Fundamentals of compressed air

1.2 Units and formula symbols The SI-units ( Système International d'Unités ) were agreed
at the 14th General Conference for Weights and Measures.
They have been generally prescribed since 16.10.1971.

1.2.1 Basic units The basic units are defined independent units of measure
and form the basis of the SI-system.

Basic unit Formula symbol Symbol Name

Length l [m] Metre

Mass m [ kg ] Kilogramme

Time t [s] Second

Strength of current I [A] Ampere

Temperature T [K] Kelvin

Strength of light I [ cd ] Candela

Qty of substance n [ mol ] Mol

1.2.2 Compressed air units Engineering uses measures derived from the basic units. The
following table shows the most frequently used units of meas-
ure for compressed air.

Unit Formula symbol Symbol Name

Force F [N] Newton

Pressure p [ Pa ] Pascal
[ bar ] Bar 1 bar = 100 000 Pa

Area A [ m2 ] Square metre

Volume V [ m3 ] Cubic metre

[l] Litre 1 m3 = 1 000 l

Speed v [m/s] Metre per Second

Mass m [ kg ] Kilogramme
[t] Tonne 1 t = 1 000 kg

Density ρ [ kg / m3 ] Kilogramme per cubic metre

Temperature T [ °C ] Degree Celsius

Work W [J] Joule

Energy P [W] Watt

Tension U [V] Volt

Frequency f [ Hz ] Hertz

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 Fundamentals of compressed air

1.3 What is compressed air ?

1.3.1 The composition of air The air in our environment, the atmosphere, consists of:

Nitrogen 78 % Nitrogen
78 %
21 % Oxygen

1 % other gases
Oxygen ( e.g.. carbon-dioxide and argon )
21 %

other gases
1%

Fig. 1.11:
The composition of air

1.3.2 The properties of compressed air Compressed air is compressed atmospheric air.

Compressed air is a carrier of heat energy.

Compressed air Compressed air can bridge certain distances ( in pipelines ),
be stored ( in compressed air receivers ) and perform work
Pressure energy ( decompress ).
Heat

Fig. 1.12:
Air compression

1.3.3 How does compressed air behave? As with all gases, the air consists of molecules. The molecules
are held together by molecular force. If the air is enclosed in a
tank ( constant volume ), then these molecules bounce off the
walls of the tank and generate pressure p.
p p The higher the temperature, the greater the movement of air
p p
molecules, and the higher the pressure generated.
p p
V Volume ( V ) = constant
p p
p p Temperature ( T ) = is increased
p p
Pressure ( p ) = rises
Boyle and Mariotte carried out experiments with enclosed
volumes of gas independently of each other and found the
following interrelationship:
T
The volume of gas is inversely proportional to pressure.
Fig. 1.13:
( Boyle-Mariotte’s Law )
Air in a closed container

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Fundamentals of compressed air

1.4 Physical fundamentals The condition of compressed air is determined by the 3

measures of thermal state:

T = Temperature

V = Volume

p = Pressure

p × V
———— = constant
T

This means:

Heat Volume constant ( isochore )

Pressure and temperature variable

p0 , T0 When the temperature is increased and the volume remains

p1 , T1 constant, the pressure rises.

p0 T0
—— = ——
constant volume p1 T1
isochore compression

Temperature constant ( isotherm )

Pressure and volume variable
p0 , V0
When the volume is reduced and the temperature remains
p1 , V1
constant, the pressure rises.

constant temperature
p0 × V 0 = p1 × V1 = constant
isotherm compression

Heat Pressure constant ( isobar )

Volume and temperature variable

V0 , T 0 When the temperature is increased and the pressure

V1 , T 1 remains constant, the volume increases.

V0 T0
—— = ——
constant pressure V1 T1
isobar compression

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 Fundamentals of compressed air

1.4.1 Temperature The temperature indicates the heat of a body and is read in °C
on thermometers or converted to Kelvin ( K ).

T [K] = t [ °C ] + 273,15
0°C

Fig.1.14:
Showing temperature

1.4.2 Volume Volume V [ l, m3 ]

Compressed air in expanded state, open air

The volume is determined, for example, by the size of a cylin-

der. It is measured in l or m 3 and relative to 20 ° C and
1 bar.

The numbers in our documentation always refers to com-

pressed air in its expanded state.

d2 × π
VCyl = ———— × h
Volume (V) 4

VCyl = Volume [m3]

d = Diameter [m]
h = Height [m]

Normal volume VNorm [ Nl, Nm3 ]

Compressed air in expanded state under normal conditions

The normal volume refers to the physical normal state as speci-

fied in DIN 1343. It is 8 % less than the volume at 20 ° C.

760 Torr = 1,01325 barabs = 101 325 Pa

273,15 K = 0 °C

Norm volume + 8% = Volume

0°C 20 ° C

Operating volume Voperat [ Bl, Bm3 ]

Compressed air in compressed state

The volume in operating state refers to the actual condition.

The temperature, air pressure and air humidity must be taken
into account as reference points.

When specifying the operating volume the pressure must

always be given, e.g., 1 m 3 at 7 bar means that 1 m 3 ex-
0 barabs 8 barabs panded (relaxed) air at 7 bar = 8 bar abs. compressed and
only occupies 1/8 of the original volume.

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Fundamentals of compressed air

1.4.3 Pressure Atmospheric pressure pamb [ bar ]

Atmospheric pressure is caused by the weight of the air that

surrounds us. It is independent of the density and height of
the atmosphere.

At sea level, 1 013 mbar = 1,01325 bar

= 760 mm/Hg [ Torr ]
= 101 325 Pa

Under constant conditions atmospheric pressure decreases

the higher the measuring location is.

Fig.1.15:
Atmospheric pressure

Over-pressure pop [ barop ]

Over-pressure is the pressure above atmospheric pressure.

In compressed air technology, pressure is usually specified
as over-pressure, and in bar without the index „ op“.

Over-
Absolute pressure pabs [ bar ]
pop

pressure
The absolute pressure pabs is the sum of the atmospheric
pressure pamb and the over-pressure pop.
barometric
air pressure
pabs

pabs = pamb + pop

pvac

Partial
vacuum
According to the SI-System pressure is given in Pascal [ Pa ].
pamb

In practice, however, it is still mostly given in „ bar “. The old

measure atm ( 1 atm = 0,981 bar-op ) is no longer used.

Force F
100 % Vacuum Pressure = ———— p = ——
Area A

pamb = Atmospheric pressure

pop = Over-pressure
pvac = Partial vacuum 1 Newton 1N
pabs = Absolute pressure 1 Pascal = ———— 1 Pa = ——
1 m2 1 m2

Fig.1.16: 1 bar = 10195 mmWH [ mm water head ]

Illlustration of different pressures

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 Fundamentals of compressed air

•
1.4.3 Volume flow Volume flow V [ l/min, m³/min., m³/h ]

The volume flow describes the volume ( l or m³ ) per unit of

time ( minute or hour ).

Working volume flow A distinction is made between the working volume flow ( in-
Induction rate duction rate ) and the volume flow ( output rate ) of a com-
pressor.

Þ •
Working volume flow VWor [ l/min, m³/min., m³/h ]
Volume flow Induction rate
Output rate
The working volume flow is a calculable quantity on piston
Û compressors. It is the product of the cylinder size ( piston ca-
pacity ), compressor speed ( number of strokes ) and the
number of cylinders working. The working volume flow is given
in l/min, m³/min or m³/h.

•
VWor = A × s × n × c

Fig. 1.17:
Working volume flow and volume flow
•
VWor = Working volume flow [ l / min ]
A = Cylinder area [ dm2]
s = Stroke [ dm]
n = Number of strokes [ 1/ min ]
(compressor speed)
c = Number of working cylinders

•
Volume flow V [ l/min, m³/min, m³/h ]
TDC Output rate

The output rate of a compressor is normally declared as the

volume flow.
BDC
In contrast to the working volume flow, the volume flow is not
a calculated value, but one measured at the pressure joint of
a compressor and calculated back to the induction state. The
volume flow is dependent on the final pressure relative to the
induction conditions of pressure and temperature. This is why
when calculating the induction state the measured volume flow
to induction pressure must be „ relaxed“ and to induction tem-
TDC = Top dead centre perature it must be „ re-cooled“.
BDC = Bottom dead centre
The volume flow is measured according to VDMA 4362,
DIN 1945, ISO 1217 or PN2 CPTC2 and given in l/min, m3/min
Fig. 1.18: or m3/h. The effective volume flow, i.e., the output that can
Cylinder movement actually be used, is an important consideration for the design
of a compressor. Volume flows can only usefully be compared
when measured under the same conditions. This means that
the induction temperature, pressure, relative air humidity and
measured pressure must match.

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Fundamentals of compressed air

•
Norm volume flow VNorm [ Nl/min, Nm3/min, Nm3/h ]

As with the volume flow, the norm volume flow is also meas-
ured.

However, it does not refer to the induction state, but to a theo-

retical comparative value. With the physical norm state the
theoretical values are:
Volume flow + 8% = Norm volume flow
20°C 0°C Temperature= 273,15 K ( 0 °C )
Pressure = 1,01325 bar ( 760 mm HG )
Fig. 1.19: Air density = 1,294 kg/m3 ( dry air )
Norm volume flow

•
Operating volume flow VOperat [ Ol/min, Om3/min, Om3/h ]

The operating volume flow gives the effective volume flow of

compressed air.

To be able to compare the operating volume flow with the other

volume flows, the pressure of he compressed air must always
be given in addition to the dimension Ol/min, Om3/min or
0 barabs 8 barabs
Om3/h.

Fig. 1.20:
Operating volume flow

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 Fundamentals of compressed air

1.5 Compressed air in motion Different laws apply to compressed air in motion than to sta-
tionary compressed air.

1.5.1 Flow behaviour The volume flow is calculated from area and speed.

•
V = A1 × v 1 = A2 × v2
A1 A2

A1 v2
—— = ——
A2 v1

v1 v2 •
V = Volume flow
A 1, A 2 = Cross section
v 1, v 2 = Speed

Fig. 1.21:
Flow behaviour The result of the formula is that:

The speed of flow is inversely proportional to

the cross section.

1.5.2 Types of flow Flow can be laminar or even (Ideal), or

turbulent ( with backflow and whirling ).

Laminar flow ( even flow )

low drop in pressure

slight heat transition
Fig. 1.22:
Laminar flow

Turbulent flow ( whirl flow )

high drop in pressure

great heat transition
Fig. 1.23:
Turbulent flow

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