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BIOCHEMISTRY

Carbohydrate Catabolism (Metabolism)

Carbohydrates are the primary source of cellular energy for most organisms Glucose is the most commonly used carbohydrate and will always be used first Generates ATP and other high-energy compounds by breaking down carbohydrates:
glucose + oxygen carbon dioxide + water

GLYCOLYSIS

Carbohydrate Catabolism (Metabolism)

Two methods for ATP productions via catabolism of glucose
1.
-

Carbohydrate Catabolism (Metabolism)

Two methods for ATP productions via catabolism of glucose
2. Fermentation
-

Cellular Respiration
Requires oxygen to serve as the final electron acceptor in a series of redox reactions Generate ATP by oxidative phosphorylation Most efficient method of ATP production 1 glucose generates 36 ATP Involves reaction performed inside the mitochondria

Requires an organic molecule to serve as the final electron acceptor Can be done in the absence of oxygen ATP is synthesized using substrate level phosphorylation Less efficient, 1 glucose generates 2 ATP In humans, results in lactic acid

Anaerobic Vs. Aerobic Respiration Glycolysis

Aerobic Respiration of Glucose C6H12O6 + 6O2 6 CO2 + 6H2O

Three Stages
1.
-

Anaerobic reactions: Fermentation

Do not require oxygen Example: Glycolysis

Glycolysis
Oxidation of glucose to pyruvic acid Some ATP and NADH produced

Breaks down glucose in cytosol:

2.
-

Citric Acid Cycle

Oxidation of acetyl to carbon dioxide Some ATP, NADH and FADH produced

into smaller molecules used by mitochondria

3.

Aerobic reactions: Cellular Respiration

Electron Transport Chain

-

Occur in mitochondria:

NADH and FADH2 are oxidized providing electrons for redox reactions
-

coenzymes that function to transport electrons in the form of hydrogen

consume oxygen produce ATP

Reduce oxygen to generate ATP Majority of ATP is produced at this step

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Nutrient Use in Cellular Metabolism

Figure 252 (Navigator)

Glycolysis (Anaerobic Process)

Does not require oxygen Occurs in cytoplasm 10 step metabolic pathway:

Catabolizes and oxidizes one 6-carbon glucose molecule into two 3-carbon pyruvic acid molecules Generates 2 ATP by substrate level phosphorylation Not very efficient Generates lactic acid as a waste product

Many cells can survive on glycolysis alone

Glucose can also be available from food intake. Glucose is also stored as glycogen (glycogenesis). After gluconeogenesis, glucose is converted from glycogen in liver or muscle for glycolysis.

Needs to be removed and processed to prevent

Drastic alterations in pH Loss of homeostasis

Glycolysis Factors

Glycolytic Pathway

Glucose molecules Cytoplasmic enzymes ATP and ADP Inorganic phosphates NAD (coenzyme)

Glycolysis glucose is converted via fructose-1,6bisphosphate to pyruvate with the generation of 2 mol of ATP/mol of glucose central to most metabolism Several other metabolic pathways feed into the glycolytic pathway Also known as Embden-Meyerhof-Parnas Pathway 6 carbon sugars (hexoses - glucose and fructose) are converted to 3 carbon sugars (trioses dihydroxyacetone, glyceraldehyde, and pyruvate)

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Overall Reaction of Glycolysis

Glycolysis
Glycolysis The sequence reactions that convert glucose into pyruvate Reactions : 10 steps

Glycolysis takes place within the cytosol of the cell The products all have vital cellular uses: ATP energy source for many cellular functions NADH + H+ provides reducing power for other metabolic pathways or further ATP synthesis. Pyruvate used in the citric acid cycle in aerobic respiration to produce more ATP, or is converted to other small carbon molecules in anaerobic respiration

Pi = orthophosphate (PO43-) ADP = adenosine diphosphate ATP = adenosine triphosphate UDP = uridine diphosphate NAD+ = nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide, oxidized form NADH = nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide, reduced form NADP+ = NAD phosphate, oxidized form NADPH = NAD phosphate, reduced form

10 Steps of Glycolysis

Reaction 1 - 3 Reaction 4 - 6

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Reaction 7 - 10

The final product of glycolysis is pyruvate Under anaerobic conditions in humans (as in muscle during a sprint) pyruvate is reduced to lactate via lactate dehydrogenase Glucose + 2 ADP + 2 Pi 2 lactate + 2 ATP + 2 H+ Under aerobic conditions in humans, pyruvate is oxidized to CO2 via pyruvate dehydrogenase and the citric acid cycle in the mitochondrion

Oxidative Decarboxylation

Two Stages in Glycolysis

1.
-

Not technically a reaction of glycolysis, but is very common in most organisms as a link to the citric acid cycle Carried out in the mitochondria, unlike the reactions of glycolysis which are cytosolic

Preparatory Stage:
Enzyme phosphorylates last (sixth) carbon atom of glucose molecule:
1.

Glucose-6-phosphate is formed using 1 ATP molecule

- traps glucose molecule within cell

2.

Fructose 1,6-bisphosphate is formed using 1 ATP

Therefore, two ATP molecules are used to phosphorylate one 6-carbon glucose and catabolize it into two 3-carbon molecules

Two Stages in Glycolysis

2.

Summary of Glycolysis
1 glucose + 2 NAD+ + 2 ADP + 2P 2 pyruvic acid + 2 NADH + 2H+ + 2 ATP

Energy Conservation Stage:

the two 3-carbon molecules are oxidized to generate two 3-carbon pyruvic acid molecules Two NAD+ molecules are reduced to two NADH molecules 4 ATP molecules are produced by substrate level phosphorylation net gain 2 ATP per 1 glucose

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Aerobic Reactions

Mitochondrial Membranes

If oxygen supplies are adequate:

Outer membrane:

mitochondria absorb and break down pyruvic acid molecules

contains large-diameter pores permeable to ions and small organic molecules (pyruvic acid) contains carrier protein moves pyruvic acid into mitochondrial matrix separates outer and inner membranes

Inner membrane:

Intermembrane space:

Mitochondrial ATP Production

H atoms of pyruvic acid:

METABOLISM OF FRUCTOSE AND GALACTOSE Sucrose glucose + fructose

are removed by coenzymes are primary source of energy gain are removed and released as CO2 process of decarboxylation

Lactose glucose + galactose

C and O atoms:

Metabolism of Fructose

Metabolism of Galactose

The pathways: Fructose 1-phosphate pathway In liver F F1-P (Fructokinase) F 1-P GA + DHAP (F1-P aldolase) GA GA3-P (glyceraldehyde kinase) Fructose 6-phosphate pathway F F6-P (hexokinase) In muscle GLYCOLYSIS

Galactose glucose 6-P 5 steps: Phosphorylation of galactose to galactose 1phospate by galactokinase Galactose + ATP galactose-1-phosphate Galactose-1-phosphate uridylyl transferase transfers the uridylyl group of UDP-glucose to galactose-1-phosphate to form UDP-galactose UDP-galactose to UDP-glucose (UDP-galactose4-epimerase) UDP-glucose to G1P (UDP-glucose pyrophosphorylase) Isomerization of Glu-1P to glu-6P (phosphoglucomutase) GLYCOLYSIS

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Metabolism of Mannose

Galactose - glucose 6-P 4 steps:

Phosphorylation galactose to galactose 1-Phospate by galactokinase

Gal + ATP gal 1-P

The formation of glucose 1-Phosphate

(gal 1-P uridyl transferase) galactosemia Gal 1-P + UDP-glu - glu 1-P + UDP-gal

Mannose component of glycoproteins Mannose to mannose-6-phosphate (by hexokinase) Mannose-6-phosphate to fructose-6-phosphate (by phosphomannose isomerase)

The epimerization of UDP-galactose to UDP-glucose (UDP-gal-4 epimerase) Isomerization of Glu-1P to glu-6P (phosphoglucomutase)

LACTOSE BIOSYNTHESIS

Lactose synthesized in the mammary gland by lactose synthase UDP-galactose (formed by epimerization of UDP-glucose) + glucose lactose [galactosyl-(14)-glucose) + UDP