples of nano-composites that consists of nano-scale particles distributed in a matrix phase. Many glass ceramics are nano-scale composites of different ceramic phases. Many plastics can be considered composites as well.
CERMETS
Cermets are example of large-particle composites. These are ceramicmetal composites, containing hard ceramic particles dispersed in a metallic matrix. The most common cermet is cemented carbide, which is composed of extremely hard particles of a refractory carbide ceramic such as tungsten carbide ( ) or titanium carbide ( ), embedded in a matrix of a metal such as cobalt or nickel. These composites are used extensively as cutting tools for hardened steels. The hard carbide particles provide the cutting surface but, being extremely brittle, are not themselves capable of withstanding the cutting stresses. Toughness is enhanced by their inclusion in the ductile metal matrix, which isolates the carbide particles from one another and prevents particle-to-particle crack propagation.
FIBER-REINFORCED COMPOSITES
Technologically, the most important composites are those in which the dispersed phase is in the form of a fiber. Straw has been used to strengthen mud bricks for centuries. Steel-reinforcing bars are introduced into concrete structures. Glass fibers in a polymer matrix produce fiber glass for transportation and aerospace applications. The following figure depicts the situation where we assume that the fiber material is much stiffer than the matrix and that the bonding between the two phases is secure. Under this model, the modulus of the composite can be predicted as follows:
Ec f r Er f m Em
where Ec, Em, and Er are the elastic moduli of the composite and its constituents, and fm and fr are again the volume fractions of the matrix and reinforcing phase.
FIBER-REINFORCED COMPOSITES (CONTD.)

Design goals of fiber-reinforced composites often include high strength and/or stiffness on a weight basis. 1. With fiber-reinforced composites, an applied load is transmitted to and distributed among the fibers via the matrix phase, which in most cases is at least moderately ductile. 2. Significant reinforcement is possible only if the matrixfiber bond is strong. On the basis of fiber length and orientation, three different types of fiber-reinforced composites are possible: Continuous and aligned (Figure a) mechanical properties are highly anisotropic. In the alignment direction, reinforcement and strength are maximum; perpendicular to the alignment, they are a minimum. Discontinuous and aligned (Figure b) significant strengths and stiffnesses are possible in the longitudinal direction.
Discontinuous and randomly oriented (Figure c) despite some limitations on reinforcement efficiency, properties are isotropic
FIBER-REINFORCED COMPOSITES (contd.) Lecture Notes By Dr Tanweer Hussain Many factors must be considered when designing a fiber-reinforced composite, including properties of the fibers; the properties of the matrix; and the bonding between the fibers and the matrix. Characteristics of Fiber Phase: While designing a fiber-reinforced composite, various characteristics of fiber are considered; including the length, diameter, orientation, amount, and properties of the fiber. Fiber Length and Diameter: Fibers can be short, long, or even continuous. Their dimensions are often characterized by the aspect ratio l/d, where l is the fiber length and d is the diameter. The strength of a composite improves when the aspect ratio is large. On the basis of diameter and character, fibers are grouped into three different classifications: whiskers, fibers, and wires. Whiskers are very thin single crystals that have extremely large aspect ratios. As a consequence of their small size, they have a high degree of crystalline perfection and are virtually flaw-free, which accounts for their exceptionally high strengths. They are extremely expensive, thus are not used extensively as a reinforcement medium. Materials that are classified as fibers are either polycrystalline or amorphous and have small diameters. Fine wires have relatively large diameters; typical materials include steel, molybdenum, and tungsten. Wires are used as a radial steel reinforcement in automobile tires, in filament-wound rocket casings, and in wire-wound high-pressure hoses.
FIBER-REINFORCED COMPOSITES (contd.) Lecture Notes By Dr Tanweer Hussain
Amount of Fiber: A greater volume fraction of fibers increases the strength and stiffness of the composite, as we would expect from the rule of mixtures. The maximum volume fraction is about 80%, beyond which fibers can no longer be completely surrounded by the matrix. Orientation Of Fibers: The reinforcing fibers may be introduced into the matrix in a number of orientations. Short, randomly oriented fibers having a small aspect ratiotypical of fiberglass-give relatively isotropic behaviour in the composite. Long, continuous fibers can be introduced in several directions within the matrix.
Unidirectional arrangements of fibers produce anisotropic properties, with Long, or even continuous, particularly good strength and stiffness parallel to the fibers. Unidirectional orientations provide poor properties if the load is perpendicular to the fibers.
STRUCTURAL COMPOSITES
A structural composite is normally composed of both homogeneous and composite materials, the properties of which depend not only on the properties of the constituent materials but also on the geometrical design of the various structural elements. Laminar composites and sandwich panels are two of the most common structural composites.
Conventional laminar structure
Sandwich structure using a foam core
Honeycomb sandwich structure.
Lecture Notes By Dr Tanweer Hussain Laminar composite is composed of two-dimensional sheets or panels that have a preferred high-strength direction, such as is found in wood and continuous and aligned fiberreinforced plastics. A laminar composite structure consists of two or more layers bonded together to form an integral piece, as shown in Figure below. The layers are usually thick enough that this composite can be readily identifiednot always the case with other composites. The layers are stacked and subsequently cemented together such that the orientation of the high-strength direction varies with each successive layer. For example, adjacent wood sheets in plywood are aligned with the grain direction at right angles to each other.
Sandwich panels, considered to be a class of structural composites, are designed to be lightweight beams or panels having relatively high stiffnesses and strengths. A sandwich panel consists of two outer sheets, or faces, that are separated by and adhesively bonded to a thicker core. The outer sheets are made of a relatively stiff and strong material, typically aluminum alloys, fiber-reinforced plastics, titanium, steel, or plywood; they impart high stiffness and strength to the structure and must be thick enough to withstand tensile and compressive stresses that result from loading. The core material is lightweight and normally has a low modulus of elasticity.
Glass FiberReinforced Polymer (GFRP) Composites Lecture Notes By Dr Tanweer Hussain Fiber glass is simply a composite consisting of glass fibers, either continuous or discontinuous, contained within a polymer matrix. Glass fiber composites are the most widely used and the least expensive of all fibers. GFRP composite may contain between 30 and 60% glass fibers by volume. Fibers are made by drawing molten glass through small openings in a platinum die. The molten glass is then elongated mechanically, cooled, and wound on a roll. A protective coating or sizing may be applied to facilitate their passage through the machinery.
The following are the principal types of glass fibers: E-type: a calcium aluminoborosilicate glass, the type most commonly used. S-type: a magnesia aluminosilicate glass, offering higher strength and stiffness, but at a higher cost. E-CR-type: a high-performance glass fiber, offering higher resistance to elevated temperatures and acid corrosion than does the E glass.
Surface flaws are easily introduced on glass fibers by rubbing the surface with another hard material or surface layer is weakened if glass fibers are exposed to the normal atmosphere for even short time periods. Thus Newly drawn fibers are normally coated during drawing.
REFRACTORY MATERIALS
Refractory materials are important components of the equipment used in the production, refining, and handling of metals and glasses, for constructing heat-treating furnaces, and for other high-temperature processing equipment. The refractories must survive at high temperatures without being corroded or weakened by the surrounding environment. Refractory materials are marketed in a variety of forms, but bricks are the most common. Typical applications include furnace linings for metal refining, glass manufacturing, metallurgical heat treatment, and power generation.
The performance of a refractory ceramic depends mainly on its composition. On this basis, there are several classifications: fireclay, silica, basic, and special refractories. Fireclay Refractories The primary ingredients for the fireclay refractories are high-purity fireclays, alumina and silica mixtures usually containing between 25 and 45 wt% alumina. Fireclay bricks are used principally in furnace construction, to confine hot atmospheres, and to thermally insulate structural members from excessive temperatures. For fireclay brick, strength is not ordinarily an important consideration, because support of structural loads is usually not required. Silica Refractories The prime ingredient for silica refractories, sometimes termed acid refractories, is silica. These materials, well known for their high-temperature load-bearing capacity, are commonly used in the arched roofs of steel- and glass-making furnaces; for these applications, temperatures as high as 1650.C (3000.F) may be realized.
Basic Refractories Lecture Notes By Dr Tanweer Hussain The refractories that are rich in magnesia (MgO), are termed basic refractory. They may also contain calcium, chromium, and iron compounds. The presence of silica is deleterious to their high-temperature performance. Basic refractories are especially resistant to attack by slags containing high concentrations of MgO and CaO and find extensive use in some steel-making open hearth furnaces. Special Refractories These ceramic materials are used for specialized refractory applications. Some of these are relatively high-purity oxide materials, many of which may be produced with very little porosity. Included in this group are alumina, silica, magnesia, beryllia (BeO), zirconia (ZrO2), and mullite (3Al2O32SiO2). Others include carbide compounds, in addition to carbon and graphite. Silicon carbide (SiC) has been used for electrical resistance heating elements, as a crucible material, and in internal furnace components. Carbon and graphite are very refractory, but find limited application because they are susceptible to oxidation at temperatures in excess of about 800.C (1470.F).
REFRACTORY METALS Refractory metals are those having a melting temperature above 1925C. Examples include niobium (Nb), molybdenum (Mo), tungsten (W), and tantalum (Ta). Melting temperatures range between 2468.C (4474.F) for niobium and 3410.C (6170.F) for tungsten, the highest melting temperature of any metal. Interatomic bonding in these metals is extremely strong, which accounts for the melting temperatures, and, in addition, large elastic moduli and high strengths and hardnesses, at ambient as well as elevated temperatures. The applications of these metals are varied. For example, tungsten alloys are used for incandescent light filaments, x-ray tubes, and welding electrodes. Molybdenum alloys are utilized for extrusion dies and structural parts in space vehicles. Tantalum and molybdenum are alloyed with stainless steel to improve its corrosion resistance.
GLASS
Glass is an amorphous solid with the structure of a liquid obtained by supercooling. Technically, glass is defined as an inorganic product of fusion that has cooled to a rigid condition without crystallizing. The glasses are a familiar group of ceramics; containers, lenses, and fiber glass represent typical applications. GLASS-CERAMICS Glass-ceramics A family of materials typically derived from molten inorganic glasses and processed into crystalline materials with very fine grain size and improved mechanical properties. Glass-ceramics are crystalline materials that are derived from amorphous glasses. Usually, glassceramics have a substantial level of crystallinity (70-99%). Most inorganic glasses can be made to transform from a noncrystalline state to one that is crystalline by the proper high-temperature heat treatment. This process is called crystallization, and the product is a fine-grained polycrystalline material that is often called a glass-ceramic. The first step in producing a glass-ceramic is to ensure that crystallization does not occur during cooling from the forming temperature. A continuous and isothermal cooling is required. If glass cools too slowly, nucleation and growth of the crystals begin, but in an uncontrolled manner. Nucleation of the crystalline phase is controlled in two ways. First, the nucleating agents such as TiO2 are added to promote crystallization. TiO2 react with other oxides and form phases that provide the nucleation sites. Second, a heat treatment is designed to provide the appropriate number of nuclei; the temperature should be relatively low in order to maximize the rate of nucleation. The formation of these small glass-ceramic grains is, in a sense, a phase transformation, which involves nucleation and growth stages.
With glass-ceramics, we can take advantage the formability and density of glass. Lecture Notes Byof Dr Tanweer Hussain Also, a product that contains very low porosity can be obtained by producing a shape with conventional glass-forming techniques, such as pressing or blowing. In comparison with glasses, glass-ceramic materials have been designed to have the following characteristics: relatively high mechanical strength and toughness; low coefficients of thermal expansion; high-temperature corrosion resistance; good dielectric properties; and good biological compatibility. Some glass-ceramics may be made optically transparent; others are opaque. Possibly the most attractive attribute of this class of materials is the ease with which they may be fabricated; conventional glassforming techniques may be used in the mass production of nearly pore-free ware.
CERAMICS
The word Ceramic is derived from a Greek word keramikos which means burnt earth. In traditional ceramics (untill mid of 21st century), the primary raw material was clay. The products considered in traditional ceramics are china-ware, porcelain, bricks, tiles, and, in addition, glasses and high-temperature ceramics. But industrial ceramics (or advanced ceramics ) are non-metallic inorganic materials, including metal oxides, borides, carbides, and nitrides as well as complex mixture of these materials. Because most of the ceramics are composed of at least two elements, and often more, their crystal structures are generally more complex than those for metals. Ceramics can be crystalline, amorphous or mixture of both. Crystalline ceramics have a characteristically brittle behaviour. The atomic bonding in ceramics ranges from purely ionic to totally covalent; many ceramics exhibit a combination of these two bonding types, the degree of ionic character being dependent on the electronegativities of the atoms.
For those ceramic materials for which the atomic bonding is predominantly ionic, the crystal structures may be thought of as being composed of electrically charged ions instead of atoms.
GENERAL PROPERTIES OF CERAMICS High Youngs Modulus and high melting points(Strong bonds (covalent and /or ionic)) Limited electrical and thermal conductivity
Low thermal shock resistance (Coefficients of thermal expansion and thermal

conductivity are low) Refractory (Stability at high temperature (NO CREEP)) Resistance to oxidation/corrosion (Chemical stability)
Classification of Lecture Notes By Dr Ceramics Tanweer Hussain
Glass 1. Based on SiO2 + additives Traditional Ceramics 1. Porous ceramics (bricks, pottery, china) 2. Compact ceramics (porcelain, earthware) 3. Refractory ceramics (SiC, Al2O3, ZrO2, BeO, MgO). Industrial / Advanced Ceramics 1. Magnetic Ceramics 2. Electronics (Piezoelectric, capacitor dielectric, spark plugs and Ferroelectrics) 3. Electro-optics: LiNbO3 4. Abrasive ceramics: nitrides and carbides Si3N4, SiC 5. Superconductive ceramics ( yttrium barium copper oxide ceramic, YBa2Cu3O7) 6. Biomaterials : Hydroxyapatite 7. Automotive ceramics 8. Nuclear Ceramics 9. Tribological ceramics (resistant to wear and friction)
Lecture Notes By Dr Tanweer Hussain Alumina (Al2O3) is used in applications where a material must operate at high temperatures with high strength. Alumina is also used as a low dielectric constant substrate for electronic packaging that houses silicon chips. One classic application is insulators in spark plugs. Some unique applications are being found in dental and medical use. Diamond (C) is the hardest naturally occurring material. Industrial diamonds are used as abrasives for grinding and polishing. It is, of course, also used in jewelry. Silica (SiO2) is probably the most widely used ceramic material. Silica is an essential ingredient in glasses and many glass-ceramics. Silica-based materials are used in thermal insulation, refractories, abrasives, as fiber-reinforced composites, and laboratory glassware. In the form of long continuous fibers, silica is used to make optical fibers for communications. Powders made using fine particles of silica are used in tires, paints, and many other applications. Silicon carbide (SiC) provides outstanding oxidation resistance at temperatures even above the melting point of steel. SiC often is used as a coating for metals, carboncarbon composites, and other ceramics to provide protection at these extreme temperatures. SiC is also used as an abrasive in grinding wheels and as particulate and fibrous reinforcement in both metal matrix and ceramic matrix composites. It is also used to make heating elements for furnaces.
Silicon nitride (Si3N4) has properties similar to those of SiC, although its oxidation resistance and high temperature strength are somewhat lower. Both silicon nitride and silicon carbide are likely candidates for components for automotive and gas turbine engines, permitting higher operating temperatures and better fuel efficiencies with less weight than traditional metals and alloys. Titanium dioxide (TiO2) is used to make electronic ceramics such as BaTiO3. Fine particles of TiO2 are used to make suntan lotions that provide protection against ultraviolet rays. Zirconia (ZrO2) is used to make many other ceramics such as zircon. Zirconia is also used to make oxygen gas sensors that are used in automotives and to measure dissolved oxygen in molten steels. Zirconia is used as an additive in many electronic ceramics as well as a refractory material. The cubic form of zirconia single crystals is used to make jewelry items. Boron Nitride (BN) Because of excellent thermal and chemical stability, boron nitride ceramics are traditionally used as parts of high-temperature equipment. Boron nitride has a great potential in nanotechnology. Nanotubes of BN can be produced that have a structure similar to that of carbon nanotubes. The carbon nanotubes can be metallic or semiconducting, whereas a BN nano-tube is an electrical insulator. BN nanotubes are more thermally and chemically stable than carbon nanotubes which favors them for some applications.
COMPOSITE MATERIALS
Composites are produced to give a combination of properties that cannot be attained by a single material but when two or more materials or phases are used together. A composite material is a microscopic or macroscopic combination of two or more distinct materials with a recognizable interface between them. A common example of a composite is concrete. It consists of a binder (cement) and a reinforcement (gravel). Composite materials may be selected to give unusual combinations of stiffness, strength, weight, high-temperature performance, corrosion resistance, hardness, or conductivity. Composites highlight how different materials can work in synergy. Materials that have specific and unusual properties are needed for a host of high-technology applications such as those found in the aerospace, underwater, bioengineering, and transportation industries. The individual materials that make up composites are called constituents. Most composites have two constituent materials: a binder or matrix, and a reinforcement. The reinforcement is usually much stronger and stiffer than the matrix, and gives the composite its good properties. The matrix holds the reinforcements in an orderly pattern. Because the reinforcements are usually discontinuous, the matrix also helps to transfer load among the reinforcements. In composites , the constituent materials must be chemically dissimilar and separated by a distinct interface.
Classification of Composite Materials

Composites can be placed into three categories: particle-reinforced, fiber-reinforced, and structural composites based on the shapes of the materials. Concrete, a mixture of cement and gravel, is a particulate composite; fibreglass, containing glass fibres embedded in a polymer, is a fibre-reinforced composite; and plywood, having alternating layers of wood veneer, is a laminar composite.
PARTICLE-REINFORCED COMPOSITES Lecture Notes By Dr Tanweer Hussain
In particle-reinforced composites, particles of distinct materials are embedded together to form the composite. The particulates can be large particles (such as gravels, as in case of concrete) or very small particles (< 0.25 microns). Thus large-particle composites and dispersion-strengthened composites are the two sub classifications of particle-reinforced composites.
Large-Particle Composites: In large particle composites, particlematrix interactions is not treated on the atomic or molecular level. Here the matrix refers to the bonding medium which is continuous and surrounds the other phase. The degree of reinforcement or improvement of mechanical behaviour depends on strong bonding at the matrixparticle interface. A very common large-particle composite is concrete, which is composed of cement (the matrix) and sand and gravel (the particulates).
Dispersion-Strengthened Composites: For dispersion-strengthened composites, particles are normally much smaller, with diameters between 0.01 and 0.1 .m (10 and 100 nm). Particlematrix interactions that lead to strengthening occur on the atomic or molecular level. Dispersion-strengthened composites are examples of nano-composites that consists of nano-scale particles distributed in a matrix phase. Many glass ceramics are nano-scale composites of different ceramic phases. Many plastics can be considered composites as well.
CERMETS
Cermets are example of large-particle composites. These are ceramicmetal composites, containing hard ceramic particles dispersed in a metallic matrix. The most common cermet is cemented carbide, which is composed of extremely hard particles of a refractory carbide ceramic such as tungsten carbide ( ) or titanium carbide ( ), embedded in a matrix of a metal such as cobalt or nickel. These composites are used extensively as cutting tools for hardened steels. The hard carbide particles provide the cutting surface but, being extremely brittle, are not themselves capable of withstanding the cutting stresses. Toughness is enhanced by their inclusion in the ductile metal matrix, which isolates the carbide particles from one another and prevents particle-to-particle crack propagation.
Lecture Notes By Dr Tanweer Hussain FIBER-REINFORCED COMPOSITES Technologically, the most important composites are those in which the dispersed phase is in the form of a fiber. Straw has been used to strengthen mud bricks for centuries. Steel-reinforcing bars are introduced into concrete structures. Glass fibers in a polymer matrix produce fiber glass for transportation and aerospace applications. Design goals of fiber-reinforced composites often include high strength and/or stiffness on a weight basis. 1. With fiber-reinforced composites, an applied load is transmitted to and distributed among the fibers via the matrix phase, which in most cases is at least moderately ductile. 2. Significant reinforcement is possible only if the matrixfiber bond is strong. On the basis of fiber length and orientation, three different types of fiber-reinforced composites are possible: Continuous and aligned (Figure a) mechanical properties are highly anisotropic. In the alignment direction, reinforcement and strength are maximum; perpendicular to the alignment, they are a minimum. Discontinuous and aligned (Figure b) significant strengths and stiffnesses are possible in the longitudinal direction. Discontinuous and randomly oriented (Figure c) despite some limitations on reinforcement efficiency, properties are isotropic
FIBER-REINFORCED COMPOSITES (contd.) Lecture Notes By Dr Tanweer Hussain Many factors must be considered when designing a fiber-reinforced composite, including properties of the fibers; the properties of the matrix; and the bonding between the fibers and the matrix. Characteristics of Fiber Phase: While designing a fiber-reinforced composite, various characteristics of fiber are considered; including the length, diameter, orientation, amount, and properties of the fiber. Fiber Length and Diameter: Fibers can be short, long, or even continuous. Their dimensions are often characterized by the aspect ratio l/d, where l is the fiber length and d is the diameter. The strength of a composite improves when the aspect ratio is large. On the basis of diameter and character, fibers are grouped into three different classifications: whiskers, fibers, and wires. Whiskers are very thin single crystals that have extremely large aspect ratios. As a consequence of their small size, they have a high degree of crystalline perfection and are virtually flaw-free, which accounts for their exceptionally high strengths. They are extremely expensive, thus are not used extensively as a reinforcement medium. Materials that are classified as fibers are either polycrystalline or amorphous and have small diameters. Fine wires have relatively large diameters; typical materials include steel, molybdenum, and tungsten. Wires are used as a radial steel reinforcement in automobile tires, in filament-wound rocket casings, and in wire-wound high-pressure hoses.
FIBER-REINFORCED COMPOSITES (contd.) Lecture Notes By Dr Tanweer Hussain
Amount of Fiber: A greater volume fraction of fibers increases the strength and stiffness of the composite, as we would expect from the rule of mixtures. The maximum volume fraction is about 80%, beyond which fibers can no longer be completely surrounded by the matrix. Orientation Of Fibers: The reinforcing fibers may be introduced into the matrix in a number of orientations. Short, randomly oriented fibers having a small aspect ratiotypical of fiberglass-give relatively isotropic behaviour in the composite. Long, continuous fibers can be introduced in several directions within the matrix.
Unidirectional arrangements of fibers produce anisotropic properties, with Long, or even continuous, particularly good strength and stiffness parallel to the fibers. Unidirectional orientations provide poor properties if the load is perpendicular to the fibers.
STRUCTURAL COMPOSITES
A structural composite is normally composed of both homogeneous and composite materials, the properties of which depend not only on the properties of the constituent materials but also on the geometrical design of the various structural elements. Laminar composites and sandwich panels are two of the most common structural composites. Laminar composite is composed of two-dimensional sheets or panels that have a preferred high-strength direction, such as is found in wood and continuous and aligned fiberreinforced plastics. The layers are stacked and subsequently cemented together such that the orientation of the high-strength direction varies with each successive layer. For example, adjacent wood sheets in plywood are aligned with the grain direction at right angles to each other.
Sandwich panels, considered to be a class of structural composites, are designed to be lightweight beams or panels having relatively high stiffnesses and strengths. A sandwich panel consists of two outer sheets, or faces, that are separated by and adhesively bonded to a thicker core. The outer sheets are made of a relatively stiff and strong material, typically aluminum alloys, fiber-reinforced plastics, titanium, steel, or plywood; they impart high stiffness and strength to the structure and must be thick enough to withstand tensile and compressive stresses that result from loading. The core material is lightweight and normally has a low modulus of elasticity.
Glass FiberReinforced Polymer (GFRP) Composites Lecture Notes By Dr Tanweer Hussain Fiber glass is simply a composite consisting of glass fibers, either continuous or discontinuous, contained within a polymer matrix. Glass fiber composites are the most widely used and the least expensive of all fibers. GFRP composite may contain between 30 and 60% glass fibers by volume. Fibers are made by drawing molten glass through small openings in a platinum die. The molten glass is then elongated mechanically, cooled, and wound on a roll. A protective coating or sizing may be applied to facilitate their passage through the machinery.
The following are the principal types of glass fibers: E-type: a calcium aluminoborosilicate glass, the type most commonly used. S-type: a magnesia aluminosilicate glass, offering higher strength and stiffness, but at a higher cost. E-CR-type: a high-performance glass fiber, offering higher resistance to elevated temperatures and acid corrosion than does the E glass.
Surface flaws are easily introduced on glass fibers by rubbing the surface with another hard material or surface layer is weakened if glass fibers are exposed to the normal atmosphere for even short time periods. Thus Newly drawn fibers are normally coated during drawing.
REFRACTORY MATERIALS
Refractory materials are important components of the equipment used in the production, refining, and handling of metals and glasses, for constructing heat-treating furnaces, and for other high-temperature processing equipment. The refractories must survive at high temperatures without being corroded or weakened by the surrounding environment. Refractory materials are marketed in a variety of forms, but bricks are the most common. Typical applications include furnace linings for metal refining, glass manufacturing, metallurgical heat treatment, and power generation.
The performance of a refractory ceramic depends mainly on its composition. On this basis, there are several classifications: fireclay, silica, basic, and special refractories. Fireclay Refractories The primary ingredients for the fireclay refractories are high-purity fireclays, alumina and silica mixtures usually containing between 25 and 45 wt% alumina. Fireclay bricks are used principally in furnace construction, to confine hot atmospheres, and to thermally insulate structural members from excessive temperatures. For fireclay brick, strength is not ordinarily an important consideration, because support of structural loads is usually not required. Silica Refractories The prime ingredient for silica refractories, sometimes termed acid refractories, is silica. These materials, well known for their high-temperature load-bearing capacity, are commonly used in the arched roofs of steel- and glass-making furnaces; for these applications, temperatures as high as 1650.C (3000.F) may be realized.
Basic Refractories Lecture Notes By Dr Tanweer Hussain The refractories that are rich in magnesia (MgO), are termed basic refractory. They may also contain calcium, chromium, and iron compounds. The presence of silica is deleterious to their high-temperature performance. Basic refractories are especially resistant to attack by slags containing high concentrations of MgO and CaO and find extensive use in some steel-making open hearth furnaces. Special Refractories These ceramic materials are used for specialized refractory applications. Some of these are relatively high-purity oxide materials, many of which may be produced with very little porosity. Included in this group are alumina, silica, magnesia, beryllia (BeO), zirconia (ZrO2), and mullite (3Al2O32SiO2). Others include carbide compounds, in addition to carbon and graphite. Silicon carbide (SiC) has been used for electrical resistance heating elements, as a crucible material, and in internal furnace components. Carbon and graphite are very refractory, but find limited application because they are susceptible to oxidation at temperatures in excess of about 800.C (1470.F).
REFRACTORY METALS Refractory metals are those having a melting temperature above 1925C. Examples include niobium (Nb), molybdenum (Mo), tungsten (W), and tantalum (Ta). Melting temperatures range between 2468.C (4474.F) for niobium and 3410.C (6170.F) for tungsten, the highest melting temperature of any metal. Interatomic bonding in these metals is extremely strong, which accounts for the melting temperatures, and, in addition, large elastic moduli and high strengths and hardnesses, at ambient as well as elevated temperatures. The applications of these metals are varied. For example, tungsten alloys are used for incandescent light filaments, x-ray tubes, and welding electrodes. Molybdenum alloys are utilized for extrusion dies and structural parts in space vehicles. Tantalum and molybdenum are alloyed with stainless steel to improve its corrosion resistance.
GLASS
Glass is an amorphous solid with the structure of a liquid obtained by supercooling. Technically, glass is defined as an inorganic product of fusion that has cooled to a rigid condition without crystallizing. The glasses are a familiar group of ceramics; containers, lenses, and fiber glass represent typical applications. GLASS-CERAMICS Glass-ceramics are crystalline materials that are derived from amorphous glasses. Usually, glass-ceramics have a substantial level of crystallinity (70-99%). Most inorganic glasses can be made to transform from a noncrystalline state to one that is crystalline by the proper high-temperature heat treatment. This process is called crystallization, and the product is a fine-grained polycrystalline material that is often called a glass-ceramic. The first step in producing a glass-ceramic is to ensure that crystallization does not occur during cooling from the forming temperature. A continuous and isothermal cooling is required. If glass cools too slowly, nucleation and growth of the crystals begin, but in an uncontrolled manner. Nucleation of the crystalline phase is controlled in two ways. First, the nucleating agents such as TiO2 are added to promote crystallization. TiO2 react with other oxides and form phases that provide the nucleation sites. Second, a heat treatment is designed to provide the appropriate number of nuclei; the temperature should be relatively low in order to maximize the rate of nucleation. The formation of these small glass-ceramic grains is, in a sense, a phase transformation, which involves nucleation and growth stages.
With glass-ceramics, we can take advantage the formability and density of glass. Lecture Notes Byof Dr Tanweer Hussain Also, a product that contains very low porosity can be obtained by producing a shape with conventional glass-forming techniques, such as pressing or blowing. In comparison with glasses, glass-ceramic materials have been designed to have the following characteristics: relatively high mechanical strength and toughness; low coefficients of thermal expansion; high-temperature corrosion resistance; good dielectric properties; and good biological compatibility. Some glass-ceramics may be made optically transparent; others are opaque. Possibly the most attractive attribute of this class of materials is the ease with which they may be fabricated; conventional glassforming techniques may be used in the mass production of nearly pore-free ware.

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Lecture Notes By Dr Tanweer Hussain

Lecture Notes By Dr Tanweer Hussain

SCIENCE VS. ENGINEERING

WHAT IS MATERIALS ENGINEERING?

Lecture Notes By Dr Tanweer Hussain

Lecture Notes By Dr Tanweer Hussain

Engineering Materials Advanced Materials

Lecture Notes By Dr Tanweer Hussain

SOME EXAMPLES OF ADVANCED MATERIALS

Lecture Notes By Dr Tanweer Hussain

WHAT IS MATERIALS ENGINEERING?

Lecture Notes By Dr Tanweer Hussain

Lecture Notes By Dr Tanweer Hussain

Lecture Notes By Dr Tanweer Hussain

Macroscopic structure Atomic level Subatomic level Microscopic structure

Atomic Structure (Arrangement of Atoms)

Crystalline Structure Of Metals

Lecture Notes By Dr Tanweer Hussain

Lecture Notes By Dr Tanweer Hussain

GRAINS AND GRAIN BOUNDARIES

Lecture Notes By Dr Tanweer Hussain

Rapid cooling smaller grains Slow cooling larger grains

Grain boundaries the surfaces that separate individual grains

Body-Centered Cubic Crystal Structure

Lecture Notes By Dr Tanweer Hussain

Face-Centered Cubic Crystal Structure

Hexagonal Close-Packed Crystal Structure

Lecture Notes By Dr Tanweer Hussain

ATOMIC PACKING FACTOR For BCC For FCC For HCP

Lecture Notes By Dr Tanweer Hussain

Lecture Notes By Dr Tanweer Hussain

Lecture Notes By Dr Tanweer Hussain

Lecture Notes By Dr Tanweer Hussain

IMPERFECTIONS IN THE CRYSTAL STRUCTURE OF METALS

Lecture Notes By Dr Tanweer Hussain

IMPERFECTIONS IN THE CRYSTAL STRUCTURE OF METALS (CONTD.)

Lecture Notes By Dr Tanweer Hussain

IMPERFECTIONS IN THE CRYSTAL STRUCTURE OF METALS (CONTD.)

Lecture Notes By Dr Tanweer Hussain

SLIP AND SLIP SYSTEM

Lecture Notes By Dr Tanweer Hussain

DEFORMATION & STRENGTH OF SINGLE CRYSTALS

Two Basic Mechanisms for Plastic Deformations

Lecture Notes By Dr Tanweer Hussain

CONCEPT OF STRESS AND STRAIN

flow at stress level S1

Lecture Notes By Dr Tanweer Hussain

Lecture Notes By Dr Tanweer Hussain

Iron Ore Wrought Iron

Lecture Notes By Dr Tanweer Hussain

Lecture Notes By Dr Tanweer Hussain

Conventional Blast Furnace

Lecture Notes By Dr Tanweer Hussain Modern Blast Furnace

Lecture Notes By Dr Tanweer Hussain

Lecture Notes By Dr Tanweer Hussain

STEEL MAKING PROCESSES

Lecture Notes By Dr Tanweer Hussain

Lecture Notes By Dr Tanweer Hussain

Lecture Notes By Dr Tanweer Hussain

Lecture Notes By Dr Tanweer Hussain

Lecture Notes By Dr Tanweer Hussain

MODERN STEEL MAKING PROCESS

Lecture Notes By Dr Tanweer Hussain