I d o h e r e b y s t a t e and d e c l a r e t h a t the

material contained i n t h i s manuscript

i s the r e s u l t o f m y own e f f o r t s , w i t h o u t the a i d or a s s i s t a n c e o f any o t h e r

person.

J a n u a r y 3 1 , 1982

This thesis c o n s i s t s o f an f n v e t t t g r t l o n o f a prophetfc work and i t s place in the greater csnc-epta of prophecy and apocalyptic.
The d i f f e r e n t a r e explored: ltte movement. These aspe definition.
There i s demonstration o f different thebrles a f prophecy's transitlan t o a p o c a l y p t i c , haw these theerlea each p a r t i a l l y flluminate t h e processer a t work ?wfZhia post-exflic Judaism, and how they c o n t r i b u t e t o aa understanding o f the origln, socfalsgical seltirag an essential characte 'lyptic. The d'lve w t t h l n the apocaly entcb. R ~ C ~ S S I t a t t n g t h e r e j e c t i o n o f the rect develo Worn any one post-exIIfc the tcal traai t b n .

The prophetic record o f Zechariak 1-8 reflectss e a r l y post-exitlc prophetic a c t l v i t y a t a w I t f c a 1 juncture i n Jewish history and a p icular s t a g e .In *he development of the 3ewisb future h It: con.tatm; s e v e r a l features w h f c h emulate ctta t@rtstlc-s Q f the apocalyptic 1 1 t e r a t u r e .

The r e c o r d o f t h e prophet f s exastln torfcal and socfological s e t t i n g s : exlllc prophets, contrast t o ctil~rzf and posstble r e l a t l a n s k l p t o later ffgarres. The signiffcanct of kO_s sense o f B prophetic herttage and contrtbute t o it message nhtck I t CJ histnry and the pro

THE ROLE O F Z E C H A R I A H 1-8 IN THE DEVELOPMENT

OF APOCALYPTIC

S t e v e n R . Swanson

D o c t o r of P h i l o s o p h y U n i v e r s i t y of E d i n b u r g h 1982

This work i s c a r e f u l l y dedicated t o : Charles N . R a i b o u r n ,

who knows more t h a n I ever w i l l ;

Catherine M. Swanson,
who i s wiser t h a n I ever w i l l be;

P r o f e s s o r GeorcJe W . Anderson, who, w i t h u n c o m m o n know1 e a g e , patience a n d wisdom, d i r e c t e d me a l o n g the p a t h o f m y own choosing;

y o u , among many o t h e r s , have been a blessing t o me. (Zech. 8 : 1 3 )

T A B L E OF CONTENTS

Table o f Contents Introduction T h e Nature and Definition o f Apocalyptic

iii
1 1
9

I.
11.
111.

Introduction T h e Apocalyptic Literature The Faith o f the Apocalyptists Prophecy and Apocalyptic

12 21 33 37 49
49

IV.
V.

A Survey o f the Early Investigations

o f Apocalyptic

VI.

T h e Definition o f Apocalyptic T h e Historical Development of Apocalyptic

VII.

A.
6.

The Disintegration of Prophecy Theocratic Prophecy Conventicle Prophecy T h e Rise o f Hellenistic Judaism and Apocalyptic

67
76

C.
D.

86
108

The Message and Theology o f Zechariah 1-8

I. Introduction
11.

108

Zech. l:2-6, T h e First Message Zech. 1:8-6:15, T h e Night Visions

111 114 120 120 134 142

111.

A.

T h e First Vision Cycle 1.

2.

Zech. 1:8-17,

T h e First Vision

Zech. 1 : 1 8 4 1 , T h e Second Vision Zech. 2:1-13, T h e Third Vision

3.

ii

4, Zech. 3:l-10, T h e Fourth Vision

60

151 155
158

Zech, 1:8-3:lO (Consolidation) The Second Vision Cycle

1, Zech, 4:l-14, T h e F i f t h Vision
2.
3.

C,

158

Zech, 5:l-4, T h e Sixth Vision Zech, 5:5-11, T h e Seventh Vision Zech. 6:l-15, T h e E i g h t h Vision

164
168

4,

172 176 17%

186

D. Zech, 4:l-6:15 (Consolidation)

IV. V,

Zech. 7:4-893, The 'Fasting' Sermon Zechariah 1-8 (Conclusion) The Transmission of Zechariah's Messages

Excursus:

196 199
199

Zechariah and the Later Prophetic Movement; Zechariah 1-8 and the Apocalyptic Literature

I,
11.
1 1 1 ,

Introduction Zechariah a n d the Later Prophetic Movement Zechariah and the 'Prophetic World-View' Zechariah 1-8 and the Interpretation o f Scripture i n the Apocalyptic Literature

211
222

IV,

243
276

Bi bl iography

INTRODUCTION

I t became apparent d u r i n g m y i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f 'The

Role o f Zechariah 1-8 i n t h e Development o f A p o c a l y p t i c '

o f t h e breadth a n d complexity o f my chosen s u b j e c t .

p e c t s o f p o s t - e x i l i c Judaism. the t a s k .

It

covered a period o f many c e n t u r i e s a n d involved many a s -

To introduce t h e r e s u l t s

o f my work i s t o renew a p r o f o u n d s e n s e o f t h e enormity o f

Concepts such as t h e p r o p h e t i c movement, t h e

t r a n s i t i o n from prophecy t o a p o c a l y p t i c a n d t h e a p o c a l y p t i c world-view a r e o f a n o r g a n i c n a t u r e ; they have depth a n d v i t a l i t y uniquely t h e i r own.

I h a v e become very much aware o f niy dependence u p o n
t h e i n s i g h t s o f works o f o t h e r s i n t h e s c h o l a r l y community.
As I have b u i l t u p o n t h e r e s u l t s o f s c h o l a r s from s e v e r a l

g e n e r a t i o n s a n d from many c o u n t r i e s , I have a l s o wished

for t h e o p p o r t u n i t y for f a c e - t o - f a c e d i s c u s s i o n .

What I

h a v e c o n t r i b u t e d here r e s t s u p o n o t h e r s , in much t h e same

way t h a t Zechariah was indebted t o t h e 'former prophets'.

I have been p a r t i c u l a r l y helped t h r o u g h t h e work o f P.D.

Hanson a n d O.H.

Steck.

This w o r k was undertaken i n p a r t because o f a d i s s a t i s f a c t i o n w i t h summary c o n c l u s i o n s regarding t h e r e l a t i o n between Zechariah 1-8 and t h e phenomenon o f a p o c a l y p t i c ; I came t o f e e l a lack o f completeness i n judgments i n t h i s area.
As m y work p r o g r e s s e d , I d i s c e r n e d b e t t e r t h e

iv

i s s u e s involved a n d bow Zechariah a n d h i s w r i t i n g s were t o be understood vis-'a-vis the a p o c a l y p t i c movement.

To break such a t h i n g as 'The Role o f Zechariah 1-8

i n the Development o f Apocalyptic'

i n t o i t s component

p a r t s w o u l d be t o f o l l o w the w i s e s t course.
d e f i n i t i o n of

However, t h i s The

a l s o r e v e a l s the true dimensions o f the problem,

' a p o c a l y p t i c ' has b a f f l e d many s c h o l a r s .

To inves-

The discernment o f the p l a c e s o f Zechariah a n d h i s w r i t i n g s

w i t h i n the prophetic movement i s no mean f e a t .

t i g a t e how a p o c a l y p t i c developed h i s t o r i c a l l y i s t o r e a l i z e the paucity o f evidence for much o f t h e p o s t - e x i l i c e r a .

I w o u l d be remiss i f I d i d n o t acknowledge m y extensive

use o f D.S.

R u s s e l l , The Method a n d Message o f Jewish Hnnson, The Dawn o f Apocalyptic; a n d 0 .

T h e c l e a r statements o f

Apocalyptic; P.D.

P l b g e r , Theocracy a n d Eschatology.

t h e s e works a l l o w e d me o p p o r t u n i t y t o think through ( a n d re-think) m y own p o s i t i o n .

To understand ' a p o c a l y p t i c ' i s t o recognize the term's

r e l a t i o n s h i p t o 1 ) a body o f l i t e r a t u r e , 2 ) t h e writers of
t h a t l i t e r a t u r e , a n d 3 ) the t r a d i t i o n s within which t h o s e

writers existed.

I was impressed e a r l y w i t h t h e ' q u a l i f i e d '

use o f ' a p o c a l y p t i c '

i n relation t o these areas.

I examined

the w r i t i n g s ( n o t i n g t h e i r marked d i f f e r e n c e s a n d the

m a r g i n a l nature o f some v i s - h i s t h e a p o c a l y p t i c movement)
a n d made t e n t a t i v e judgments regarding the s o c i o l o g i c a l

backgrounds o f the a u t h o r s .

I i d e n t i f i e d some o f t h e

d o c t r i n e s represented i n t h e l i t e r a t u r e ( r e c o g n i z i n g t h a t t h e r e was l i t t l e c o n s i s t e n c y w i t h i n the l i t e r a t u r e and

t h a t many o f those d o c t r i n e s were f o u n d in non-apocalyptic

w r i t i n g s ) a n d sought t o understand them within t h e c o n t e x t

o f t h e wider Jewish community a n d e x p e r i e n c e .

I held

uppermost t h e b e l i e f t h a t t h e community was dynamic, t h a t change was c o n s t a n t a n d a c t i o n s produced r e a c t i o n s , a n d

t h a t w r i t i n g s were produced for reasons (many o f which may

remain u n k n o w n , b u t some o f which c a n b e i s o l a t e d , i f o n l y

i n a general s e n s e ) ,
I have become convinced t h a t t h e

a p o c a l y p t i c l i t e r a t u r e was the embodiment o f a more pervasive tendency w i t h i n J u d a i s m a n d i t s p a r t i c u l a r p a r t i e s , r a t h e r t h a n t h e r e s u l t o f an i n d i v i d u a l g r o u p or mind-set within Judaism.

I f o u n d t h a t t h e a p o c a l y p t i c w r i t e r s were i n i n t e n s e

i n t e r a c t i o n w i t h the m a j o r f o r c e s w i t h i n t h e i r s o c i o l o g i c a l s e t t i n g , s t r u g g l i n g t o make t h e t h i n g s important t o them

important t o others.
tury B.C.

The p a r t y s t r i f e o f t h e f i r s t cena r e , t o me, I n d i c a t i v e o f t h a t

a n d t h e u n i f i e d r e a c t i o n t o enforced Hellenism

i n t h e second century B . L

i n t e r a c t i o n a n d sense o f importance.
I b e l i e v e t h a t t h e a p o c a l y p t i c l i t e r a t u r e was a
e

r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f a tendency w i t h Judaism, a r e s u l t o f a

t r a . d i t i o n which had a h i s t o r y o f i n t e l l e c t u a l development

vi
a n d s t r u g g l e w i t h i n the m a t r i x o f the Jewish community.

As much as an i n d i v i d u a l a p o c a l y p t i c work was produced as

a response t o h i s t o r i c a l c r i s i s , so i t s c o n t e n t was molded

i n the y e a r s prior t o i t s b i r t h .
C o m i n g t o terms w i t h Zechariah 1-8 began as a study
o f S c r i p t u r e , w i t h the r e c o g n i t i o n t h a t t h e r e has been a

l a c k o f s o l i d work r e c e n t l y on t h i s p a r t o f the O l d T e s t a ment.

M y work led t o an understanding a n d an awareness

o f Zechariah's

v i t a l i t y a s an h i s t o r i c a l person.

A co-

hesiveness emerged from the t e x t o f Zechariah 1-6 t h a t gave e n t r y t o h i s way o f t h i n k i n g a b o u t God a n d l i f e .

I came t o f e e l Zechariah's

a p p r e c i a t i o n for the g r e a t

prophets o f I s r a e l ' s p a s t a n d read t h a t a p p r e c i a t i o n i n

h i s frequent a l l u s i o n s a n d r e f e r e n c e s t o the w r i t i n g s o f

those prophets.

H O G . Mitchell

, Haggai

a n d Zechariah,

e and his sigb e s t captured the t h o u g h t o f Zechariah for m

nificance for the time i n which he l i v e d .

I caught

Zechariah's sense o f a 'prophetic h e r i t a g e ' , h i s awareness

o f t h e l i n e o f prophets who spoke for Yahweh, a n d h i s

attempts t o capture i t s essence for the people o f h i s

day.

W i t h i n t h e l a r g e r c o n t e x t o f t h e prophetic movement,

s.

Mowinckel, H e T h a t Cometh, enabled m e t o s e e t h i s move-

e m y f i r s t c l u e s as t o ment as something dynamic a n d Gave m

how Zechariah 1-8 was t o be understood as an expression of

vii
Jewish f u t u r e hope.
P.D.

Hanson's work with t h e e a r l y

post-exilic prophetic writings and t h e i r relationship t o t h e a p o c a l y p t i c movement p r o v i d e d me with a framework f o r understanding how t h e p r o p h e t i c movement h a d been p u l l e d i n t o the e x i l i c l e a d e r s h i p vacuum and had been fragmented
w i t h i n t h e p o l i t i c a l matrix o f t h e e a r l y p o s t - e x i l i c e r a .

The d i s s o l u t i o n o f t h e p r o p h e t i c movement o c c u r r e d a s a r e s u l t o f t h i s f r a g m e n t a t i o n ; groups a s s o c i a t e d with the p o l i t i c a l ' w i n n e r s ' became s u b s e r v i e n t t o them a n d t h o s e i n o p p o s i t i o n were not a l l o w e d a c c e s s t o t h e l e a d e r s h i p circles to voice their dissent.

O.H.

S t e c k ' s w r i t i n g s e n a b l e d me t o understand t h e

concept o f ' t h e o l o g i c a l stream o f t r a d i t i o n ' a n d how t h i s idea r e l a t e d t o the p r o p h e t i c movement.

I saw t h a t the

p r o p h e t i c movement was c a r r i e d a l o n g initially by the f o r c e

o f i t s own momentum a n d that i t s a u t h o r i t y w a s instrumental

i n the development o f a p r o p h e t i c 'canon' d u r i n g the post-

e x i l i c years.

The accompanying phenomenon o f r e s t r i c t i n g

p r o p h e t i c a c t i v i t y in t h e p r e s e n t ( i n f a v o r of prophecy a s

a s t r i c t l y p a s t phenomenon) l i m i t e d the v i t a l i t y o f prophecy

a s an a u t h o r i t y f o r t h e Community. The p r o p h e t i c movement produced the p r o p h e t i c h e r i t a g e
of

the e n t i r e p o s t - e x i l i c community, Z e c h a r i a h 1-8 b e i n g a The i n f l u e n c e o f prophecy v a r i e d among

small p i e c e o f i t .

the segments o f l a t e r Judaism (and a l s o among segments o f the a p o c a l y p t i c l i t e r a t u r e ) . A p o c a l y p t i c , however,

viii

.
borrowed from a much wider field than simply the prophetic
* .

tradition; its scope extended beyond the borders of Judaism. Within the apocalyptic movement, there were different strands of thought, different philosophies regarding basic issues, a n d different kinds of development.

I trust that

I have made this evident i n my discussions.

'The Role of Zechariah 1-8 i n the Development of Apocalyptic' proved to be a door into much of post-exilic Judaism. liked. There was not as much light as I would have Apocalyptic proved to be a much more pervasive Zechariah 1-8 became The

phenomenon than I had first thought.

a window into the m i n d of a prophet o f Yahweh.

challenge of the study a n d the personal results from the work have been the true a n d lasting rewards. Remaining true to my American roots, my spelling and grammar follow the Webster's New Twentieth Century U n abridged Dictionary.

I beg the reader's indulgence for any

difficulties i n this regard. Steven R . Swanson San Jose, California, U.S.A.

THE NATURE A N D

DEFINITION OF APOCALYPTIC

I.

Introduction The term a p o o a t y p t i c , along with i t s etymological

s i b l i n g s apocatypse a n d a p o c a t y p t i c i s m , was d e r i v e d from the Greek word apokaZupsis found in Rev. 1:l. The noun 1 The a p p e l l a t i o n meant ' a n u n v e i l i n g . . . a r e v e l a t i o n ' .
apocatypse was f i r s t a p p l l e d t o the Book o f R e v e l a t i o n

( a l s o c a l l e d The Apocalypse) a n d was subsequently u t i l i z e d in the d e s c r i p t i o n o f o t h e r C h r i s t i a n and Jewish w r i t i n g s which manifested f e a t u r e s s i m i l a r t o those o f t h a t book. Those terms have commonly been a p p l i e d . t o a r a t h e r i l l - d e f i n e d body o f l i t e r a t u r e , the works o f which p u r p o r t

t o reveal s e c r e t s o f a d i v i n e or supernatural nature. -

Scholars have determined that this l i t e r a t u r e ' s age o f f l o w e r i n g and p o p u l a r i t y was the p e r i o d 200 B.C.-A.D.

100.

The f i r s t works included in t h i s l i t e r a r y grouping were produced by Jewish authors; however, t h e i r c i r c u l a t i o n was i n c r e a s i n g l y discouraged by proponents o f the ' o f f i c i a l Jewish r e l i g i o n .
I

The causes o f the eventual disappearance Rabbinic d i s t a s t e f o r

of the l i t e r a t u r e were m u l t i p l e :

' f u t u r e s p e c u l a t i o n ' , the adoption o f the genre by the e a r l y C h r i s t i a n groups, the d e s t r u c t i o n o f the Jewish c u l t u r e i n

1. W . Bauer, A Greek-English Lextcon o f the New T e s t a s ment trans. W.F. Arndt and F e W . G i ngri ch , p p . 9 l f .

P a l e s t i n e a n d the withdrawal o f the l i t e r a t u r e ' s champions into s m a l l , secretive cadres.

Many ideas contained i n the

l i t e r a t u r e were normative f o r o t h e r segments o f the Jewish r e l i g i o n of t h a t - e r a .

A n apocatypse i s a genre of l i t e r a t u r e , a f a c t i n c r e a s i n g l y supported by r e c e n t c r i t i c a l s t u d i e s .

2

I t i s '...a

genre o f r e v e l a t o r y l i t e r a t u r e with a n a r r a t i v e framework... 3 d i s c l o s i n g a transcendent r e a l i t y ' . A n examination of the l i t e r a t u r e demonstrates t h a t t h i s form was b u t one among many employed by the apocaZyptCsts. Every composition l a b e l l e d

a n apocatypse included o t h e r g e n r e s ; n o t every work o f the

apocatyptic l i t e r a t u r e q u a l i f i e d a s o r included an apocaZypse.

Scholars have r e c e n t l y attempted t o d e f i n e more prec i s e l y t h e term apocatypticism because i t has been i n c r e a s -

i n g l y introduced i n t o the d i s c u s s i o n s o f the l i t e r a t u r e a s

a system o f b e l i e f s f o r i d e a s c u l l e d from various composttions.

A more c a r e f u l d e f i n i t i o n o f t h i s term has been one

f r u i t o f the i n q u i r y i n t o the s o c i o l o g i c a l dimension behind

the a p o c a t y p t i c l i t e r a t u r e , t h e matrix o f a n a u t h o r ' s d o c t r i n e
and l i f e .

W e may d e f i n e apocatypticism as a system o f be-

l i e f s o r a d i s t i n c t i v e symbolic u n i v e r s e from which w r i t e r s

2 . M . E . Stone, ' L i s t s o f Revealed Things i n the A p o c a l y p t i c L i t e r a t u r e ' , Ma n a l i a D e i , ed. F.M. C r o s s e t a l , p p . 4 1 4 - 4 5 2 ; P O D . Hanson, +-r--7 poca ypse Genre' and 'Apocalypt i c i s m ' , +DBSu;, ed. K O Crim, pp.27-34; 3 . 3 . C o l l i n s , 'Apoc a l y p s e : owar s the Morphology o f a Genre', SBL Seminar ~ a D e r g o ( l W ; ~ed. , P.3. Achtemeier, pp.359-370. C o l l i n s , a r t . c i t . , p.364.

3 drew t h e i r understanding of h i s t o r y and the cosmos and the l i f e - s t y l e which d e r i v e d from and supplemented t h e s e o t h e r areas.
4

One i s s t r u c k by t h e appearance of t h e word apocatyptic

i n a m u l t i p l i c i t y o f c o n t e x t s modifying a d i v e r s i t y o f n o u n -

The c i t i n g of a few examples w i l l s u f f i c e : the 5 6 apocatyptic 7 i t e r a t u r e , t h e apocatyptic church and apoca7 I t was no wonder t h a t M . E . Stone typtio eschatology, subjects. wrote:

A g r e a t d e a l of t h e c u r r e n t d i s c u s s i o n o f a p o c a l y p t i c i s m and o f the a p o c a l y p s e s i s being c a r r i e d on i n the m i d s t o f a semantic c o n f u s i o n o f t h e f i r s t o r d e r . The c o n f u s i o n turns on the r e l a t i o n s h i p o f a p o c a l y p t i c i s m and the a p o c a l y p s e s . . , T h e two phenomena have names d e r i v e d from the same Greek word and t h i s appears t o imply a r e l a t i o n s h i p .

U n f o r t u n a t e l y , Stone admitted t h a t t h e l i n k between t h e two e l u d e d h i m a n d he d e s p a i r e d o f u s i n g t h e s e terms meanfngf u l l y without e x p l i c i t m o d i f i e r s .

I t i s c l e a r , then, t h a t we have e n t e r e d a f i e l d f r a u g h t
with the p i t f a l l s o f i l l - d e f i n e d terms a n d concepts i n h e r i t e d from our p r e d e c e s s o r s . We a r e o b l i g e d t o make our way c a r e SUP-

f u l l y , wary o f t a k i n g even the s i m p l e s t s t e p w l t h o u t t h e port of s u f f i c i e n t evidence.

4. C f . P O D . Hanson, ' A p o c a l y p t i c i s m ' , I D B S u pD.28-34. 5 0 H , H . Rowley, ' A p o c a l y p t i c L i t e r a t u r e (rev. e d . ) , ed. M O B l a c k , pp.484-488. 60 3.W. Bowman, 'The l i f e and Teachings of J e s u s ' , PCB ( r e v , e d . ) , p . 7 3 4 . 7 . P O D , Hanson, The Dawn of A p o c a l y p t i c , P.11. 8, M.E, Stone, art. c i t . , pp.43 9f

+ i -

T a k i n g into account Stone's admonition, l e t us examine

the term apocatyptic as i t may be used t o d e s c r i b e the 9 r e l i g i o u s outlook ( o r world-view) o f the a p o c a Z y p t i s t whether comprehended i n d i v i d u a l l y o r c o l l e c t i v e l y .

--

These w r i t e r s m o b i l i z e d many d i f f e r e n t t r a d i t i o n s t o express t h e i r conffdence i n the God o f the Jews as the sovereign K i n g o f h i s t o r y a n d cosmos a n d t o affirm t h e i r expectations o f His imminent triumph over a l l heavenly and e a r t h l y enemies. The w r i t f n g s , as r e v e l a t o r y l i t e r a t u r e , d i s c l o s e d the s e c r e t s o f the cosmos a s w e l l as i l l u m i n a t i n g f u t u r e e v e n t s . Neither the cosmological nor the f u t u r e concern permeated the whole o f the l i t e r a t u r e . A l s o , they were both f r e q u e n t l y

absent in a given composition; nor was t h e i r u t i l l z a t i o n mutually e x c l u s i v e .

A proper understanding of a p o c a l y p t f c ,

a s i t d e s c r i b e s a w r i t e r ' s p e r s p e c t i v e o n the w o r l d , must

include p r o v i s i o n s f o r the presence ( a n d absence) of both dimensions.
R.3.

Bauckham has suggested that we should d i s t i n g u i s h and

between two d i f f e r e n t types o f a p o c a l y p s e s - h i s t o r i c a l cosrnological-in o r d e r t o i n v e s t f g a t e the d i s t i n c t i v e

10

t h e o l o g i c a l t r a d i t i o n s which produced them.

Bauckham's

9 . 3 . 3 . C o l l i n s , art. c i t . , p.360; a t t h i s p o f n t , I w i l l d r o p the i t a l i c i z a ' t f o n r a p o c a l y p t i c - r e l a t e d words. 10. R.3. Bauckham, 'The R f s e o f A p o c a l y p t i c ' , Them 111/2 (1978), p.17. There was no i n d i c a t i o n t h a t t h e t w o types developed s e p a r a t e l y .

suggestion has v a l u e ; however, I a l s o f e e l that these dimens i o n s , taken t o g e t h e r , n i g h t approximate a 'normative' Jewish world-view, I f a p o c a l y p t i c may be connected t o the

concept of a world-view,

we ought then t o be f r e e t o speak 11 o f ' a p o c a l y p t i c cosmology' as w e l l a s eschatology. This l i n e of thought r a i s e d the q u e s t i o n : "Does the cosmology

a n d eschatology of the a p o c a l y p t i s t d i f f e r from t h a t o f a

corresponding member o f a (more) mainline Jewish group?"

12

A connection has been g e n e r a l l y acknowledged between

O l d Testament prophecy a n d the phenomenon c a l l e d a p o c a l y p t i c .

One could say t h a t the l a t e r movement ' . . . d i s p l a y s

the f u l l e r

development o f tendencies which a r e e v i d e n t i n the l a t e r 13 o r t h a t ' , , . i t e x p r e s s e s the p r o p h e t i c s t a g e s of prophecy' convictions t h a t Yahweh i s King, t h a t H i s Kingdom i s near a t
h a n d , and t h a t a l l men a r e c a l l e d t o be f a i t h f u l under a l l 14 circumstances', I t was the nature o f the connection be-

tween prophecy a n d a p o c a l y p t i c which has e l i c i t e d d i s c u s s i o n

a n d disagreement.

11. T o m y knowledge, no one has used the phrase ' a p o c a l y p t i c cosmology'. The emphasis upon e s c h a t o l o g y i s understandable, b u t the other dimension must be g i v e n i t s p l a c e . I t occupied a noteworthy p l a c e in the l f t e r a t u r e and had i t s precedence in t h e cosmological f e a t u r e s of Ezekiel and Zechariah 1-8. 12. I d o not b e l i e v e the evidence e x i s t s t o answer t h i s question a f f i r m a t i v e l y and c a t e g o r i c a l l y . 13. G.W. Anderson, A C r i t i c a l I n t r o d u c t i o n t o the Old Testament, p.206. 14. B O W . Anderson, Understanding the O l d Testament, p.540.

I t i s t r u e t h a t the p r o p h e t i c l i t e r a t u r e e x e r t e d a profound e f f e c t upon many f a c e t s o f p o s t - e x i l i c Judaism and was i t s e l f i n f l u e n c e d by e x t e r i o r f a c t o r s .

I have s u b s t a n t i a l l y

limited m y i n v e s t i g a t i o n t o the prophetic movement and i t s m not i n f l u e n c e i n the development o f a p o c a l y p t i c ; b u t I a unaware t h a t o t h e r t r a d i t i o n s made s i g n i f i c a n t c o n t r i b u t i o n s
t o the f u t u r e - and c o s r n o l o g i c a l - c o n s c i o u s n e s s o f the Jewish

people i n the i n t e r t e s t a m e n t a l p e r i o d .

I t i s easy t o c o n t r a s t the a p o c a l y p t i c l i t e r a t u r e with

the prophetic l i t e r a t u r e ( e s p e c i a l l y the p r e - e x i l i c p r o p h e t i c w r i t i n g s ) t o show how d i s s i m i l a r the two groups were.
How-

e v e r , I am convinced t h a t such a demonstration (which was a common element i n many b o o k s d e a l i n g with the a p o c a l y p t i c
.
I

l i t e r a t u r e ) i s unwise a n d h i g h l y m i s l e a d i n g .

The apocalyp-

t i s t s stood i n the l i n e o f the ' s a l v a t i o n p r o p h e t s ' , a t r a d i t i o n which h a d extended back a t l e a s t t o the e x i l i c prophecies o f Jeremiah, Ezekiel and Deutero-IsaJah.

15

No one denies t h a t the a p o c a l y p t i c l i t e r a t u r e a n d apoca-

l y p t l c i s m were the end products o f processes w i t h i n Judaism

whose development spanned s e v e r a l c e n t u r i e s .

The a p o c a l y p t i c

world-view drew i t s v i t a l i t y from the p a r a d o x i c a l poste x i l i c Jewish s i t u a t i o n : on the one hand, the Jews ( o r a

minor segment o f the community) expected t o be b l e s s e d above

15. 3 . Llndblom, Prophecy i n Ancient I s r a e l , p.421, s t a t e d that the p o s t - e x i l i c prophets were ' s a l v a t i o n ' - c o n S C ~ O U S . The t r a d i t i o n a c t u a l l y began i n e a r l i e s t times; c f . A.R. Johnson, The C u I t i c Prophet i n Ancient I s r a e l , ~ ~ ~ 2 5 - 2 9 .

a l l others because o f Yahweh's e l e c t i n g l o v e ; on t h e o t h e r

h a n d , they were powerless and oppressed by f o r e i g n l o r d s ( o r

a n u n j u s t community l e a d e r s h i p ) .

The i n t e l l e c t u a l and s o c i a l

c o n f l i c t produced by such a s i t u a t i o n profoundly i n f l u e n c e d much o f the l i t e r a t u r e o f p o s t - e x i l i c Judaism. One sees a combination o f these views in the book o f Daniel (which can be p r o v i s f o n a l l y accepted a s belonging t o the a p o c a l y p t i c l i t e r a t u r e ) : 1 ) t h e r e was the r e j e c t i o n o f
2 ) t h e r e was the

the community l e a d e r s h i p ( c f . 11:30-32);

e x a l t a t i o n o f a small group within the community, the Mask i l i m ( 1 1 : 3 3 - 3 5 ) , with reward a n d punishment meted o u t on the b a s i s o f f a i t h f u l n e s s under p e r s e c u t i o n ; and 3 ) t h e r e was the envisioned d e s t r u c t i o n o f the f o r e i g n power (11:45).
Some o f the a p o c a l y p t i s t s p o i n t e d , on t h e one hand, t o

an imminent i n t e r v e n t i o n by God which w o u l d r e v e r s e t h e f o r tunes of the Jews and/or reward the f a i t h f u l n e s s o f the i n d i v i d u a l a n d would e x a l t God's chosen ones f n the f u t u r e . Examples o f t h i s hope were found in D a n i e l , the Enochean B o o k
o f Dreams (ch. 8 3 - 9 0 ) ,

the Testament o f Noses and o t h e r s .

On

the other h a n d , o t h e r a p o c a l y p t i s t s made r e c o u r s e t o cosmol o g y t o e x p l a i n the e x i s t e n c e o f e v l l i n the world and the f a c t o f Jewish s u f f e r i n g ( c f . I 1 Enoch, I 1 1 Baruch, e t c . ) . 16

The book o f I Enoch provided the b e s t examples o f cosmology

(ch. 12-16,17-36)
logy (ch. 85-90)

and the blending of cosmology and eschato-

i n the a p o c a l y p t i c l i t e r a t u r e .

16.

R.J.

Bauc kham , a r t . c i t

pp.15-17.

The phenomenon of a p o c a l y p t i c i s m achieved g r e a t recogn i t i o n as a response t o the p e r s e c u t i o n s o f Antiochus IV (Epiphanes), the S e l e u c i d r u l e r (175-163 B . C . ) who attempted

t o remove the o p p o s i t i o n o f c o n s e r v a t i v e Jews t o h i s p l a n

t o Impose a uniform H e l l e n i s t i c c u l t u r e and r e l i g i o n upon the Jewish people (thereby e s t a b l i s h i n g a secure p o l i t i c a l base f o r himself i n the a r e a ) . The a p o c a l y p t i c world-view was

f i r s t represented i n the book o f D a n i e l , which contained ex17 amples o f h i s t o r i c a l a p o c a l y p s e s . Works such a s t h i s o f t e n o r i g i n a t e d i n h i s t o r i c a l s i t u a t i o n s where a n h i s t o r i c a l l y o r i e n t e d f u t u r e hope b d r e l e v a n c e and a p p e a l . The book o f

Daniel was c i r c u l a t e d s h o r t l y a f t e r the p o l i t i c a l u n i f i c a t i o n

o f many Jews with the Hasidim.

T-his g r o u p c r y s t a l l i z e d the

a t t i t u d e o f r e s i s t a n c e a g a i n s t the H e l l e n i s t i c t'nfluence i n Jewish s o c i e t y a n d p o l i t i c s , f o r m u l a t i n g a c t i o n a g a i n s t those

Jews who h a d c o l l a b o r a t e d with the S e l e u c i d s o r had adopted

He1 1eni s t i c customs.

18

A p o c a l y p t i c e s c h a t o l o g y , i n t h i s in-

s t a n c e , spoke t o the contemporary need o f the people a s they 19 p r e s e n t i n g a comforting reward/punishendured hard times, ment r e s o l u t i o n o f t h e i r s t r u g g l e .

A n understanding o f the nature and presence o f apocalyp-

17. According t o R,3. Bauckham's s u g g e s t i o n ; c f . n.10. 18. The Hasidim appear a s a heterogenous group: s c r i b e s , f i g h t e r s , l e a d e r s and p a c i f i s t s , Cf. V . Tcherikover, H e l l e n i s t i c C i v i l i z a t i o n and the Jews, pp.196-198. \ e owering o f A p o c a l y p t i c ' , J T h C h v i (1969), pp.168,173.

t i c i s m i n the second century B . C .

with a complex a n d multi-faceted

r e q u i r e s coming t o terms subject. One must i n v e s t f -

g a t e the r e l i g i o u s , i n t e l l e c t u a l and s o c i a l climate o f the developing Jewish community, with i t s dependence upon the past and i t s party c o n f l i c t s .

I am not i n c l i n e d t o s e p a r a t e

the a p o c a l y p t i c movement, I n a l l i t s uniqueness, from the main stream o f Jewish l i f e and f a i t h .

The wide use o f the

f e a t u r e s o f i t s world-view a n d m o t i f s within more t r a d i t i o n a l c i r c l e s a n d the common people suggested t h a t the a p o c a l y p t i c world-view can b e connected t o the 'Jewish world-view' p r i o r 20 t o the Maccabean u p r i s i n g and i s not t o be d i f f e r e n t i a t e d
from it,

21

I a f f i r m the e x i s t e n c e o f apocalypticism within

t h e c o n t i n u i t y o f developing t h e o l o g i c a l t r a d i t i o n s i n post-

e x i l i c (ludaism.
11.

The A p o c a l y p t i c L i t e r a t u r e
D o S . R u s s e l l gathered those w r i t i n g s with a p o c a l y p t i c

overtones i n t o a convenient l t s t ,

While i t i s admltted t h a t

Ibid., p.l66. One a p o c a l y p t i c 'world-view', r e presented i n the book o f D a n i e l , h e l d the n e c e s s i t y of d i r e c t d i v i n e i n t e r v e n t i o n t o r e s o l v e the Jews' dilemma; another view foresaw God a c t i n g through h t s t o r i c a l events t o bring about His o b j e c t i v e s ( c f . J u b . 23:18-32 a n d the comments by R A C h a r l e s , T h e B o o k o f J u b i l e e s , pp.147-151). 21. L . Hartman, Prophecy I n t e r p r e t e d , p.26; H . D . Preus, Jahweglaube und Zukunftserwartung, quoted by R. North, ' P rophecy t o A p o c a l y p t i c v i a ZecharSah', VTSup x x i i (1972), p . 5 7 .

20.

10

these works d i f f e r e d remarkably from one another a n d t h a t they cannot be i n d i v i d u a l l y regarded a s t o t a l l y a p o c a l y p t i c , R u s s e l l s l i s t has been regarded f a v o r a b l y by s c h o l a r s and 22 does g i v e an i n i t i a l impression of t h e scope o f the l i t e r a r y group:
23

Daniel ( c , 165 8 . C . ) 24 I Enoch ( p o s t - D a n i e l i c composition) The B o o k o f J u b i l e e s ( c . 1 5 0 B . C . ) The S i b y l l i n e O r a c l e s I11 (post-150 B . C . ) The Testaments o f the Twelve P a t r i a r c h s ( p o s t 4 5 0 B . C . ) The Psalms o f Solomon ( c . 50 B . C . ) The Testament o f Moses ( f i r s t century A . D . ) Martyrdom of I s a i a h L i f e o f Adam a n d E v e / Apocalypse o f Moses ( c , A . D . 5 0 ) Apocalypse o f Abraham ( f i r s t century A . D . ) Testament o f Abraham ( f i r s t century A . D . ) B o o k o f the S e c r e t s o f Enoch/ I I Enoch ( f i r s t century A . D . ) The S i b y l l i n e O r a c l e s I V ( c . A . D . 8 0 ) I1 Esdras / 4 Ezra ( c . A . D . 9 0 ) S y r i a c Apocalypse o f Baruch/ 1 1 Baruch (post-A.D. 90) G r e e k Apocalypse o f Baruch/ I11 Baruch (second century A . D . ) The S i b y l l i n e O r a c l e s V (second century A . D . )

* *

22. I have recognized the d a n g e r of p l a c i n g a r b i t r a r y l i m i t s on w h a t c o n s t i t u t e d the a p o c a l y p t i c l i t e r a t u r e ; a d i s t o r t e d d e f i n i t i o n o f a p o c a l y p t i c may r e s u l t . However, recogn i t i o n o f the problem i s the f i r s t s t e p toward d o i n g j u s t i c e both t o the d e f i n i t i o n o f the term and the nature o f the 1 i terature. 2 3 . D.S. R u s s e l l , The M e t h o d and Message of Jewish A ocal t i c , pp.37f. Since I am concerned, l i k e R u s s e l l , t e ewish a p o c a l y p t l c l i t e r a t u r e , the body of C h r i s t i a n l i t e r a t u r e has been omltted. C f . E . Hennecke, New Testament A o c r ha, v o l . 2 . C f . R . 3 . Bauckham, art. c i t . , p p . l 5 f . , a n d L T . M i l i k , The B o o k s o f Enoch, p p . 7 - 9 , 2 2 - 2 5 , f o r arguments advoc a t i n g p r e - D a n i e l i c d a t i n g o f p o r t i o n s of I Enoch.

11
With the d i s c o v e r y i n t h i s century o f the remains o f

the library o f the Qumran community ( t h e Dead Sea S c r o l l s ) , another body o f w r l t i n g s has been l i n k e d t o the a p o c a l y p t i c literature. P o r t i o n s o f many of t h e s e w r i t i n g s have been Although t h e r e ap-

discovered i n the Qumran e x c a v a t i o n s .

pears t o have been dependence on the o u t s i d e l i t e r a t u r e a t

Qumran, t h e r e was no evidence o f r e v e r s e borrowing, l e a d i n g

some s c h o l a r s t o c h a r a c t e r i z e Qumran as a 'cooled-down apoca25 I f e e l that t h i s judgment underestimated the lyptic sect'
0

v l t a l i t y o f the Qumran community.

P o s s i b l e explanations o f

t h i s phenomenon were Qumran's e x c l u s i v e n e s s and i t s s e l f i d e n t i f i c a t i o n as the t r u e Jewish community and t h e 'temple'

o f God.

These w r i t i n g s , found a t Qumran and e x h i b i t i n g apocalyp26 t i c c o l o r i n g , were: Commentaries on: I s a i a h , H o s e a , Micah, Nahum, H a b a k k u k , Zephaniah, Psalm 3 7 The Zadoki t e Document/ The Damascus Document ( C D ) The Manual o f D i s c i p l i n e / T h e Rule o f the Community (1QS) The Rule o f the Congregation/ The Messianic Rule (1QSa) The S c r o l l o f Benedictions ( 1 Q S b ) The Testimonies S c r o l l / A Messianic Anthology ( 4 4 1 7 5 ) Hymns (Psalms) o f Thanksgiving (1QH) The War o f the Sons o f L i g h t a g a i n s t the Sons o f Darkness/The Rule f o r the F i n a l War (1QM)

25. R . P . C . Hanson, A G u i d e t o t h e S c r o l l s , ed, A.R.C. Leaney, p . 6 4 . 26. D o S . R u s s e l l , op. c i t 9 p . 3 9 .

-.

12
The Book o f M y s t e r i e s / The Triumph o f R i g h t e o u s n e s s ( 1 4 2 7 ) A M i d r a s h on the L a s t Days (44174) A D e s c r i p t i o n of the New J e r u s a l e m An A n g e l i c Liturgy ( 4 Q S h i r S h a b ) T h e P r a y e r of N a b o n i d u s ( 4 4 2 4 3 ) and a Pseudo-

D a n i e l A p o c a l y p s e ( 4 4 PsDan) A Genesis Apocryphon ( 1 Q a p G e n )

111.

The F a j t h o f the A p o c a l y p t l s t s

P.D.

Hanson d e c l a r e d t h a t ' a p o c a l y p t i c t h i n k i n g i s the

p r o d u c t o f a m e n t a l i t y . . . b o r n o f h i s t o r i c a l and s o c i o l o g i c a l 27 circumstances'. He a s s e r t e d t h a t the a p o c a l y p t i s t s were g e n u i n e l y i n v o l v e d i n the e v e n t s o f t h e i r day and p l a y e d a u n i q u e r o l e in t h e p o l l t i c a l i n t e r a c t i o n within the communlty.
D.S.

Russell s u p p o r t e d t h i s j u d g m e n t by o b s e r v i n g t h a t we
28
H a n s o n ' s s t u d y o f the

c a n n o t u n d e r s t a n d the a p o c a l y p t i c w r i t i n g s a p a r t f r o m t h e t i m e s i n which t h e a u t h o r s l i v e d .

nature o f a p o c a l y p t i c i s m , o f w h l ' c h a p o c a l y p t i c t h i n k i n g was

a p a r t , has c h a l l e n g e d t h a t o p i n i o n w h i c h v i e w e d a p o c a l y p t i c 29 a s an e s c a p e f r o m r e a l i t y .

I t has been i m p l i e d by some s c h o l a r s t h a t the a p o c a l y p t i s t s l i v e d with t h e i r h e a d s i n the c l o u d s , w i t h d r a w n f r o m

the w o r l d and p a s s i v e l y r e s - i s t a n t t o p r o g r e s s i v e . t r e n d s i n
society.

I t was assumed t h a t they l i v e d i n a n t i c i p a t i o n of

27. P O D . Hanson, op. 7c i t . , p.229. 28. D o S . R u s s e l l , op. c i t , p . 1 6 . 2 9 . C f . t h e B i b l i o g r a p h y f o r a l i s t i n g of H a n s o n ' s works on t h i s s u b j e c t .

-.

13

an imminent catastrophe, the f i n a l Day of Yahweh, the over-

throw o f a l l e v i l and the b l e s s i n g of the r i g h t e o u s , t o the

e x c l u s i o n o f a l l e a r t h l y endeavor. representative: the a p o c a l y p t i s t
I

0 . K a i s e r ' s o p i n i o n was
...gazes fascinated a t

the g r e a t but wicked drama which i s the w o r l d , a n d w a i t s f o r 30 the end o f h i s t o r y ' . It is m y contention, however, that the a p o c a l y p t i s t s must be viewed s y m p a t h e t i c a l l y ; they b e l i e v e d they l i v e d i n

a time dominated by g o d l e s s n e s s and b e w i l d e r l n g o p p r e s s i o n .

As with many Jews o f t h a t time, they were drawn t o the p a s t , 31 and had when Yahweh had r e v e a l e d Himself in I s r a e l ' s l l f e

r e v e a l e d Himself t o t h e i r f o r e f a t h e r s .

To the vexing ques-

t i o n s of l i f e they gave i n h e r i t e d answers i n new form, attempt i n g t o understand t h e i r e r a i n terms consonant w i t h the f a i t h
o f the past and to r e s o l v e t h e i r d i s t r e s s through the f u t u r e

hope i n h e r i t e d from t h e prophets o r through a deeper unders t a n d i n g o f God's

r e l a t i o n s h i p with the e v i l . i n the w o r l d .

The prophetic w r i t i n g s assumed importance i n the apocal y p t i s t s ' view of the f u t u r e , keeping i n m i n d the supremacy

of the Torah f o r them i n d a i l y l i f e .

The Qumran group, f o r

3 0 . W e K a i s e r , I n t r o d u c t f o n t o the Old Testament, p.316. 31. W.F. A l b r i g h t , From the Stone Age t o C h r i s t i a n i t y , P . 3 3 4 , a s s e r t e d t h a t t h i s r e s o r t t o the p a r t began w i t h i n the f i f t h century B.C., the 'summit o f . . . s p i r i t u a l e v o l u t i o n ' of the Jews. The p r o c e s s can be d i s c e r n e d i n t h e C h r o n i c l e r ' s work and i n t h e Book o f J u b i l e e s ; c f , R.H. C h a r l e s , op. c i t e s PP.XlVij-1 i

14

example, o f t e n i n t e r p r e t e d the p r o p h e t i c l i t e r a t u r e using 32 the current events which impinged upon i t s l i f e . The i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f Habakkuk's v l s i o n , ' . . . y e t time...'
(2:3),

f o r an appointed

demonstrated how completely the Qumran com-

munity read i t s l i f e and f a i t h i n t o the p r o p h e t i c w r i t t n g s .

The e a r l y chapters o f Genesis a l s o a t t r a c t e d a t t e n t i o n

a s t h e a p o c a l y p t i s t s searched o u t the source o f e v i l i n t h e i r

i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s of ' h i n t s ' of heavenly r e b e l l i o n and f a l l e n angels. This avenue opened on t o a wide f i e l d o f s p e c u l a t i o n

and the a p o c a l y p t i s t s f e l t f r e e t o i n d u l g e t h e i r f a n t a s i e s .

Yet they f i r m l y b e l i e v e d t h a t God would judge e v i l and i t s devotees a n d would remove i t s c u r s e from I s r a e l . Scholarship has done much t o r e v e r s e t h e - n a t i o n t h a t
t h e a p o c a l y p t l c 11t e r a t u r e was one o f d e s p a i r a n d pessimism,

I t has been r i g h t l y r e c o g n i z e d t h a t the a p o c a l y p t i s t s o f t e n wrote for the oppressed, who had no hope t n p o l i t i c a l terms

or i n human p o t e n t i a l .

They had no f a i t h i n human p r o g r e s s 33 o r i n an orderly evolution t o a better state. I t may be

t h a t they began w i t h an ' e m p i r i c a l o b s e r v a t i o n ' of G o d ' s

absence from t h e community s l n c e the e x i l e .
34

Perhaps the

repeated f r u s t r a t l o n s o f the people's hopes were s l g n l f i c a n t 35 In the birth o f the a p o c a l y p t i c movement, b u t the apocalypt h t s s t i l l a s s e r t e d t h e i r c o n f i d e n c e in the a c t s of God f o r

32. 33, 34. 35.

F.M. Cross, Canaanite Myth a n d Hebrew Epic, p p . 3 3 7 f . D o S . R u s s e l l , op. c t 9 p . 1 7 . R . 3 . Bauckham, art. c i t . , p . 2 0 . 3 . B r i g h t , A H i x r y o f I s r a e l , p.459.

f .

15

their deliverance.

W.

Schmithals, whose definition o f 'apo-

calyptic thinking' was far different from my own, saw i n the apocalyptic literature a n attempt

'.. ,to36 deal

positively'

with a pessimistic appraisal of reality. Accompanying this negative judgment upon the historical continuum's ability to achieve or to convey G o d ' s salvation was the consistent note o f confidence i n G o d to bring His salvation i n His own time. More relevant than t h i s was the

apocalyptists' confidence i n those institutions which God h a d ordained i n history:

t h e utilization o f the Messianic figure

was 'the embodiment of the reality' o f a Davidic ruler;

p o l i tical /re1 i gious o f f ice or i n d i v i d u a l .
38

37 the

priestly figure of Test, Levi 12 was a n idealization o f a

W.

Schmi thals
39

stated that the apocalyptists demanded

...a

constant a n d as the

supremely historical commitment' to the community

successor to the remnant and election concepts o f the past.

L. Morris mentioned the apocalyptists' ambiguity on the

subject of rebellion.

He reasoned that, if the apocalyptists

had truly despaired o f human effort, they would have consis-

tently refrained from joining the uprisings which occurred

in the course o f their history.

Morris rightly observed,

36. W . Schmithals, The Apocalyptic Movement, p.43. M y m a i n objection to his DositSon was his emDhasis on t h e S O C ~ O logical dimension at the expense o f the hjstorical. 37. P . R . Ackroyd, Exile and Restorations p.253. 38. R.H. Charles, Testaments o f the Twelve Patriarchs, pp.65ff. 3% W . Schmithals, op. cit., p.39.

16

however, t h a t they o f t e n i n s p i r e d the r a i s i n g o f the banners of revolt,

40

an i n d i c a t i o n t h a t human a c t i v i t y c o u l d be en41

j o i n e d with c o n f i d e n c e .

The a p o c a l y p t i s t s ' n a t i o n a l i s t i c

z e a l a n d k i n d l i n g of M e s s i a n i c hopes c o u l d be i n t e r p r e t e d a s 42 i n t e n t i o n a l m o t i v a t i o n of the p o p u l a c e t o t a k e up arms,

a n d i t was s i g n i f i c a n t t h a t the h i s t o r i c a l f a i l u r e s o f t h e

Jewish r e b e l l i o n s a g a i n s t Rome (66-72 a n d 132-135 A . D . )

com-

p r i s e d a prime f a c t o r i n t h e d i s c r e d i t i n g o f the a p o c a l y p 43 t i s t s i n Judaism. K O Koch surveyed t h e i n v e s t i g a t i o n s of a p o c a l y p t i c i n o r d e r t o determine a consensus f o r 1 ) the i n t e l l e c t u a l capac i t y o f the a u t h o r s , 2 ) t h e u l t i m a t e o r i g i n of a p o c a l y p t i c 44 a n d 3 ) the p a r t i e s r e s p o n s i b l e f o r the l i t e r a t u r e . tie noted

that 1 ) some s c h o l a r s had d i s c e r n e d the l i t e r a t u r e a r i s i n g

from the uneducated common p e o p l e , w h i l e o t h e r s had a s s e r t e d

t h a t o n l y the w i s e were c a p a b l e o f producing such writings;
2 ) v a r i o u s s c h o l a r s had o b s e r v e d i n f l u e n c e on t h e development

of a p o c a l y p t i c coming from B a b y l o n i a , P e r s i a , H e l l e n i s m and 45 3 ) s c h o l a r s had a l s o p o i n t e d t o p a r t i e s such a s Palestine; the H a s i d i m , the E s s e n e s , the P h a r i s e e s , the Sadducees and

4 0 . L, Morri s , A o c a l t i c , p.40. 41. T h i s j u d gment -e-y%m u s t e q u a l i f i e d by t h e ol b s e r v a t i o n that a segment o f the a p o c a l y p t i c community was p a c i f i s t i c . 42. T o Hensh aw, The Writin s , p.60. 4 3 . L. blorri s9 l o c o c t o 44. K . Koch, The R e d i s c o v e r y o f A p o c a l y p t i c , p p 0 Z l f . 4 5 . 3 . Bloch On t h e A D o c a l v D t i c i n Judaism. p . 3 5 .

__r_e -

17 the Z e a l o t s a s t h e prime c a r r i e r s o f the a p o c a l y p t i c t r a d i 46 tions. His c o n c l u s i o n supported the r e s u l t s o f s c h o l a r s

w h o h a d a s s e r t e d the p r e s e n c e o f an a p o c a l y p t i c movement
47 within many groups w i t h i n J u d a i s m .

P O D . Hanson c o n t r a s t e d the m i n i s t r y of the p r o p h e t a n d

the work o f t h e a p o c a l y p t i s t on the b a s i s o f t h e commissior:ing a c t : the p r o p h e t , s t a n d i n g i n t h e c o u n c i l o f Yahweh,

was i n s t r u c t e d t o p r o c l a i m h i s message immediately ( c f . J e r .

1:17: ' a r i s e and speak t o them'),

while the a p o c a l y p t i s t re-

c e i v e d a message which was t o be s e a l e d for t h e f u t u r e ( c f . 48 Dan. 1 2 4 ) . The a p o c a l y p t i s t , however, d i d c a l l t h e p e o p l e 49 t o the same r e s p o n s e o f f a i t h sought by t h e p r o p h e t . The a p o c a l y p t i s t d e r i v e d h i s i d e n t i t y from the time i n w h i c h he 50 lived. Unl i ke the p r e - e x i 1 i c prophets , the f i r s t a p o c a l y p t i s t s
d i d n o t d i s c e r n e t h i c a l i n s t r u c t i o n a s an a r e a o f prime im-

portatice,

51

W . Schmithals s t a t e d that t h e a p o c a l y p t i s t s

e i t h e r a l l o w e d d i f f e r e n t views o f Torah o r l e f t t h e m a t t e r

of observance o f Torah t o t h e i n d i v i d u a l c o n s c i e n c e .

He was

4 6 . C f . i b i d . , pp.133-137. 47. D . S . n s e l 1 , c i t . , p.27. 48. P O D . Hanson, op. c K , p.19. 4 9 . DoS. R u s s e l l , 2 . 7 t 9 p.16; R . 3 . Bauckham~ a r t . -* c f t 9 p.22. 5 0 . W . S c h m i t h a l s , op. c i t 9 p.35; D o S . R u s s e l l , op. -* c i t 9 p.18. 51. W. Schmithals, o c i t . , p.46; c f . D o S . Russell, $E* eft . 0 9 pp.100-103, and . O . E . O e s t e r l e y , The Jews a n d udalsm d u r i n g t h e Greek P e r i o d , p . 7 2 .

s.

. 3

-. -.

18
c o r r e c t in h i s o b s e r v a t i o n t h a t the a p o c a l y p t i s t s d i d not 52 but u s u a l l y include e t h i c a l d i s c o u r s e s in t h e i r w r i t i n g s , he d i d n o t f u l l y e x p l o r e the motivation f o r t h i s omission. The e a r l y a p o c a l y p t i c l i t e r a t u r e used the book o f Torah

a s a r a l l y i n g point.

Those who r e v e r e d Torah banded toThe a c t i v i t y o f keeping

gether t o p r o t e c t i t s e x i s t e n c e .

Torah in d a i l y l i f e was superceded d u r i n g times o f persecut i o n by t h e i r s t r u g g l e t o r e t a i n Torah a s t h e i r r u l e o f l i f e .

The standard became a l l e g i a n c e t o the group (whfch championed T o r a h ) ; e x c l u s i v e l o y a l t y t o Torah, i n t h a t s i t u a t i o n , was irrelevant.
.

Those engaged i n theodicy and r e f l e c t i n g upon the presence o f e v i l i n the w o r l d a b s t a i n e d from e t h i c a l d i s c o u r s e

f o r s i m i l a r a n d other reasons,

T h e i n t e r e s t I n e v i l ( a s seen

in I Enoch 6-19

53

) l e d t o a minimization of e t h i c a l concern;

the w r i t e r w a s i n v o l v e d in the e x p l o r a t i o n o f h i s s u b j e c t . Buttressing the mind-set t h a t d i d n o t confront e t h i c a l problems was the t r a d i t i o n a l view in which the Jews saw thems e l v e s a s the e l e c t people o f God and others as those w h o spurned God, H i s Torah a n d h i s people.
drew l o y a l t y away from Torah.

This k i n d o f thinking

The e t h i c a l concern o f the

a p o c a l y p t i s t s s i m p l y d i d not f i n d I t s way i n t o the w r i t i n g s ;

i t was, within the s i t u a t i o n s t h a t the a p o c a l y p t i s t s o f t e n

The e t h t c a l p o r t i o n s o f the e a r l y w r i t i n g s were limited t o I Enoch 91-104 and the Testaments o f the Twelve Patriarcijs. 5 3 . R.3. B a u c k h a m , a r t . c i t . , pp.16f.
52.

19

f a c e d , a b a s i c a l l y secondary c o n s i d e r a t i o n , The a p o c a l y p t i c l i t e r a t u r e a t i t s b e s t spoke t o t h e con54 temporary need o f i t s a u d i e n c e , The a p o c a l y p t i s t s , a d d tt e d l y not prophets nor t r y i n g t o a c t l i k e them, n e v e r t h e l e s s 55 gave a message of Comfort from God a s b e s t they c o u l d , Perhaps they viewed the p r o p h e t i c v o i c e a s s i l e n t
74:9,
( C f D

Ps,

they broke I t s s i l e n c e a f t e r t h e i r 56 T h e i r exown f a s h i o n by renewing God's p a s t promises.

I Macc, 4:46,9:27);

p r e s s i o n o f t h i s f a i t h was o f t e n f a n c i f u l and f a r - f e t c h e d ,
b u t i t breathed with the c o n v i c t i o n t h a t e v e r y t h i n g God pro-

mised would come t o p a s s ,

57

The a p o c a l y p t i c w r i t i n g s were intended t o s t i m u l a t e hope

and t o s u s t a i n courage i n t h e l o y a l adherents o f t r a d i t i o n a l 58

Judaism w i t h i n the Jewish community.

-

They a l s o h e l d o u t

c o n s o l a t i o n f o r t h e weak i n the a s s u r a n c e t h a t God would v i s i t His p e o p l e w i t h t h e s a l v a t i o n they d e s i r e d :

59

What God had f o r e t o l d would come t o p a s s , i f not i n t h e p r e s e n t a g e , then i n a new age about t o dawn, The a n c i e n t p r o p h e c i e s were t o be read i n terms o f ' t h e E n d ' and were t o be i n t e r p r e t e d and r e i n t e r p r e t e d s o as t o f i t i n t o t h e g r e a t f i n a l drama i n which t h e triumph o f God

5 4 , R-3, Bauckham, a r t , -c ,9 i t pDz2D 5 5 , T h e a p o c a 1 y p t i s W messages were i n t e r p r e t i v e r a t h e r than d e c l a r a t i v e , 5 6 , R . J . Bauckham, art, C i t D , p . 2 0 ; o t h e r s c h o l a r s a s s e r t e d the c o n t i n u a l a c t i m y o f p r o p h e t i c f i g u r e : c f D R D TDNT, V O L vi, Meyer i n H , K r h e r e t a l , I i ( ~ + { r n s e t a l ' , PP.8238Z5. 5 7 , D e s , Russell, C i t e , p~l8. 5 8 , H , H , Rowley, T R x v a n c e o f A p o c a l y p t i c , p.23. 59D D e s . R u s s e l l , O D J -,' titp.183~

20

and o f God's p e o p l e would be made known o v e r a l l t h e n a t i o n s round a b o u t . P r o p h e t i c promises became a p o c a l y p t i c a s s u r a n c e s . In answer t o t h e p r o p h e t s ' c r y , 'HOW l o n g , 0 L o r d , how 1 ong? ' t h e a p o c a l y p t i s t s gave t h e y e a r , the day, and the hour! The e n t h u s i a s t i c r e c e p t i o n of t h e a p o c a l y p t i c w r i t i n g s within the c a u l d r o n o f o p p r e s s i o n was e v i d e n c e enough o f t h e v i t a l i t y a n d t i m e l i n e s s o f t h e i r message. I t would be t e r r i b l y unfair t o compare the h i s t o r i c a l s t t u a t i o n of t h e a p o c a l y p t i s t s with t h a t o f the p r e - e x i l i c
prophets o r t h e m i s s i o n a r y movement o f e a r l y C h r l s t i a n i ty
a n d t o conclude d i s p a r a g i n g l y :
63

' t h e dominant i d e a i s t h a t

God w i l l s a v e g o o d men from t r o u b l e , n o t t h a t he w i l l s a v e

bad men from s i n ' .

L i k e w i s e , one ought n o t c a r i c a t u r e the

apocalyptic w r i t i n g s a s the-end-product o f disappointed

hopes or a s t h e r e l e a s e - v a l v e f o r r e p r e s s e d emotions.

There

was i n t h i s l i t e r a t u r e t h e concept o f a d i v i n e purpose f o r 61

e x i s t e n c e and h i s t o r y . s e l v e s t o t h e p a s t o r a l t a s k s o f c o n s o l a t i o n and encourage-

The a p o c a l y p t i s t s a d d r e s s e s them-

ment within a community f a c e d with p e r s e c u t i o n o r the e a s y

o p t i o n of conforming t o the H e l l e n i s t i c way o f l l f e .

62
The

promise o f f u t u r e s a l v a t i o n cannot be a t t r i b u t e d s o l e l y t o
t h e p r o j e c t i o n o f d e s i r e s a r i s i n g from resentment, b u t as a

consequence o f t h e a u t h o r s ' b e l l e f i n a God of d e l i v e r a n c e .

60.
P.125. 61.

C O R o S m i t h , The B i b l i c a l D o c t r i n e o f E l e c t i o n ,
C f . T . Henshaw, O J . -* c i t ' pp.6Of. L . Morris, -* c i t , p.58.

62.

x.

21
IV.

Prophecy and A p o c a l y p t i c

I have demonstrated that, i n a d i s c u s s i o n employing t h e

term ' a p o c a l y p t i c ' , c a r e must be taken t o d i f f e r e n t i a t e between the a p o c a l y p t i c wrf t e r s , a p o c a l y p t i c themes ( i .e.
the

s u b j e c t matter o f t h e w r i t i n g s ) a n d the a p o c a l y p t i c w o r l d view. These a r e a s were a l l (each j u s t i f f a b l y ) c o v e r e d by I f we f a i l t o be d i s c e r n i n g i n t h i s

the same a d j e c t i v e .

m a t t e r , our i n v e s t i g a t i v e methods w i l l be f r u s t r a t e d .

H.H.

Rowley coined t h e p h r a s e , ' . . . a p o c a l y p t i c

63

i s the

c h i l d o f prophecy, y e t d i v e r s e from i t ' .

His under-

standing o f t h e connection between the two was r e v e a l e d by h i s judgment t h a t they s h a r e a p r e d i c t i v e element, a n e t h i c a l concern, a s e n s e of importance of t h e Immediate h t ' s t o r i c a l s i t u a t i o n , a n d the possession o f the ' d i v i n e u r g e '
t o communicate a message a b o u t God.
64

Rowley d i d n o t seek however we

p r e c i s i o n i n h i s use o f the term ' a p o c a l y p t i c ' ,

c a n s e e how h i s statements r e f l e c t h i s understanding of t h e s e

ca tegori es.

Glhile t h e consensus o f s c h o l a r s h o l d s t h a t t h e f l o w e r
o f a p o c a l y p t i c grew f r o m t h e stem o f O l d Testament prophecy,

G. von R a d L s t h e s i s t h a t i t was d e r i v e d e x c l u s i v e l y from the

Wisdom movement i n I s r a e l has o c c a s i o n e d much r e i n v e s t i g a t i o n
and reassessment o f i t s development and d e f i n i t i o n .

Other

63. 64.

H e H e Rowley, x. -. cit -. Ibid ppe15f.

9

' p.15.

22
s c h o l a r s have hegun t o search o t h e r segments o f Judaism f o r

p o s s i b l e c o n t r i b u t i o n s t o a p o c a l y p t i c . 'R.G.

Hamerton-Kel l y ,

f o r example, has proposed that the Temple and i t s p r i e s t h o o d

played a r o l e i n motivating Ezekiel t o adopt a ' v i s f o n a r y ' p o s i t i o n , from which the a p o c a l y p t i c world-view emerged
w i t h t n J u d a i s m , and i n the development o f the a p o c a l y p t i c 65 nature o f the Qumran community.

S c h o l a r s h i p continues t o debate the notion t h a t f o r e i g n i n f l u e n c e e x e r t e d determinative p r e s s u r e in the developmental process. W.O.E. O e s t e r l e y i n d i c a t e d t h a t we ought t o be

wary o f any supposed f o r e i g n i n f l u e n c e which was not Baby-

lonian ( e x i l i c ) o r H e l l e n i s t i c ( c o v e r i n g the e r a 350-50 B . C . ) in o r i g i n .

66

S i m i l a r i t i e s found between the Jewish apocalyp-

t i c l i t e r a t u r e a n d o t h e r Near Eastern w r i t i n g s a r e predomi-

nantly s u p e r f i c i a l .

The a p o c a l y p t i c world-view could not be

s u c c e s s f u l l y i n t e g r a t e d i n t o a m e n t a l i t y which conceived of h i s t o r y i n a c y c l i c a l / m y t h i c form; o n l y P e r s i a n Z o r o a s t r i a n Ism shared t h l s f e a t u r e o f a l i n e a r conception o f time.

67

The v i t a l i t y o f the Jewish i n t e l l e c t u a l community during the

Greek p e r i o d makes i t unwise t o r e s o r t t o e x t e r n a l sources

a s primary f a c t o r s .
The a p o c a l y p t i c world-view was such t h a t i t could have

65. R . G . Hamerton-Kelly, 'The Temple and the O r i g i n of J e w i s h A p o c a l y p t i c ' v - VT x x (1970), pp.1-15. 660 W , O . E , O e s t e r l e y , O J . c f t . , pp.75-77. 67. W . Schmithals, O J . c i t 9 p.77.

-.

23
been adopted e a r l y by Jewish groups which h a d n o t i n h e r i t e d

it,

The l a t e p r o p h e t i c movement gave s e v e r a l f e a t u r e s t o the The p e r i o d o f the emergence o f the

common Jewish m i l i e u .

apocalyptic 1 i t e r a t u r e was marked by e x t e n s i v e c r o s s - f e r t i 68 l i z i n g o f i d e a s a n d l i t e r a r y forms. This amalgamation o f t r a d i t i o n s occurred when many Jewish p a r t i e s were u n i t i n g in opposition t o the H e l l e n i s t i c p o l i c i e s p r i o r t o the r e b e l l i o n in 167 B.C.
69

The H a s f d i c movement employed the a p o c a l y p t i c l i t e r a t u r e

a s p r o p a g a n d a , a response t o p e r s e c u t i o n , w i t h i n the i n t e r change o f l i t e r a r y forms a n d themes. I t i s , t h e r e f o r e , ap-

p r o p r i a t e t o r a i s e a caution f l a g r e g a r d l n g the ' e x c l u s i v e '

d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e a p o c a l y p t i c l i t e r a t u r e or world-view a f t e r

tMs point.

We cannot escape the o b s e r v a t i o n t h a t the

Enoch material stemmed from a d i f f e r e n t t r a d i t i o n t h a n t h a t

o f the b o o k o f ilanie'i.

The Enoch B o o k o f Dreams (ch. 8 3 - 9 0 )

and Daniel presented opposing views on the v a l i d i t y o f armed

resistance

70

However, the dependence o f I Enoch 85-90 upon

Dan. 10-12 i n d i c a t e d the t r a d i t i o n s f o u n d a common ground. The Enoch w r i t i n g s were vlewed a s having connections
w i t h a r a t h e r v a g u e movement w h i c h o u g h t to b e understood a s

68. O . H . Steck, ' T h e o l o g i c a l Streams o f T r a d i t i o n ' , Tradition and Theology i n t h e O l d Testament, ed. D . A . Knight, P.211, 69. 3.3. C o l l i n s , The A p o c a l y p t f c V i s i o n s o f the Book of Daniel , p p . 2 0 1 - 2 0 5 . 7 0 . I b i d . , pp.204,209.

24

a Wisdom group.

71

We d a r e not speak of a n e x c l u s i v e l i n e o f

development from prophecy t o a p o c a l y p t i c , b u t r a t h e r o f l i n e s of i n f l u e n c e , and t h o s e b e i n g i n t e r t w i n e d within t h e being of the Jewish community from e a r l y times.
T.W. Manson noted t h a t t h e t r a d i t i o n a l e r a f o r the

c e s s a t i o n of prophecy was a l s o a s s o c i a t e d with the d e v e l o p ment o f r a b b i n i s m and a p o c a l y p t i c .

72

As r a b b i n i s m was an

a c t i v i t y of s c r i b a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f Torah which l e d t o t h e Mishnah, s o a p o c a l y p t i c was viewed by h i m a s an attempt t o r a t i o n a l i z e and s y s t e m a t i z e t h e p r e d i c t i v e s i d e of prophecy.

D.L.

Petersen s t a t e d t h a t the task o f t h e prophetic t r a d i -

t f o n i s t s ( t h e s u c c e s s o r s of the c a n o n i c a l p r o p h e t s ) was n o t
t o be prophets b u t t o r e f l e c t upon t h e p r o p h e t i c w r i t i n g s 73 a n d t o i n t e r p r e t them f o r t h e i r own day. S . Mowinckel

a l s o a s s e r t e d t h a t t h e l a t e r s t a g e s of prophecy were i n s p i r e d r e v i s i o n , amp1 i f i c a t i o n a n d i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of e a r l i e r 74 prophecy. T h i s was n o t meant t o p r o v e t h e i n t i m a t e connect i o n between prophecy a n d a p o c a l y p t i c t o t h e e x t e n t t h a t they were i n d i s t i n g u i s h a b l e ; t h e s e s c h o l a r s were r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of the o p i n i o n t h a t , a s prophecy was abandoned and a p o c a l y p t i c emerged, t h e r e was a c o r r e s p o n d i n g s h i f t away from t h e

71. M. H e n g e l , J u d a i s m and H e W a h m, V o l . 1 , pp.135f.; R . 3 . Bauckham, art. c i t . , pp.15-17. 7 2 . ToW. Manson, 'Some R e f l e c t i o n s on A p o c a l y p t i c ' 9 - A U X Sources de l a T r a d i t l o n C h r e t i e n n e , p.140. 73. D . L . P e t e r s e n , L a t e I s r a e l i t e P r o p h e c ~ , p.45. 7 4 . S . Mowinckel, He T h a t Corneth, p.266.

25

c l a s s i c a l prophetic m i n i s t r y toward the i n t e r p r e t i v e r o l e a s s o c i a t e d with the s c r i b e . Prophecy i t s e l f was d i f f i c u l t t o d e f i n e .

76

75

I t has been

d e s c r i b e d as ' t h e f u n c t i o n of a concentrated succession o f men'

meaning the c l a s s i c a l prophets ending with Ezekiel

I

or Deutero-Isaiah, o r as the t a s k o f those who

a mouthpiece f o r God'.
77

..,acted as

Most d e f i n i t i o n s s t e e r e d c l e a r o f

anything more t h a n a vague d e s c r i p t i o n o f the nature o f the prophetic message. ledged freedom,

78

For the p r o p h e t s , with w i d e l y acknowplumbed the depths o f i n d i v i d u a l and corThat they c r e a t e d much

porate e x i s t e n c e a n d r e s p o n s i b i l i t y .

turmoil i n I s r a e l a n d y e t pointed the way i n t o the f u t u r e during the e ' x i l e emphasized the d i v e r g e n c i e s w i t h i n the n a t u r e
o f the prophetic movement.
Many d i f f e r e n t images o f prophets and prophetic a c t i v i t y

were d i s c e r n i b l e p r i o r t o the e x i l e .

The deuteronomistic

stereotype o f the preacher o f repentance ( I 1 Kings 17:13), the prophet o f 'doom' ( J e r . 25:8-9)
and the o f f i c i a l 79

'salva-

t i o n ' prophet ( J e r . 2 8 9 - 4 ) were r e c o g n i z a b l e .

Naturally,

a strong c a s e cannot be made f o r a s t r i c t d i v i s i o n of the

7 5 . Cf. R . Rendtorff i n H . Krimer e t a t , art. tit., PP.796-812. 7 6 . 6.D. N a p l e r , 'Prophet, Prophetism' s - IDB, v o l . 3 , p.896. 7 7 . A.A. MacRae, 'Prophets and Prophecy' 8 - Z E B , v o l . 4 , p.875. XI, pp.70-79. 78. G o uon Rad, O l d Testament Theolo PP.39-48, 7 9 . C f . J.L. C r e n s h a w . i C t , regarding the c a t e g o r i z a t i o n o f t h e f i g u r e s o t I Kings 13.

26
p r o p h e t i c movement a l o n g these o r any o t h e r l i n e s , b u t the 80 b i b l i c a l w r f t e r s were aware of p r o p h e t i c c o n f l i c t , idealized the ' t r u e ' prophet a n d t r i e d t o expose the f a l s e (Deut.

81
18:15-22)

and accepted the prophet a s an independent

f i g u r e o r a s a member o f the c u l t i c personnel.

O.H.

Steck recognized t h a t the sense o f unity o f the

p r o p h e t i c movement o r i g i n a l l y d e r i v e d from the nature o f the prophets' d e l i v e r y and the r e c e p t i o n by the conimunity o f the p r o p h e t s ' messages more t h a n from the nature o f the messages themselves.

82

A message spoken in connection with the stana n 7

d a r d p r o p h e t i c formulae

lt3~at)

or

ma7 D N ~ was,

ipso

f a c t o , a p r o p h e t i c message.

The q u e s t i o n o f the statement's

v e r a c i t y was d e a l t with under the r u b r i c o f f a l s e / t r u e pro83 phecy. I t seems that w h i l e the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f prop h e t i c a c t i v i t y were g e n e r a l l y accepted a n d r e c o g n i z e d , the problems i n h e r e n t i n d i s c e r n i n g the f a l s e from the t r u e were n o t addressed u n t i l the nation was threatened by d i s a s t e r . The y e a r s a f t e r the e x i l e saw the p r o p h e t i c o f f i c e fragmented i n t o s e v e r a l more-or-less d i s t i n c t groups a n d the

' s p i r i t o f prophecy' moving from the spoken word t o l i t e r a r y a c t i v i t y a s s o c i a t e d with the r e c e i v e d c o l l e c t i o n s o f the prop h e t s ' messages. C e r t a i n groups, by v i r t u e o f t h e i r r e l a t i o n -

Ibid pp.49-61. In the e a r l y p o s t - e x i l i c p e r i o d t h i s process degen e r a t e d i n t o open c o n f r o n t a t i o n which demeaned a l l prophecy. 82. O . H . S t e c k , a r t . c i t . , p p . 2 0 l f . 83. 3 . L . Crenshaw, op. c i t 9 pp.1-22.

80. 81.

- -.

27

s h i p with the prophets of the p a s t , became c r i t i c a l o f segments o f the community l e a d e r s h i p . Evidence o f the p r o p h e t i c

movement decreased a s i t entered the p o s t - e x i l i c p e r i o d ; the l i t e r a t u r e remaining pofnted in d i f f e r e n t d i r e c t i o n s , which were open t o new growth and development. Steck p o s t u l a t e d a 'prophetic-eschatological' 84 t h e o l o g i c a l stream o f t r a d i t i o n w h i c h ran from the time
O.H.

prior t o the appearance o f the e i g h t h century B.C. prophets 85 i n t o the C h r i s t i a n e r a . This theory assumed the c o n t i n u i t y
between prophecy a n d a p o c a l y p t i c and n e g l e c t e d the problems i n h e r e n t i n a study o f t h i s t r a n s i t i o n .

On a d i f f e r e n t tack,
He

R.3. Gauckham suggested a r e a l break between the two.

s t a t e d that prophecy came t o an end, t h a t the p r o p h e t i c w r i t i n g s were i n h e r i t e d by s c r i b e s w h o h a d l i t t l e background

in them and that c o n t i n u i t y was maintained with the p r o p h e t i c

movement only on an i n d i v i d u a l b a s i s a n d o n l y by those who c o n s c i o u s l y i n t e r p r e t e d the p r o p h e t i c w r i t i n g s .
86

P O Viel-

hauer approached the problem from a w h o l l y d i f f e r e n t a n g l e

by asking two q u e s t i o n s :

"Was i t the i n t e n t i o n o f the apoca-

l y p t i c w r i t e r s t o continue prophecy?" a n d " D i d they a c t u a l l y continue prophecy?" V i e l hauer answered these q u e s t i o n s with tie s t a t e d t h a t dualism, d e t e r -

"yes" and " n o w s r e s p e c t i v e l y .

860

84. 85.

Cf. O.H. Steck, art. c i t . , pp.194-198. I b f d . pp.201-21TT R . 3 , Bauckham, art. c i t pp.17f.

28
minism and pessimism c o n s t i t u t e d the g u l f which s e p a r a t e d a p o c a l y p t i c from prophecy.
87

There a r e t h r e e d i f f e r e n t models o f c o n t i n u i t y d i s c e r n e d
by s c h o l a r s i n r e s e a r c h i n g prophecy and a p o c a l y p t i c .

The He

f i r s t was O . H .

S t e c k ' s understanding o f the t r a n s i t i o n .

would s u g g e s t t h a t within a c i r c l e ( o r group o f c i r c l e s ) , the composers o f the i n t e r p r e t l v e material based on the p r o p h e t i c w r i t i n g s and the e a r l i e s t a p o c a l y p t i c t h i n k e r s co-mingled, each i n h i s turn g i v i n g way b e f o r e new develop-

ments w i t h i n the t r a d i t i o n and the e x t e r n a l i n f l u e n c e s which a f f e c t e d i t , until the o c c a s i o n a r o s e for the a p o c a l y p t i c

1 i t e r a t u r e t o be wri t t e n .
S t e c k ' s view would be p a r a l l e l e d , t o a n e x t e n t , by t h a t o f P O D . Hanson, who a s s e r t e d t h a t the d i s c i p l e s o f DeuteroI s a i a h ( T r i t o - I s a i a n i c a u t h o r s ) c o n s t i t u t e d the f i r s t apoca88 l y p t i c group. He thereby concluded that the a p o c a l y p t i c e s c h a t o l o g y was f i r m l y embedded i n the p r o p h e t i c movement o f 89 t h i s period. He made a d i s t i n c t i o n between t h i s ' v i s i o n a r y ' p r o p h e t i c movement and a t h e o c r a t i c p r o p h e t i c movement ( E z e k i e l , Haggai and Z e c h a r i a h ) ,

90

b u t he s t a t e d t h a t the

t h e o c r a t i c p r o p h e t i c movement disappeared i n t o the ranks o f

McL. Wilson ( t h e o r i g i n a l German e d i t o r was E . Hennecke),

P O V i e l h a u e r , ' I n t r o d u c t i o n : Apocalypses and Rel a t e d S u b j e c t s ' , New Testament Apocrypha, v o l i - 2 , ed. R.

87.

29

the l e v i t i c a l Temple personnel

91

thereby g r a n t i n g the

v i s i o n a r i e s s t a t u s as the enduring p r o p h e t i c movement, which l a t e r produced the a p o c a l y p t i c l i t e r a t u r e , The second model was represented by R . 3 . spoke o f l i t e r a r y c o n t l n u i t y . Bauckham, who

He l i m i t e d t h i s c o n t i n u i t y be-

tween prophecy a n d a p o c a l y p t i c t o those cases i n which t h e p r o p h e t i c w r i t i n g s were a c t u a l l y i n t e r p r e t e d , claiming d i s c o n t i n u i t y i n the areas o f world-view and the i d e n t i f i c a t i o n

of those groups which handled the p r o p h e t i c l i t e r a t u r e and

I

those which produced the a p o c a l y p t i c l i t e r a t u r e .

I n Bauck-

ham's m i n d , the prophetic l i t e r a t u r e l i n k e d the p r o p h e t i c

movement only t o t h a t p o r t i o n o f the a p o c a l y p t i c l i t e r a t u r e which e x h i b i t e d prophetic i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . This p o s i t i o n l e d

h i m t o look elsewhere f o r a source f o r the o t h e r segments o f the a p o c a l y p t i c l i t e r a t u r e , I t was a t t h i s p o i n t t h a t Bauckham brought i n the subj e c t o f mantic wisdom and h i s m o d i f i c a t i o n s o f G o von Rad's arguments o f the a p o c a l y p t i c l i t e r a t u r e ' s d e r i v a t i o n from Wisdom c i r c l e s . Bauckham p o s t u l a t e d a d i r e c t connection t o
92

the Wisdom movement a n d , in c o n t r a s t , only a tenuous one t o

the p r o p h e t i c movement a n d l i t e r a t u r e ,

G o von Rad argued t h a t the a p o c a l y p t i c w r i t e r s belonged

t o the wisdom t r a d i t i o n o f I s r a e l : the heroes o f the apoca-

91 , C f . A.R, John on, The C u l t i c Prophet i n Ancient I s r a e l e P p.56-63. pp.13-16. 9 2 e R.3. Bauckham art. c i t

30

l y p t i c w r i t e r s were ' w i s e ' ; and a p o c a l y p t i c w

the forms and content o f Wisdom

not n a t i v e t o Judaism; Wisdom and apoca-

l y p t i c were both concerned with 'knowledge',

shared a d e t e r 93

m i n i s t i c view o f e x i s t e n c e and pursued theodicy. and von Rad stood i n agreement i n t h i s :

Bauc kham

the use o f the pro-

p h e t i c writings provided c o n t i n u i t y in the t r a n s i t i o n from prophecy t o a p o c a l y p t i c , w h i l e the bulk o f the i n f l u e n c e upon the l a t t e r came from Wisdom c i r c l e s . The third model was d e r i v e d from P O V i e l h a u e r ' s view t h a t the a p o c a l y p t i s t s t r i e d t o c o n s c i o u s l y stand i n the 'prophetic lineage'. He suggested t h a t the a p o c a l y p t i c

w r i t e r s took up the i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f the p r o p h e t i c w r i t i n g s because they wanted to maintain the p r o p h e t i c message and f a i t h t p e r s p e c t i v e and t o present a r e v i s e d form o f the o l d p r o p h e t i c message. This a p o c a l y p t i c p e r s p e c t i v e , V i e l h a u e r

t h o u g h t , was supposed t o have been the same a s t h a t o f the

prophets a n d , t h e r e f o r e , provided the b a s i s o f c o n t i n u i t y noted between prophecy and a p o c a l y p t i c . Vielhauer stressed

the f a c t t h a t the p r o p h e t i c outlook r a t h e r than the p r o p h e t i c l i t e r a t u r e was determinative and based t h i s argument on the a p o c a l y p t i s t s ' i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f and i n t e r e , s t i n o t h e r b o d i e s o f l i t e r a t u r e a n d non-prophetic themes. I t i s common, i n d i s c u s s i o n s r e g a r d i n g the t r a n s i t i o n

9 3 . G o von Rad, o i n Xsrael , Pp.263-283;$.

. Schmithals, c i t . , pp.301-308; 6. op. -. cit

von Rad, Wis9

pp.128f.

31

from prophecy t o a p o c a l y p t i c , t o t r a c e the development o f e s c h a t o l o g y i n the Old Testament p r o p h e t i c w r i t i n g s and the l a t e r a p o c a l y p t i c writings. There was g r e a t disagreement

among s c h o l a r s on the nature o f e s c h a t o l o g y and the e r a o f i t s f i r s t appearance.

H . Gressmann's t h e s i s t h a t t h e r e was

a fixed constellation o f mythicleschatological ideas to 94 whlch Amos r e f e r r e d ( c f . Amos 5:18-20), retained l i t t l e s c h o l a r l y support. Other s c h o l a r s would argue t h a t eschato-

l o g y was d i f f i c u l t t o d e f i n e i n terms o f the p r o p h e t i c works;

t h e prophets d i d not t h i n k i n a b s o l u t e terms ( e . g .

b u t i n images ( e . g .

history),

the m a n i f e s t a t i o n o f God's k i n g l y r u l e ) .

They e n v i s i o n e d God's

triumph b u t i n c r e a s i n g l y f a i l e d t o r e 95

f l e c t upon the connection between t h e i r p r e s e n t and the f u t u r e 'age o f b l e s s i n g ' .

3 . Bright was c o r r e c t when s t a t i n g 'whether o r not one

d e s c r i b e s the hope o f p r e - e x i i i c a matter o f d e f i n i t l o n ' .

96

I s r a e l as an eschatology i s

However, the f a c t o f t h i s admis-

s i o n d i d not grant h i m l i c e n s e t o use the term i m p r e c i s e l y .

3.P.M.

97

van d e r P l o e g , t a k i n g the s i d e o f S . Mowinckel, i n -

9 4 . H. Gressmann, Der Ursprung d e r i s r a e l i t i s c h e n j i d i s c h e n E s c h a t o l o g i e ( r e v . ed. Der M e s s i a s ) . 95. B . M . Anderson, cit -p.538; D.R. Jones, I s a i a h 56-66 and J o e l , p p . 2 4 f 0 , % t x 0 ; s c h a t o l o g y in terms 'eschaton' o f God's purposes f o r the w o r l d . G o von R a d , Old Testament T h e o l o y 11, p.115, commented t h a t the ' a b s o l u t r end of time and h s t o r y ' d i d n o t e x i s t for the prophets. 96. 3 . Bright, 0 - . c i t . , p . 4 5 5 . + t , Covenant and Promise, pp.18f. 97. C f . 3 . BrigI

32 s i s t e d upon a l i t e r a l d e f i n i t i o n and a p p l i c a t i o n o f the

word.

He concluded t h a t ' . . . w e may o n l y speak of eschato99 l o g y i n the making'. Thus he would exclude v i r t u a l l y a l l

p r o p h e t i c m a t e r i a l , whereas some s c h o l a r s would i n c l u d e much

of the prophetic l i t e r a t u r e from the eighth century B . C .

prophecies o f Amos and I s a i a h onwards.

100

B r i g h t ' s admission o f the imprecise a p p l i c a t i o n o f ' e s c h a t o l o g y ' t o the p r o p h e t i c t r a d i t i o n was t e l l i n g . I t was a term borrowed from New Testament s t u d i e s a n d was ack-

w a r d t o employ i n Old Testament r e s e a r c h .

To m y mind,
and a

e s c h a t o l o g y does r e q u i r e a concept o f an 'end-time'

program o f events (however s l i g h t ) which were t o precede the

End.

Passages l i k e I s . 2 2 - 5 and 11:1-10

were i d e a l lmages

which the prophet p r o j e c t e d i n t o the f u t u r e .

In the p l a c e o f the term e s c h a t o l o g y , I p r e f e r S . Mowinc k e l ' s phrase ' f u t u r e hope' f o r , although i t included e s c h a t o l o g y as a l a t e r development o f a p r i m i t i v e f u t u r e o r i e n t a t i o n , i t was n e u t r a l a n d a more comprehensive expression. The p r e - e x i l i c prophets tended t o r e f r a i n from

p r e c l s e formulations a n d the e x i l i c prophets were mainly concerned with the r e s t o r a t i o n o f the community a f t e r i t s captivity. I t was o n l y a f t e r the e a r l y p o s t - e x i l i c y e a r s

98. S . Mowinckel, pp.261ff. v 9 9 . 3.P.M. v a n d e r l o S e gE , o'Eschatology i n the O l d Testament', OTS x v i i (1972), p . 9 7 . 100. C f . T.C. V r i e z e n , 'Prophecy and E s c h a t o l o g y ' , V T S U P 4 ( 1 9 5 3 ) , pp.199-229.

Yf

33

t h a t the f u t u r e hope o f the prophets began t o l o s e the con101 n e c t i o n with concrete h i s t o r i c a l r e a l i t y . B u t even then, that i s only one element o f a t r u e e s c h a t o l o g y .

R.J.

Bauckham made a very concise a n d i n s i g h t f u l s t a t e -

ment when he commented (on P O D . Hanson, The Dawn o f Apoca102 lyptic): The r e a l i s s u e i s whether theology may seek the u l t i m a t e meaning o f human l i f e and the u l t i m a t e achievement o f God's purpose beyond the h i s t o r y o f t h i s w o r l d . . . P r e - e x l l i c prophecy F o r Hanson] i s the Old Testament t h e o l o g i c a l norm p a r t l y because i t d i d not d o this, while apocalyptic i s a serious declfne from the norm because i t d i d . The a p o c a l y p t i c authors made much g r e a t e r use o f a cosmol o g i c a l - g e o g r a p h i c a l model o f the world than the prophets did. T h i s i s owed t o the i n t e l l e c t u a l c l i m a t e , the p e r v a s i v e

H e l l e n i s t i c atmosphere i n which they l i v e d , and t h e i r acceptance o f mythic and c u l t i c concepts from the common m i l i e u o f t h e i r day.
They were a l s o d e a l i n g with u l t i m a t e

i s s u e s r e g a r d i n g the w o r l d , good and e v i l , and the d e s t i n y

o f mankind.

The canvas upon which they worked had t o be o f The prophets, m i n i s t e r i n g t o the im-

a comparable s i z e .

mediate needs o f I s r a e l , seldom a t t a i n e d t h i s scope.

V.

A Survey o f the Early I n v e s t i g a t i o n o f A p o c a l y p t i c

Study of the a p o c a l y p t i c l i t e r a t u r e t r a i l e d behind much
~

101.

102.

S . Mowinckel, 0.p. c i t . , p.150. R . 3 . Bauckham, art. c i t . , p . 1 9 .

34 o f the r e s e a r c h f n o t h e r a r e a s o f Old Testament study f o r

several reasons:

the d i s c i p l i n e began i n the New Testament r e s e a r c h d i d not extend t o the e x t r a -

field, pre-critical

canonical wri t i n g s and compos1 t i o n s were n o t i n t e r p r e t e d within t h e i r h i s t o r i c a l and s o c i o l o g i c a l c o n t e x t s . Later,

i n v e s t i g a t i o n was s t i f l e d by 3 . Wellhausen's a s p e r s i o n s o f a p o c a l y p t i c a s a degeneration o f the p r o p h e t l c f a i t h , s o t h a t in r e c e n t decades i t has been u n j u s t l y n e g l e c t e d by 103 German s c h o l a r s h i p p a r t i c u l a r l y . I t has come i n t o i t s own i n t h e l a s t h a l f - c e n t u r y , although much work remains t o
be done b e f o r e s c h o l a r s can understand the a p o c a l y p t f c

l i t e r a t u r e a g a i n s t the environment which gave i t b i r t h and

in which i t f l o u r i s h e d .

The i n i t i a l work i n the i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f the a p o c a l y p t i c l i t e r a t u r e was produced by F. L k k e i n 1832, He began with

the book of R e v e l a t i o n and extended the d e s i g n a t i o n 'apocalypt i s c h e L i t t e r a t u r ' t o o t h e r works, s e t t i n g a p a r t a c a t e g o r y due s p e c i a l i z e d study. Lucke determined t h a t a p o c a l y p t i c was
I(

e s s e n t i a l l y a view o f h i s t o r y formed by the e f f e c t s o f d i s allusionment o f hope and the tension d e r i v i n g from i n t r a community c o n f l i c t and p e r s e c u t i o n by enemies.
A . Hilgen-

f e l d ' s c o n t r i b u t i o n was the r e c o g n i t i o n t h a t a p o c a l y p t i c was the intermed4 a t e s t e p , h i s t o r i ea1 l y a n d t h e o l o g i c a l l y ,

t h a t bound Judaism t o e a r l y C h r i s t i a n i t y .

104

103. K . Kpch, a. -* c i t 9 was d i r e c t e d a g a i n s t t h i s . 104. F, Lucke, Versuch e i n e r v o l l s t a n d i g e n E i n l e i t u n g i n d i e 0 ffenbaruncl Johannfs und in d i e ses ammte ADoca1YD1 A. ; H f f g e n f e l d , Dle ju"dische A p o k a l y p t i k in i h r e r s e s c h i c h t l i c h e n E n t w i c k l u n g (1857).

35

3 . Wellhausen d i d n o t r e g a r d the a p o c a l y p t i s t s a s

c r e a t i v e t h i n k e r s , b u t as borrowers of e a r l i e r p r o p h e t i c forms.

105

He judged the a p o c a l y p t i c l i t e r a t u r e a f a i l u r e He

a g a i n s t the standard o f the Old Testament prophets.

argued that the s p i r i t u a l predecessors o f Jesus were the c l a s s i c a l prophets o f I s r a e l and not the a p o c a l y p t i c visionarles. When H. Gunkel turned h i s f o r m - c r i t i c a l method t o a study o f the a p o c a l y p t i c l i t e r a t u r e , he began the inquiry i n t o the s o c i o l o g i c a l r o o t s o f a p o c a l y p t i c .
106

He argued

t h a t the e s c h a t o l o g i c a l i d e a s a s s o c i a t e d with the Day o f

Yahweh were d e r i v e d from the Babylonian c r e a t i o n myth, where primeval e x i s t e n c e was p r o j e c t e d i n t o the f u t u r e , chaos r e turned and a new heaven and e a r t h were c r e a t e d .
H. Gressmann

. j o i n e d Gunkel i n concluding t h a t the a p o c a l y p t i s t s drew h e a v i l y on Canaanite myth, t h o u g h Gressmann argued t h a t the e s c h a t o l o g i c a l i d e a s were o f g r e a t a n t i q u i t y and were common
t o the a n c i e n t Semitic world-view.

107

He v i r t u a l l y i d e n t i -

f i e d the e s c h a t o l o g y o f the a p o c a l y p t i c l i t e r a t u r e w i t h these myths r e c a s t i n Jewish thought-forms.

S. Mowinckel main-

t a i n e d that e s c h a t o l o g i c a l formulations d e r i v e d from the Day

of Yahweh's enthronement l i t u r g i e s i n the New Y e a r ' s f e s t i v a l 108 in e a r l y I s r a e l . Hebrew eschatology was, t o h i m , a pro-

105, 3 . Wellhausen, Prolegomena zur Geschichte I s r a e l s (1879). 106. H . Gunkel, Schgpfung und Chaos I n U r z e i t u n d Endtei t (1895). 7 7 . H. Gressmann, ci t o 108. S. Mowtnckel, % G s t u d l e n I 1 (1922).

36

j e c t i o n i n t o the f u t u r e of w h a t had been d r a m a t i c a l l y 109 presented i n the c u l t .

3. Weiss and A. Schweltzer broke with Wellhausen's

e v a l u a t i o n o f the a p o c a l y p t i c l i t e r a t u r e by d e c l a r i n g t h a t Jesus' message o f the Kingdom o f God could be understood o n l y within the context of Jewish a p o c a l y p t i c thought o f 110 t h a t day. They s t r e s s e d t h a t Jesus' message h e r a l d e d the imminent d i s r u p t i o n o f the age by the coming Kingdom, a d i s t i n c t i v e element in many examples o f the a p o c a l y p t i c l i t e r a t u r e and long removed i n time and t h o u g h t from the prophets. I t remained f o r R.H. C h a r l e s t o e d i t and p u b l i s h the a l l - i m p o r t a n t t e x t s o f the a p o c a l y p t i c l i t e r a t u r e , a s w e l l as t o produce commentaries on many o f the i n d i v i d u a l com111 positions. His work remains the foundatlon upon which r e c e n t s c h o l a r s h i p has continued t o b u i l d ,

His l i t e r a r y

c a t e g o r i e s have n o t withstood the t e s t o f time, b u t t h e end u r i n g v a l u e o f s o l i d t e x t u a l w o r k i s nowhere s o e v i d e n t as

here.

He recognized the r o o t o f a p o c a l y p t i c i n O l d Testa-

ment prophecy ( f i n d i n g a p o c a l y p t i c i n the canonical prophets

112

) and r e j e c t e d Wellhausen's omission o f a p o c a l y p t i c

i n the development o f New Testament t h o u g h t .

c i t . , p p 0 4 9 f . , and P O D . Hanson, 'Prolegomena t o the Study o f j e i j T T h A p o c a l y p t i c ' , Magna1 i a D e i , ed. F . M , Cross e t a l , p p . 3 8 9 f f . 110. . J Weiss , Die Predi-gt desu vom Reiche Gottes (1892) and A . Schwe i t z e r , Geschichte d e r Leben-Jesu-korschung ( 1 9 0 6 ) . 111. R .H. Cha rles, T h e Ap ocrypha a n d Pseudepigrapha of O l d Testamen t, v o l . 2 (1933). 112, RTH. Cha r l e s , T h e Doctrine o f a Future L i f e I n I s r a e l Juda ism, an d C h r i s t i a n i t y , p.200.

109.

c f . T o Henshaw, o

37

In essence, the bequest o f e a r l y s c h o l a r s h i p t o the

community o f modern s c h o l a r s i s a body o f l i t e r a t u r e , with many o f the major l i n e s of i n v e s t i g a t i o n a l r e a d y drawn. The

s u r v i v i n g works have l i t t l e i n common, w r i t t e n i n d i f f e r e n t languages a n d c o n t a i n i n g l i t t l e c o n s i s t e n t d o c t r i n e o r outlook. T h e i r u n i t y i s n o t u n l l k e that o f the O l d Testament

i t s e l f , many d i s p a r a t e v o i c e s r a i s e d i n d e v o t i o n t o God, a t t e n t i v e t o His word and expectant o f H i s imminent a c t t o d e l i v e r His p e o p l e . The e a r l i e r s c h o l a r s r e c o g n i z e d t h i s

and have pointed the way toward a f u l l e r understanding of the

a p o c a l y p t t c l i t e r a t u r e a s m a n i f e s t a t i o n s o f the Jews' v i t a l
f a t th.

VI.

The D e f i n i t i o n o f A p o c a l y p t i c Having seen t h a t a p o c a l y p t i c has been used i n r e f e r e n c e

t o a body of l i t e r a t u r e , a group o f i d e a s o r themes and a

way o f looking a t the w o r l d , we may proceed toward a de-

finition:

'what

i s apocalyptic?"

In l o o k i n g f o r a s t a r t i n g

p o i n t t o c o n s t r u c t t h a t d e f i n i t i o n , i t i s important t o r e a l i z e that from the very beginning the term a p o c a l y p t i c has been used t o d e s c r i b e a body o f l i t e r a t u r e , which has been d i s t i n g u i s h e d by a s e t o f t h e o l o g i c a l concepts.
3 . Lindblom, W.

Baumgartner, H O W . R o b h s o n and H.H.

Rowley a l l r e c o g n i z e d t h i s f a c t and, writing within the space o f a few y e a r s , made s i g n i f i c a n t c o n t r i b u t i o n s t o the understanding o f a p o c a l y p t i c as a l i t e r a r y phenomenon.
113

38

Their judgments c o n t i n u e t o c a r r y t h e w e i g h t o f c r i t i c a l

s c h o l a r s h i p i n s p i t e o f t h e many advances i n the f i e l d . The w i s e s t c o u r s e o f a c t f o n , i n p u r s u i n g t h e g o a l o f a d e f i n i t i o n , would be t o b e g i n with t h e judgment o f a r e c o g n i z e d a u t h o r i t y on t h e p r o p h e t i c l i t e r a t u r e and traditions. In h i s monograph on I s . 2 4 - 2 7 , a section of Scripture

l o n g r e c o g n i z e d by many s c h o l a r s as h a v i n g an a f f i n i t y w i t h t h e i d e a s o f t h e l a t e r a p o c a l y p t i c l i t e r a t u r e , 3 . Lindblom 114 l i s t e d certain features as characterlstic: t r a n s c e n d e n t a l ism, mythology, c o s m o l o g i c a l o r i e n t a t i o n , p e s s i m i s t i c treatment o f h i s t o r y , dualism, d i v l s i o n o f h i s t o r y i n t o p e r i o d s , the d o c t r i n e o f two a g e s , p l a y i n g with numbers, pseudo-ecstasy , a r t i f i c i a l c l aims o f i n s p i r a t i o n , pseudonymity, a n d m y s t e r i o u s n e s s . L a t e r Lindblom compared p r o p h e t i c e s c h a t o l o g y and apocalyptic:

115

The d i f f e r e n c e between e s c h a t o l o g y a n d a p o c a l y p t i c does not l i e i n t h e c h a r a c t e r o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l i d e a s employed, b u t i s seen r a t h e r i n the e n t i r e l i t e r a r y character o f the two g e n r e s . ,. I n the a p o c a l y p t i c w r i t i n g s o f l a t e r Judaism, a s u s t a i n e d attempt i s made t o

113, 3 , Lindblom, D i e J e s a j a - A p o k a l y p s e ( J e s . 2 4 - 2 7 ) , ( L U A x x x i v / 3 , 1938); W , Baumgartner, ' E i n V i e r t e l j a h r ThR x i (1939) h u n d e r t Da n i e l f o r s c h u n g ' , p p . 1 3 6 f f . ; HOW. Robi nson , 'The R e l i g i o n o f Apocal y p t i c ' , A Companion t o t h e B i b l e , ed. TOW,Manson p p . 3 0 7 - 3 1 1 ; H . H k o w l e y , The R e l e v a n c e o f A p o c a l y p tic (1944). 114. 3. L l n d b l om a r t , c i t , s P.10 2 , 115. J - L i nd b l orn 9 Prophecy i n Anc i e n t I s r a e l , p . 4 2 2 .

39

g i v e a coherent and systematic form t o e s c h a t o l o g i c a l i d e a s taken over from the prophets and from popular be1 i e f , p r e s e n t i n g them as d i v i n e s e c r e t s and mysterious doctrines.. . g e n e r a l l y intended t o be r e a d by the groups o f the i n i t i a t e d . . . W h a t i s d e t e r m i n a t i v e i s general tendency, p s y c h o l o g i c a l background, a n d l i t e r a r y c h a r a c t e r . S c h o l a r s h i p has passed beyond Lindblom's o u t l i n e of the d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n between prophecy a n d apocalyptic. n o t touch on the multi-dimensional He d i d

nature o f the a p o c a l y p t i c

l i t e r a t u r e nor the d i f f e r e n t t r a d i t i o n s and developments within the a p o c a l y p t i c movement i t s e l f .

In an a r t i c l e which d i d not a t t a i n much i n t e r e s t , M.

Rist p r o t e s t e d a g a i n s t the vagueness of p r e v i o u s -d e f i n i t i o n s 116 He p o s t u l a t e d a b a s i c p a t t e r n o f apocaof apocalyptic.

l y p t i c thought ( d u a l i s t i c a n d e s c h a t o l o g i c a l ) which was

'

o c c a s i o n a l l y supplemented by such secondary f e a t u r e s a s vision-form, etc. pseudonymity, the Messiah, a n g e l s , symbolism, were n e i t h e r normative nor c o n s t i t u t i v e . The

, which

i d e a was sound, b u t Rist d i d n o t c a r r y through with i t . Pseudonymity a n d a n g e l o l o g y a r e such w h o l l y d i f f e r e n t phenomena t h a t they ought never t o be i n c l u d e d under the same d e s i g n a t i o n .
To be s u r e , they a r e important t o an

understanding o f a p o c a l y p t i c and should be included i n I t s d e f i n i t i o n , but not in t h i s manner. N e v e r t h e l e s s , the ob-

s e r v a t i o n t h a t a p o c a l y p t i c i d e a s a r e more s i g n i f i c a n t t h a n l i t e r a r y forms i s e s p e c i a l l y noteworthy.

116.

M. R i s t , 'Apocalypticism'

a -

I D B , v o l . 1 , pp.157-161.

40

G.E.

Ladd, w h o has c o n t r i b u t e d t o t h e u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f

' r e a l i z e d e s c h a t o l o g y ' i n New Testament s t u d i e s , d i s t i n g u i s h e d between a p o c a l y p t i c a s a l i t e r a r y g r o u p a n d a s a system of thought.

117

Because h i s emphasis l a y more upon

t h i s dichotomy than on a rigorous d e f i n i t i o n , Ladd a l s o

f a i l e d t o c o n s i d e r a p o c a l y p t i c a s an h i s t o r i c a l phenomenon o r a d i s t i n c t i v e world-view.

Prior t o both R i s t and Ladd, 0 . P l E g e r o u t l i n e d a number

of p r e l i m i n a r y arguments and then concluded t h a t the

a p o c a l y p t i c w o r l d - v i e w was the i n e v i t a b l e r e s u l t o f t h e l o s s

of t h e k i n g s h i p and the e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f the t h e o c r a c y , the

r u l e o f God through a p r i e s t l y h i e r a r c h y .
P.D.

118

Hanson has c o n t r i b u t e d t o t h e understanding of t h e

119

a p o c a l y p t i c o u t l o o k a s the p r o d u c t o f c e r t a i n s o c i o l o g i c a l
and p s y c h o l o g i c a l f o r c e s within t h e Jewish community.
He s h i e d away f r o w r e l i a n c e upon l i s t s o f l i t e r a r y o r

ideational c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s i n h i s d e f i n i t i o n s , observing that no one book c o n t a i n s a l l the f e a t u r e s o f any l i s t a n d t h a t i n r e t a i n i n g a l i t e r a r y d e f i n i t i o n t h e r e was t h e l i k e l i h o o d o f

d e f i n i n g a p o c a l y p t i c a l l too b r o a d l y and w i t h o u t coming t o I20 g r i p s with the i n d i v i d u a l t e x t s . His definitions f o r

p r o p h e t i c and a p o c a l y p t i c e s c h a t o l o g y r e c o g n i z e t h e h i s t o r i c a l dimensions o f the t a s k , Apocalyptfc eschatology

41
took o v e r from p r o p h e t i c eschatology when the p r o p h e t i c task
o f i n t e g r a t i n g v i s i o n a r y insight-the

gllmpse o f the f u t u r e the s t r u c t u r e s and

r e c e i v e d i n the heavenly council-into

p e r s o n a l i t i e s o f the r e a l world i s a b d i c a t e d .

121

Hanson observed t h a t the forms o f the a p o c a l y p t i c l i t e r a t u r e were f i r s t used in the e a r l i e r l i t e r a t u r e o f Judaism.

122

Hence, he turned t o the h i s t o r i c a l , s o c i o -

l o g i c a l circumstances a s more important t o a proper under123 standing o f apocalyptic. He d i d a d m i t t h a t the l i t e r a r y forms which the a p o c a l y p t i s t s took up were o f t e n h y b r i d i z e d 124 so t h a t some a c q u i r e d a d i s t i n c t i v e c h a r a c t e r . However , the necessary f o r m - c r i t i c a l work has not been c a r r i e d o u t

on the t e x t s t o a l l o w any summarization.

W . Schrnithals went much f u r t h e r t h a n Hanson i n moving 125 away from a l i t e r a r y d e f i n i t i o n o f a p o c a l y p t i c :

The a p o c a l y p t i c understanding of e x i s t e n c e i s proposed as a b a s i c e x p e r i e n c e o f e x i s t e n c e f o r every p o s s i b l e d e r i v a t i o n from the e x i s t i n g s i t u a t i o n . I t i s always more t h a n a r e a c t i o n t o causal s t r u c t u r e s i n e x i s t i n g r e a l i t y . I t cannot d i e because i t was never born, and the f a c t t h a t h i s t o r i c a l development cannot k i l l i t shows that i t was a l s o n o t begotten by h i s t o r y .

A p o c a l y p t i c , f o r Schmithals, i s an outlook on l i f e , an o p t i o n always open i f n o t c o n s i s t e n t l y chosen.

I t i s based upon a

p e s s i m i s t i c m e n t a l i t y j o i n e d t o a faith-system which postulated divine intervention. However, Schmithals has gone t o o

m.
s,
O J .

POD. Ibld.

*pc i t
- e *

pp.llf*

-. cit

p.148.

42

f a r i n j e t t i s o n i n g the developmental a s p e c t of a p o c a l y p t i c as w e l l as i t s p l a c e within the c o n t e x t of the O l d Testament

and Judaism and in not r e c o g n i z i n g the unique r e l a t i o n s h i p

between a p o c a l y p t i c and the Judaeo-Christian concept o f time/history.

70 and 1 3 5 A . D .

A p o c a l y p t i c was t i e d t o h i s t o r y a n d , w i t h i n

Judaism, was s e v e r e l y s t l f l e d a f t e r the disappointments o f

While i t i s easy t o a g r e e with Hanson in h f s e v a l u a t i o n of the h i s t o r i c a l context a s important i n the development of a p o c a l y p t i c , he has e r r e d i n denying a l i t e r a r y d e f i n i t i o n t o a p o c a l y p t i c i n o r d e r t o speak o f i t s emergence w i t h i n the prophetic l i t e r a t u r e of the e a r l y post-exilic period. He

would, o f course, affirm t h a t a p o c a l y p t i c can r e f e r t o a l i t e r a r y movement which, u n l i k e the had no p r e - l i t e r a r y h i s t o r y .

c ~ i t r 7 LIS?

o f the p r o p h e t s ,

Because a p o c a l y p t i c i s des-

c r i p t i v e o f a l i t e r a r y group, i t seems w i s e t o seek a d e f i n i t i o n which i n c l u d e s t h a t p o i n t . For, i f we begin from

Hanson's h i s t o r i c o - s o c i o l o g i c a l model o f c o n f l k t , we w i l l have d i f f i c u l t y i n understandfng an a p o c a l y p t i c work which 126 does n o t conform t o h i s model. When formulating a d e f i n i t i o n o f a p o c a l y p t i c , we must take i n t o account that i t was, a t times, a l l t e r a t u r e o f the underground, the product o f a group denied i t s f u l l s t a t u s

In s o c i e t y .

A t other times, the n a t i o n a l i s t i c writings of a

126. H.H. Rowley, art. cite, p.487, and h i s comments regarding - the h i s t o r i c a l c o n t e x t o f t h e Testament o f A b r a ham.

43

small n a t i o n pushed around the ring o f w o r l d p o l i t i c s would

be a good d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e l i t e r a t u r e .
And a g a i n ,

e s p e c i a l l y l a t e r , i t was the l i t e r a t u r e o f s e c r e t g r o u p s , which c i r c u l a t e d i t p r i v a t e l y , having withdrawn i t from t h e p u b l i c a t l a r g e when the w r i t i n g s ' p o p u l a r i t y had cheapened i t s impact a n d meaning, The a p o c a l y p t i c l i t e r a t u r e , e s p e c i a l l y i n i t s l a t e r s t a g e s , is a m a j o r l i t e r a r y group ( o r g e n r e ) , a s f u l l y unique 127 a s the Wisdom l i t e r a t u r e or the p r o p h e t i c l i t e r a t u r e . As 128 DoS. R u s s e l l o b s e r v e d : The c h a r a c t e r o f Jewish a p o c a l y p t i c [l i t e r a t u r d throughout the inter-testament a l p e r i o d i s complex i n t h e extreme; t h e r e a r e c o n s i d e r a b l e d i f f e r e n c e s between one book a n d a n o t h e r . . . T h e r e i s , however, a homogeneity a b o u t i t which j u s t i f i e s i t s c l a s s i f i c a t i o n a s a d i s t i n c t l i t e r a r y c o r p u s . I t i s n o t always e a s y t o d e f i n e i n what t h i s homogeneity cons i s t s f o r , although i t r e v e a l s c e r t a i n f a i r l y we1 1-def l n e d c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , a p o c a l y p t i c i s r e c o g n i z a b l e even when some o f i t s f o r m a l characteris t i c s a r e absent ,

I t i s here that Hanson p a r ,,company.

Hanson p o i n t e d o u t t h e

h i g h f r e q u e n c y o f ' f o r m a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s ' b e i n g a b s e n t in

m a j o r a p o c a l y p t i c works.

He noted t h a t T r i t o - I s a i a h does

n o t p o s s e s s the ' f o r m a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s ' o f a p o c a l y p t i c l i k e

Z e c h a r f a h 1-8, y e t he c a t e g o r i z e d T r i t o - I s a i a h a s ' e a r l y -

127. 3 . 6 . Gammte, 'The C l a s s i f i c a t i o n , S t a g e s o f Growth, 9 5 (1976), and C h a n g i n g I n t e n t i o n s i n the Book of D a n i e l ' p.192. 128. DoS. R u s s e l l , O J . c l t . , p.104.

44

a p o c a l y p t i c ' and Zechariah 1-8 ' a p o c a l y p t i c - f o r m ' .

129

K O Koch a r r i v e d a t c o n c l u s i o n s s i m i l a r t o those o f 130 Russet 1 . Part of the d i f f i c u l t y i s t h a t Hanson was

working with s i x t h - and f i f t h - c e n t u r y B . C .

works, w h i l e the

o t h e r s focused on the w r i t i n g s o f the second century B.C.

P O von der Osten-Sacken has examined the r e f e r e n c e s i n

Dan. 2,7,8-12 t o a d e t e r m i n i s t i c view o f h i s t o r y and has

a n a l y t e d them with a view t o v e r i f y i n g whether t h i s perspect i v e was taken from Wisdom o r prophecy. through the c a t e g o r i e s o f Wisdom: He looked a t them

the o r d e r o f c r e a t i o n

a n d the r e g u l a r i t y of n a t u r a l phenomena, the d o c t r i n e t h a t

e v e r y t h i n g has i t s ' t i m e ' , life.

131

a n d the o r d e r i n g of a man's

tie concluded t h a t a p o c a l y p t i c , as r e p r e s e n t e d i n He

the book o f D a n i e l , cannot d e r i v e s o l e l y from Wisdom. s t a t e d that i t can be c a l l e d

I

...a

legitimate, i f a l s o l a t e

and special, c h i l d of prophecy which, with t h e p a s s i n g y e a r s ,

f i r s t opened i t s e l f t o Wisdom, although i t was not w i t h o u t 132 learning i n e a r l i e r times'. The theme o f determinism i s a weak l i n k i n von Rad's attempt t o d e r i v e a p o c a l y p t l c from Wisdom. There i s a v a s t

1 2 9 . P O D . Hanson, a. c i t . , p p o 2 3 4 f , , 2 4 9 f f . ; cf. H. m Gese, ' A n f a n g und Ende d e r A p o k a l y p t i k , d a r g e s t e l l t a Sacharjabuch', ZThK l x x (19731, p.22. 130. K. O J . c i t . , p.33. 131. P. von d e r Osten-Sacken, ' D i e Apokalyptik i n ihrem Verhaltnis zu P r o p h e t l e und W e i s h e i t ' , ThEH c l v i i ( 1 9 6 9 ) . 132. I b f d p.63; t h e t r a n s l a t i o n ~ m i n e .

K m

45

d i f f e r e n c e between the 'determinism'

133 9 for of Q o h e l e t h

example, a n d the 'determined end' o f time i n the a p o c a l y p t i c l i t e r a t u r e ; determinism i s not, however, an e s s e n t i a l doct r i n e o f any Wisdom o r a p o c a l y p t i c t r a d i t i o n .
J O G . Gammie has o f f e r e d a d e f i n i t i o n of a p o c a l y p t i c 134 which recognized i t s l i t e r a r y and i d e a t i o n a l n a t u r e s :

A p o c a l y p t i c l i t e r a t u r e i s a major and composite 1 i t e r a r y genre comparable t o wisdom l i t e r a t u r e and p r o p h e t i c l i t e r a t u r e ; a work may be c l a s s i f i e d a s belonging t o t h i s composi t e 1 i t e r a r y genre provided i t c o n t a i n s ( i ) some form o f r e v e l a t i . o n , whether o f f u t u r e events o r heavenly contents; ( i i ) a c l u s t e r o f sub-genres or component g e n r e s ; and ( i i i ) a c l u s t e r o f i d e a t i o n a l elements common t o works a l r e a d y agreed t o belong t o the a p o c a l y p t i c literature. In o r d e r t o achieve g r e a t e r p r e c i s i o n i n these statements and to i n c o r p o r a t e work a l r e a d y done i n the f i e l d , i t , n e c e s s a r y t o modify t h i s d e f i n i t i o n .
is

I would amend Gammie's p o i n t ( i ) by i n s i s t i n g upon the

a r t i f i c i a l nature o f the a p o c a l y p t i s t s ' b l a i m s t o i n s p i r a 135 tion. G . E . L a d d a n d H . H . Rowley a s s e r t e d t h a t the r e l e v a n c e o f the a p o c a l y p t i c l i t e r a t u r e l a y i n i t s power t o

summon s p i r i t u a l s t r e n g t h i n i t s r e a d e r s , n o t i n i t s v e r a c i t y
133. C f . the commentaries on passages l i k e Qoh. 3 : l - 1 5 ; D o S . R u s s e l l , op. c t t 9 pp.230-234; H.H. Rowley, 9p. c i t . , pp.167-171; and G o von R a d , ' T h e D i v i n e D e t e r m j n a t i o n o f Times', Wisdom i n I s r a e l , pp.263-283. W . Zimmerli-, Old Testament Kheol ogy i n O u t l i n e , p . 2 3 7 , observed: ' I f h t e r p r e t a t i o n o f a p o c a l y p t i c i s m a s determinism were c o r r e c t , t h e r e would be no p l a c e for f r e e w i l l ' . B u t side-by-side a r e ' t h e legends o f the f a i t h f u l n e s s o f Daniel a n d h i s f r i e n d s ' . 134. 3 . 6 . Gammie, a r t . c i t . , pp.192f. 135. Cf. R . N o r t h , a r t .- T *9 t p.62.

-.

46

a s a n c i e n t w r i t i n g s b u t as a s l n c e r e statement o f God's
coming Kingship.
The i d e a o f p r e - d i l u v i a n w r i t i n g s may have

been r e j e c t e d out o f h a n d , b u t the Jews were l e s s concerned with aUthOrShip, s o the a u t h o r i t y o f the a p o c a l y p t i c l i t e r a t u r e could be separated from i t s a u t h e n t i c f t y f a i r l y easily.
136

Gammie's p o i n t ( 1 1 ) a g a i n p o i n t s up the lack o f d i s t i n c t i o n i n many works between 1 i t e r a r y form a n d 1 i t e r a r y I37 dev i c e s K . Koch's f o r m - c r i t i c a l study, although not a

d e t a f l e d study of the a p o c a l y p t i c l i t e r a t u r e , lumped t o g e t h e r f e a t u r e s such as pseudonymfty and symbolism a n d p a r e n e t i c 138 speeches. Pseudonymity a n d symbolism a r e l i t e r a r y d e v i c e s and n o t l i t e r a r y forms. Gammie's own l i s t o f sub-genres

( l i t e r a r y forms o c c u r r i n g i n the complex l i t e r a r y genre o f a p o c a l y p t i c ) p r o p e r l y ignored l i t e r a r y d e v i c e s , b u t t h e i r omission from t h e d e f i n i t i o n i s Snexcusable; t h e l i t e r a r y devSces o f the a p o c a l y p t i c l i t e r a t u r e form a d i s t i n c t i v e characteristic. Gammie's p o i n t ( I i i ) l a c k s the i d e a o f a h i s t o r i c a l

or s o c i o l o g i c a l context a s a background f o r the i d e a t i o n a l

elements, a p o i n t which Hanson and P l 8 g e r p a r t i c u l a r l y emphasized. A p o c a l y p t i c i s more than a c e r t a i n mental

a t t i t u d e a g a i n s t o p p r e s s f v e powers; Gammie's d e f i n l t i o n does n o t suggest t h i s .

3.3.

C o l l i n s ' d e f t n i t t o n o f ' a p o c a l y p s e ' t s an e x c e l l e n t

Oesterley, o c i t . 8 pp.74f. y d e f i n i t f o n or m t s o f d e v i c e s , forms 137. Cf. m and i d e a t f o n a l elements. 138. K O Koch, Op. c f t . 8 pp.24-28.
136.

W.O.E.

. P

47

one t o u t i l i z e :

139

'Apocalypse' i s a genre o f r e v e l a t o r y 1 i t e r a t u r e with a n a r r a t i v e framework, i n which a r e v e l a t f o n i s mediated by an otherw o r l d l y being t o a human r e c i p i e n t , d i s c l o s i n g a transcendent r e a l t t y which i s both temporal, i n s o far a s i t e n v i s a g e s eschatol o g i c a l s a l v a t i o n , and s p a t i a l , in s o far a s i t i n v o l v e s another, supernatural world. This d e f i n i t i o n has been employed i n a narrow sense, a s a l i t e r a r y form employed by the a p o c a l y p t i s t s ; more b r o a d l y ,
i t i s virtually a definition f o r 'apocalyptic literature'. 140 taken a s a whole.

M o d i f i c a t i o n s o f P O D . Hanson's d e f i n i t i o n o f apocalypti ci s m
141

produce a n adequate understanding of the n a t u r e ' a p o c a l y p t i c i s m i s a system of thought pro-

o f the term:

duced w i t h i n movements which see themselves i n c o n f l i c t (i.e. with o p p r e s s i v e l e a d e r s , f o r e i g n n a t i o n s , t h e f o r c e s This system o f t h o u g h t b u i l d s

of e v i l , or the ' w o r l d ' ) .

upon a s p e c i f i c cosmological and e s c h a t o l o g i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e i n g e n e r a t i n g a symbolic u n i v e r s e which s e r v e s t o e s t a b l i s h the i d e n t i t y o f the community i n r e l a t i o n t o i t s opponents

142

a n d t o God and by w h i c h t h e cornmunlty i n t e r p r e t s r e a l i t y ' .

3.3. C o l l i n s , a r t . c i t . , p.364. 1 4 0 . T h e broader d e m i t = runs i n t o t r o u b l e when the more narrow d e f i n i t i o n i s r e q u i r e d ( T e s t . Levi 2 : 5 - 5 : 7 ) ; c f . P O D . Hanson, 'Apocalypticism' ,' I D B S u p , p . 2 9 , and p i p.582. V i e l h a u e r , a r t . -.c a it 1 4 1 , P O D . Hanson, a r t . c i t . , pp.28,30. This d e f i n i t i o n s u f f e r e d because i t was c o n s c i o u s l y rnolded t o the s i t u a t i o n i n the e a r l y p o s t - e x i l i c community and not on the secondcentury B . C . r e l i g i o u s environment. 1 4 2 . P . V o l z , Die E s c h a t o l o g i e d e r judischen Gemeinde i n neutestamentlichen Z e i t a l t e r , pp.4f L M o r r i s , op. c t ,

139.

P*27.

.* .

I .

40

The term a p o c a l y p t i c can be used a s a d e s i g n a t i o n o f the f o l l o w i n g :

1 ) a p o c a l y p t i c can r e f e r t o a r e l i g i o u s outlook on l i f e a n d
h i s t o r y , which i s informed by the knowledge o f the imminent
and transforming triumph o f God a t the end o f the a g e ( o r a

v i c t o r y within h i s t o r y with ' e t e r n a l '

e f f e c t s ) over His

enemies, cosmic a n d e a r t h l y , a n d o f the b e n e f i t s which t h i s v i c t o r y w i l l bring t o His people a n d o f the punishment which w i l l be unleashed upon His enemies, and/or w h i c h i s informed by the d i s c l o s u r e o f t h o s e a g e n c i e s within the cosmological dimension whereby the commands o f God concerning nature and history are carried out;
2 ) a p o c a l y p t i c can r e f e r t o a major a n d composite l i t e r a r y

genre ( o r g r o u p ) , produced by r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s of t h i s pers p e c t i v e , which f e a t u r e s :

i ) some c l a i m , a l b e i t a r t i f i c i a l , t o being a r e v e l a t i o n
of

the f u t u r e and/or the cosmological w o r l d ,

i f ) a c l u s t e r of i d e a t i o n a l concepts w h i c h accord with 143 that outlook,

( l i t e r a r y forms) s u i t a b l e 144 t o e x p r e s s the i d e a t i o n a l elements,

i i i ) a c l u s t e r o f sub-genres

i v ) a c l u s t e r o f l i t e r a r y d e v i c e s which modify the sub145 g e n r e s i n ways c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of the p e r s p e c t i v e ;

3 ) a p o c a l y p t i c can be used, with r e s e r v a t i o n s , t o d e s c r i b e

a l i t e r a r y p a s s a g e , n o t included under 2 ) , which f e a t u r e s :

i ) the outlook d e s c r t b e d in l), i f ) a c l u s t e r o f i d e a t i o n a l concepts, sub-genres and/
146

or l i t e r a r y d e v i c e s which accord with t h a t outlook.

49

VII.

The H i s t o r i c a l Development o f A p o c a l y p t i c I have c o n s c i o u s l y l i m i t e d t h i s study o f the h i s t o r i c a l

development o f a p o c a l y p t i c t o t h e l i n k s between prophecy and a p o c a l y p t i c , a l t h o u g h I h a v e a l r e a d y s t a t e d t h a t t h e r e were 147 l i n k s t o o t h e r major Jewish t r a d i t i o n s . Within t h i s cont e x t I w i l l use the term a p o c a l y p t i c i n the f u l l v a r i e t y of

i t s meaning and d e f i n i t i o n .

A.

The D i s i n t e g r a t i o n of Prophecy
P.R. Ackroyd was undoubtedly c o r r e c t i n h i s assessment

o f t h e s i x t h c e n t u r y B.*C.

a s a n e r a c h a r a c t e r i z e d by an

abundance o f c r e a t i v e i n t e l l e c t u a l thought.

148

Certainly

143. M o d i f i e d cosmic, temporal and moral d u a l i s m ; e s c h a t o l o g i c a l i n t e r e s t , Messianism, a n g e l o l o g y and demon01 o g y , p e s s i m i s t i c view o f h i s t o r y , modif f e d determinism, e t h i c a l concern, e t c . 144. V i s i o n a n d d i a l o g u e f o r m s , v a t i c i n i a ex e v e n t u , p a r e n e s i s , l i t u r g i c a l g e n r e s , n a t u r e wlsdom, s t o r i e s , f a b l e s , a l l e g o r y , d i a l o g u e , r i d d l e , p a r a b l e , i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f prophecy, e s c h a t o l o g i c a l p r e d i c t i o n , e t c . 145. Symbolism, use o f rmagery, numerology, pseudonymity, e t c . 1 4 6 . In t h i s study I w i l l u s e t h e term a p o c a l y p t i c f n e v e r y s e n s e o u t l i n e d h e r e . I acknowledge the p o s s i b i l i t y of m i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g , a l t h o u g h I have made an e f f o r t t o c l a r i f y , through c o n t e x t a n d a d d i t i o n a l m o d i f i e r s , t h e c o r r e c t s e n s e o f t h e word. N e v e r t h e l e s s , the r e a d e r i s e n j o i n e d t o be aware o f t h e f u l l scope of t h e d e f i n i t i o n o f a p o c a l y p t i c and t o chose c a r e f u l l y the a p p r o p r i a t e shade o f meaning i n a particular situation. 1 4 7 . C f . Gen. 15 a s a non-prophetic p a s s a g e which tends toward t h e d e f i n i t i o n o f a n a p o c a l y p t i c p a s s a g e . 148. P . R . Ackroyd, E x i l e and R e s t o r a t i o n , pp.7-12.
s

50

the e x p e r i e n c e s of e x i l e and the p r o p h e t i c promises o f r e s t o r a t i o n promoted t h i s a c t i v i t y by s t i m u l a t i n g a r a d l c a l r e t h i n k i n g o f the b a s i c c o n v i c t i o n s by which the Jews had ordered t h e i r l i v e s .
v i t a l i t y t o bypass

One would not e x p e c t t h i s s u r g e o f

the prophetic movement, for i t h a d , i n

g r e a t measure, been given b i r t h by i t . Indeed the s i x t h century B.C. the p r o p h e t i c movement. was a turning p o i n t f o r

A r e a d i n g - o f those prophets whose

c a r e e r s spanned the y e a r s of d i s a s t e r , 5 9 7 and 587 B . C . ,

re-

v e a l s that the sequence o f 'doom' proclamations, s o charact e r i s t i c o f the p r e - e x i l i c canonical p r o p h e t s , came t o an a b r u p t end a t the f a l l o f Jerusalem.
Both Jeremiah a n d

Ezekiel ceased speakfng c r i t i c a l l y o f I s r a e l ' s f a i l u r e s and began t o e l a b o r a t e on the theme o f the r e s t o r a t i o n f o r the Jewish comrnunlty t o J u d a h and the r e - e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f normal p a..t t e r n s o f l i f e .
149

D O L O Petersen may be r i g h t i n a s s e r t i n g

t h a t Jeremiah and Ezekiel mark the end o f c l a s s i c a l prophecy

a s such,

a r g u i n g that the demise o f prophecy f o l l o w e d

q u i c k l y upon the c r i s i s o f a u t h o r i t y r e f l e c t e d in Jeremiah's c o n f r o n t a t i o n s with other Yahwistic prophets and upon the imp o s s i b i l i t y o f a continuing r e l a t i o n s h i p with the defunct I s r a e l i t e monarchy. While i t i s t r u e t h a t prophecy underwent a g r e a t change

a t the same time t h a t the kingship was l o s t t o I s r a e l , i t i s

149.

Dot. Petersen, op. c i t

0

, p.97.

m f s l e a d i n g t o emphasize - a n inherent re3attan9Afp between 150 k f n g and prophet. The toss o f kfngshtp altered the

nature of I s r a e l from a p o l f t i c a l state to a r e l i g l o u s eemmunity; the prophetic ftgures o f the e a r l y post-extllc

period, g i v e n s t a t u r e because o f the prophetic role S n the

e x i l e experience, spoke with freedom w i t h i n the polltfcal arena, The prophetic movement, taken as a whole, I s much

too varied t o be comprehended so s i m p l i s t i c a l l y .

There

were t h e g r e a t f n d i v i d u a l prophets, exceptional p e r s o a a l f t i e s wfthin the J e w f s h communlty whom one should n o t expect
t o occur on a r e g u l a r b a s i s . f i l l e d an ' I n s t i t u t i o n a l ' w e l l a s the r o y a l court. There were the prophets who r o l e within the Temple cultus, as These several o f f i c e s assumed a

b e t t e r d e f i n i t i o n within the structure instituted, most 151 f o r c e f u l l y , by Solomon. However, the prophets were n o t l i m i t e d t o one, or any combination o f r o l e s , They cannot be understood a s e x c l u s i v e l y attached to court or c u l t , and they cannot be understood without reference t o these i n s t i t u t i o n s , Prophecy, toward the end o f the e x i l e , was o r i e n t e d to152 ward the proclamation of detfverance and restoratfon, At l e a s t from an external perspectfve, t h i s phase o f prophecy stood i n the shoes of the ' s a l v a t i o n prophets' whom deremfah

52

had confronted.

However, any semblance o f u n i t y soon d i s -

appeared; from t h i s time the p r o p h e t i c movement began t o fragment a n d the r e s u l t i n g segments d i v e r g e d and p r o g r e s s e d a l o n g paths q u i t e u n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f p r e - e x i l i c prophecy. The message o f s a l v a t i o n addressed t o the Jewish community ( o r some p o r t i o n o f i t ) stands c e n t r a l t o the p o s t - e x i l i c prophets. Petersen may be c o r r e c t i n a r g u i n g f o r a t r a n s -

formation o f the prophetic movement around a ' r e l i g f o - p o l l t i 153 cal locus' as a r e a c t i o n t o the l e a d e r s h i p vacuum c r e a t e d by the f a l l o f the kingship. The l a t e r t h e o c r a t i c l e a d e r s h i p o f the Jews looked t o 154 E z e k i e l , and the p r i e s t l y t r a d i t i o n he r e p r e s e n t e d , as i t s source and l e g i t i m a t i o n .
*

0 . P l t g e r has argued convin-

c i n g l y t h a t the theocracy viewed the p r o p h e t i c movement a s 'bridges o f legitimation':

155

Ezekiel r e p r e s e n t e d p r o p h e t i c

l e g i t i m a t i o n f o r the form o f the p o s t - e x i l i c community and

H a g g a i a n d Zechariah ( c f . Ezra 5 : l - 2 ) 156 the second Temple and i t s c u l t .

gave a u t h o r i z a t i o n t o

E z e k i e l ' s r o l e i n the p r o p h e t i c movement i s accompanied by h i s importance t o p o s t - e x i l i c r e l i g i o n i n g e n e r a l . He has

been c a l l e d the ' f a t h e r o f a p o c a l y p t i c ' f o r h i s use o f sym-

1 5 3 . D.L. P e t e r s e n , c l t 9 pp.6-8. 154. O . H . Steck, art. c i t . , pp.201,206, mentioned t h a t E z e k i e l and h i s f o l l o w e r s ' a m v a t e p r o p h e t i c a l l y ' the Jerusalem p r i e s t l y t r a d i t i o n . 1 5 5 . O.-Plijger, op. c i t . , p p . 4 2 f . 156. D . L . Petersen, 9p. c i t B p.56.

x .-.

-.

53

b o l i s m , v i s i o n , a l l e g o r y and a n g e l s .

157

He i s a l s o r e f e r r e d

t o a s the ' f a t h e r of Judaism' because of h i s connection with 158 Ezra and the l e g a l and r e l i g i o u s a s p e c t s of h i s m i n i s t r y . Several reasons a r e suggested t o e x p l a i n the change i n the p r o p h e t i c movement a s i t moved through the e x i l i c and 159 e a r l y post-exilic period. W e can mention s e v e r a l f o r c e s (i.e. the c u l t , the lack o f n a t i o n - s t a t u s , the p o l i t i c i z a t i o n

of the p r o p h e t i c g r o u p , the i n c r e a s e d world-consciousness of the community) w h i c h i n f l u e n c e d the v o i c e s r a i s e d a s succ e s s o r s t o the g r e a t prophets. trends ( i . e . L i k e w i s e , there a r e g e n e r a l

toward canon, transcendence, e s c h a t o l o g y , e t c . )

w h k h c h a r a c t e r i z e d the whole o f p o s t - e x i l i c Judaism and the p r o p h e t i c movement i n p a r t i c u l a r .

I t was in the p o s t - e x i l i c p e r i o d t h a t the 'burden o f

h i s t o r y ' , assumed by the p r e - e x i l i c prophets, became too much for t h e i r successors w i t h i n and wtthout the c u l t t o 160 bear. S O B . F r o s t a t t r t b u t e d t h i s d e c l i n e o f prophecy t o p r o p h e t i c c o n f l i c t , t h e extended o p p r e s s i o n o f the Jews, and 161 an over-1 ong framework o f h i s t o r y . This a n t i c i p a t e d the p o s i t i v e statement o f the a p o c a l y p t i c world-view and the

157. 4. Muilenberg, ' E z e k i e l ' , P C B ( r e v . e d . ) , p.569. 158. A.S. Peake, The People a n d t h e Book, p.285; c f . G.W. Anderson, c i t . , p. 159. Cf. F ~ ~ t e r s e f i c ti t ~ . ,~ p . p 0 5 f . , for a summary of t h e o r i e s o f R . P f e i f f e r , 6. v o n T d , A.R. Johnson, J.1, Crenshaw, E. Hammershaimb, F.M. C r o s s , P O D . Hanson, 0. P l o g e r . 160. Cf, 3.L. Crenshaw, op. c i t . , pp.91-109; the ' b u r den' t h a t God w o u l d f u l f i l 1 His pr?r"ii-rses through h i s t o r y . 161. SOB. Frost, ' A p o c a l y p t i c and H i s t o r y ' , The B i b l e and Modern S c b o l a r s h i p , ed. 3 . P . Hyatt, p.112.

54

accommodating p o s i t i o n s of Wisdom and the C h r o n i c l e r ' s pro,162 p h e t i c f i g u r e s v i s - a - v i s I s r a e l ' s f u t u r e hope.

D.L.

Petersen was c o r r e c t , t o a d e g r e e , when he pointed

o u t that the prophetic movement continued in two r a d i c a l l y

d i f f e r e n t channels i n the p o s t - e x i l i c p e r i o d and that t h e s e channels a r e represented by the C h r o n i c l e s a n d the 'deutero163 prophetic' collections. According t o h i s a n a l y s i s , the C h r o n f c l e r c r e d i t e d the L e v i t i c a l groups within the Temple

c u l t a s the o f f i c i a l successors o f the e a r l i e r prophets,

whereas the eschatologtcally-oriented p r o p h e t i c groups pro164 duced the deutero-prophetic l i t e r a t u r e . Coupled t o t h i s d i v i s i o n i n the prophetic l i t e r a t u r e was the d e s i r e of poste x i l i c Judaism t o understand the p r o p h e t i c movement a s a 165 u n i f i e d tradition. Some o f these attempts a r e found i n the p r o p h e t i c l i t e r a t u r e i t s e l f a n d r e v e a l how the p r o p h e t i c movement was m i s f n t e r p r e t e d by l a t e r g e n e r a t i o n s . Ezek. 38-39 contains such a d i s t i n c t p e r s p e c t i v e , pres e n t i n g a p i c t u r e of a succession o f prophets p r e d i c t i n g the

162. The a p o c a l y p t i c world-view could e n v i s i o n d i v i n e i n t e r v e n t i o n i n h i s t o r y ; the o t h e r s d i d not c o n s i d e r the p r e s e n t a s the arena o f God's a c t i v i t y . 163. D . L . P e t e r s e n , c l t . , pp.13-19; deutero-prop h e t i c l i t e r a t u r e i n c l u d e s s a i a h 40-55,56-66,24027; Malachi, 3oel 3-4, Zechariah 9-14, Ezek. 35-39. 164. I b i d . , p.8; he assumed the groups were antithetic a l , but t h ' m u d g m e n t i s too s i m p l i s t i c . 165. Cf. O . H . Steck, art. c i t . , pp.193-198,201f.; we a r e t r u l y j u s t i f i e d i n speaking o f a ' p r o p h e t i c t h e o l o g i c a l stream' i n the p o s t - e x i l i c p e r i o d . B u t , a t the same time, we must a l l o w for the d i v i s i o n s within prophecy ( i . e . prop h e t i c streams o f t r a d i t i o n ) .

9.

55

a t t a c k o f Jerusalem by the nations and the d e f e a t o f those n a t i o n s through d i v i n e i n t e r v e n t i o n . Ezek. 38:17 i d e n t i f i e s

a 3 r a d i t i o n o f s a l v a t i o n prophets h e a v i l y influenced by con166 c e p t s underlying the Jerusalem c u l t , ( b u t t h i s v e r s e does not r e f e r t o a l l p r f o r p r o p h e t i c a c t i v i t y , p a r t i c u l a r l y t h a t of Ezekiel h h s e l f , which was a c t i v e d u r i n g and/or a f t e r the

exi I e).
Zech. 1 : 6 and 7:12 r e f e r t o the 'former prophets' who gave Torah and the word o f Yahweh t o I s r a e l . These r e f e r e n c e s

a r e found i n passages s t r o n g l y marked by deuteronomistic phraseology and thought, and they s u g g e s t the deuteronomistic 167 prophets of repentance. Zechariah seems t o be aware o f

a tradition o f long standing, in which he p a r t i c i p a t e s , f o r 168 we can d i s c e r n i t s a c t i v i t y b e f o r e and a f t e r the e x i l e .

The enigmatic passage Zech. 13:2-6 decrees t h a t Yahweh

w o u l d make an end t o the prophets.

In l i g h t o f the d i v i s i o n

w i t h i n the e a r l y p o s t - e x i l i c community and the prophetic a c t i v i t y o f the L e v i t i c a l f i g u r e s (which the author o f t h i s p a s s a g e would have opposed), such a r e f e r e n c e t o the end of prophecy makes b e t t e r sense when l i m i t e d t o prophecy w i t h i n the c u l t ( i t c e r t a i n l y would n o t be d i r e c t e d a t the a u t h o r ' s

own p r o p h e t i c a c t i v i t y ) .

There appears t o be i n Zech. 13:Z-6

the i m p l i c i t r e c o g n i t i o n t h a t the true p r o p h e t i c f u n c t i o n

h a d somehow been modified as a r e s u l t o f the c o n f l i c t within

C f . G o von Rad, Old Testament Theology 1 1 , p.293. 167. O.H. Steck, I s r a e l und d as gewaltsame Geschick der P r o heten, pp.74-80,133S.A. C00::~'The Age o f Z e r u b b a b e l ' , S t u d i e s Cf. t n O l d Testament Prophecy, ed. H.H. Rowley, pp.27-35.
166.

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the community.
I propose t o sketch the p a t h s o f prophecy in the post-

e x i l i c p e r i o d to c l a r i f y the forms prophecy assumed a s a continuing phenomenon.

I b e l i e v e that the p r o p h e t i c writings

From t h i s we

themselves d i s c l o s e c e r t a i n d i r e c t i o n s and tendencies w i t h i n the l a t t e r s t a g e s o f the p r o p h e t i c movement.

s h a l l be a b l e t o speak t o the s u b j e c t o f the c o n t i n u i t y between the prophetic tradi t i o n i s t s and the a p o c a l y p t i s t s and t h e p r o p h e t i c and a p o c a l y p t i c world-views. The r e c o n s t r u c t i o n s o f the l a t e r p o s t - e x i l i c p e r i o d by 0. P l i g e r and the e a r l y p o s t - e x i l i c e r a by P.D. Hanson have been accepted, i n essence, by the m a j o r i t y of r e c e n t scholarship. These reconstructi.ons p o s t u l a t e d a deep r i f t

within the community, which c r e a t e d c e r t a i n c o n d i t i o n s w i t h i n

which the p r o p h e t i c f i g u r e s a n d c i r c l e s h a d t o o p e r a t e .

It

has been demonstrated t h a t most o f the p o s t - e x i l i c p r o p h e t i c 169 l i t e r a t u r e i s either 'theocratic' or 'conventicle', ref e r r i n g t o p o s i t i v e and n e g a t i v e s o c i o l o g i c a l o r i e n t a t i o n s which f e a t u r e opinions o f the o f f i c i a l Jewish l e a d e r s h i p and i t s conservative, controlling p o l k i e s .

Most s c h o l a r s have accepted S. Mowinckel's o b s e r v a t i o n

t h a t the f u t u r e hope o f the prophets a f t e r the r e s t o r a t f o n p e r i o d was i n c r e a s i n g l y detached f r o m the ' p r e s e n t moment', 170

these terms.

169.

0 . P l t g e r , Theocracy and Eschatology, o r i g i n a t e d S . Mowinckel,

170.

op. c i t * p.170.

-.

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(i.e.

the concrete time i n w h i c h the prophet m i n i s t e r e d

171

a s w e l l as the s p e c i f i c h i s t o r i c a l event which p a s t prophets

had predicted.

The book o f Joel i s an example. e a r l i e r prophets i s g e n e r a l i z e d : o r Babylon.

The terminology o f

the nations r e p l a c e A s s y r i a The

Events and c o n d i t i o n s a r e exaggerated.

d e s c r i p t i o n p a r a l l e l s c u l t i c d e s c r i p t i o n s o f mythic t a l e s ; Yahweh does not a c t through human a g e n c i e s , as He was desc r i b e d by e a r l i e r prophets, but in a manner r e m i n i s c e n t of c u l t i c dramatizations. This k i n d o f d e s c r i p t i o n 1s common

t o the a p o c a l y p t i c l i t e r a t u r e as w e l l . In the a p o c a l y p t i c l i t e r a t u r e the f u t u r e hope o f the authors begins t o transcend the h i s t o r i c a l l y - o r i e n t e d f u t u r e hope o f the e a r l i e r p r o p h e t i c w r i t i n g s . l i f e a f t e r death ( i . e . The d o c t r i n e s o f 172 r e s u r r e c t i o n a n d immortality ) take

their p l a c e b e s i d e the e x p e c t a t i o n o f an e a r t h l y kingdom i n

which the k i n g s h i p was r e s t o r e d t o I s r a e l .

These newer doc-

t r i n e s may very w e l l be the r e s u l t o f normal developments

within Judaism, f o r such marks a r e found, a l b e i t i n f r e q u e n t l y ,

i n the P s a l t e r .
c i t . , p . 2 9 9 , s t a t e d t h a t t h e pro171. G o von Rad, o , t 'h e y stood e x a c t l y a t t h a t phets were convinced t a t . turning p o i n t i n h i s t o r y which was c r u c i a l f o r the e x i s t e n c e o f God's p e o p l e ' . 172. Cf. H . H . Rowley, o c i t . , ~ p . 6 6 ~ 7 3 he ; discerned the d o c t r i n e o f immortality n t r B o o k o f J u b i l e e s ( 2 3 : 3 0 f . ) b u t judged t h a t the d o c t r i n e o f r e s u r r e c t i o n ( T e s t . Benj. 1O:6-8, e t c . , Dan. 1 2 : l - 3 ) was much more r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f Jewish t h o u g h t i n g e n e r a l .

r;e.

f.

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Further informat,ion concerning the development of bel i e f s i n immortality and r e s u r r e c t i o n i s r e s t r i c t e d by the s e v e r e limitation o f evidence for the p o s t - e x i l i c p e r i o d . I f e e l , however, t h a t such r e f e r e n c e s t o e x i s t e n c e a f t e r death i n d i c a t e a d e p a r t u r e from the t r a d i t i o n a l h i s t o r i c a l l y based b e l i e f ( L e . the e a r t h l y Jewish kingdom mediating God's r u l e t o the n a t i o n s ) and a s i g n i f i c a n t d e v i a t i o n o f the a u t h o r ' s b e l i e f s from the norm, the ' o f f i c i a l ' hope. According t o D O L O P e t e r s e n , the C h r o n i c l e r was J u s t a s conscious o f p r o p h e t i c t r a d i t i o n as the deutero-prophetic writers.
He noted t h a t the C h r o n I c l e r p l a c e d the p r o p h e t i c

f i g u r e i n a c e n t r a l p o s i t i o n v i s - h - v i s the r i s e and f a l l o f 173 the monarchy. G o von Rad mentioned t h a t i n s t i t u t i o n a l

and p o l i t i c a l i n t e r e s t s dominate the L e v i t i c a l sermons o f 174 which Petersen I n t e r the C h r o n i c l e r ' s p r o p h e t i c f i g u r e s ,

p r e t e d a s the t h e o c r a c y ' s use o f p a s t prophets t o l e g i t i m a t e 175 i t s own a u t h o r i t y . The C h r o n i c l e r portrayed the prophets 176 This was as h a v i n g ' t h e dogma f o r I s r a e l i t e s u c c e s s ' . communicated through the sermon-form:
and e x h o r t a t i o n .

doctrine, application

177

The hermeneutical method of t h e s e

173. D O L O P e t e r s e n , op. c i t . , p . 5 5 . 174. G o von Rad, 'The l e m i c a l Sermon i n I and I 1 C h r o n i c l e s ' , The Problem o f the Hexateuch and Other E s s a y s , p.277. 1 7 5 . D . L . P e t e r s e n , op. c i t , p.57. 176. I b i d . , p.55. 177. n o n Rad, a r t . c i t . , p.271.

-.

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preachers was t e x t u a l and a t o m i s t i c a l ; t e x t s from Torah o r o t h e r w r i t i n g s were separated from t h e i r contexts and a p p l i e d to wholly d i f f e r e n t situations.

178

T h e C h r o n i c l e r ' s outlook

was governed t o a degree by h i s s u b j e c t ( t h e p a s t h i s t o r y o f I s r a e l ) , b u t t h e r e i s substance i n the arguments of 0 . 179 Plgger and o t h e r s t h a t the C h r o n i c l e r i n t e n t i o n a l l y r e 180 f r a i ned from e s c h a t o l o g i c a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n s .

I would a p p l y two c r i t e r i a t o the p o s t - e x i l i c p r o p h e t i c writings which w i l l e n a b l e a t e n t a t i v e c a t e g o r i z a t i o n o f the

d i f f e r e n t s t r a n d s o f writing: a t t i t u d e toward the c u l t a n d community l e a d e r s and the form o f the proclamation of a f u t u r e hope.

A n a n a l y s i s of the p o s t - e x i l i c p r o p h e t i c

w r i t i n g s w i l l f l e s h out the h i s t o r i c a l paths on which prophecy moved toward the e r a of the a p o c a l y p t i c l i t e r a t u r e .

During and a f t e r the e x i l e , c e r t a i n segments o f the

community moved i n t o l e a d e r s h i p vacuum l e f t by the l o s s o f the k i n g s h i p . Some segments o f the p r o p h e t i c movement a l s o The D a v i d i c l i n e

e n t e r e d the arena o f p o l i t i c a l a c t i v i t y .

d i d n o t seem t o i n f l u e n c e the community i n e x i l e a s much as

m i g h t be expected.

A l t h o u g h the D a v i d i c l i n e a g e was the

I b i d . , pp.268-276. 179. O . I o g e r , o c i t . , p.41. 180. Cp. W.F. St n e s v n g , 'Eschatology in C h r o n i c l e s ' , J B t 80 (1961), pp.209-219; h i s arguments a r e n o t convincing. K i s f o r c e d t o make i n f e r e n c e s based upon the C h r o n i c l e r ' s i d e a l i z a t i o n o f David.

178.

. f

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s u b j e c t of s p o r a d i c e r u p t i o n s of hope a f t e r the e x i l e , the 181 r o y a l f i g u r e d i d not re-emerge a s a p o l i t i c a l f o r c e . The hopes which had centered on the k i n g became l a t e n t , were t r a n s f e r r e d t o God o r disappeared as the theocracy exerc i s e d p r i e s t l y c o n t r o l over the community and suppressed the 182 concept o f k i n g s h i p and p o l i t i c a l e x i s t e n c e . With the c o n v e n t i c l e groups r e j e c t i n g the p o l i . t i c a 1 l e a d e r s h i p o f the community, t h e r e was l i t t l e expectation which would a t t a c h t o the k i n g ( w h o was a p o l i t i c a l f i g u r e a s w e l l a s r e l l g i o u s ) . Kingship d i d not become a v i a b l e 'option f o r the Jews until they once a g a i n enjoyed s e l f - r u l e i n the l a t t e r h a l f o f the sencond century B . C . The Hasmonean dynasty provided a touch-

stone f o r the r e v i t a l i z a t i o n o f the concept o f the i d e a l

k i n g , the Messiah.
A group o f f o l l o w e r s o f Deutero-Isaiah, who had demo-

c r a t i z e d the r o y a l o f f i c e ( I s . 5 5 : 3 ) by s u b s t i t u t i n g the p e o p l e f o r the non-exlstent monarch, took t o themselves the r e s p o n s i b i l i t y o f d e c l a r i n g God's i n t e n t i o n s t o the r e s t o f 183 the community. T h e i r view o f the r e s t o r a t i o n (Is.60-62) was patterned on t h e p r e d i c t i o n s o f t h e f r master. Their

p o l i t i c a l p l a t f o r m may have been n a i v e , b u t i t provided an a l t e r n a t i v e t o an 'orthodoxy'

b o g g e d down i n e a r t h l y machi-

181. Jehoiachin (11 Kings 25) appears t o have had no i n f l u e n c e upon the Jews In Babylon; Zerubbabel d i d not long h i n d e r the t h e o c r a c y ' s development, i f he d i d a t a l l ; the r o y a l Psalms and the Davidtc promises could have been r e I n t e r p r e t e d w l t h i n the context o f the theocracy. 182. 0 . P l o g e r , op. c i t . , p . 3 4 . 183. Cf. F.M. C r o s s , ' N e w D i r e c t i o n s in the Study of A p o c a l y p t i c ' , J T h C h v i (1969), pp.164f.

61

nations.

The whole thrust o f the Deutero- and T r i t o - I s a i a n i c

t r a d i t i o n i n I t s e n t r y i n t o the p o l i t i c a l arena i s t o a s s e r t God's a b i l i t y t o a c t d i r e c t l y t o determine the f u t u r e o f the 184 people. This movement s p e l l e d a d i s t i n c t a n d i r r e v e r s i b l e development within the p r o p h e t i c movement.
The c i r c l e of Deutero-Isaiah's disciples w

repulsed

in i t s attempt t o g a i n a v o i c e i n the governing of the

people by a p a r t y c o n t r o l l e d by Zadokite i n t e r e s t s .
This

group a l s o had a strong p r o p h e t i c background. I t harkened 185 back t o Ezekiel a n d t o the Jerusalem Temple t r a d i t i o n s behind h i m . T h e i r r e s t o r a t i o n p l a n s ( c f . Ezek. 40-48) were they were

much more pragmatic than those o f T r i t o - I s a i a h :

a b l e t o e n t e r i n t o p o l i t i c a l a l l i a n c e s , i n v e s t community i n s t i t u t f o n s with a degree o f r e a l i z e d hope and l i v e in the confidence t h a t Yahweh was working through i t and through 186 h i s t o r y f o r the betterment o f the people. I t interpreted events t o j u s t i f y i t s plans and suborned p a s t prophecy t o legitimate i t s e l f . Since the p o s t - e x i l i c community centered around the Temple and i t s p r i e s t h o o d i n s t e a d o f continuing the pre-

184, C f , P O D . Hanson, c i t . , pp.71-75; Hanson spoke o f T r i t o - I s a i a h l o s i n g the P O i t K l s i d e o f the p r o p h e t i c o f f i c e (p.26), while I a m here arguing f o r an e n t r y i n t o p o l i t i c s . Hanson r e f e r r e d t o the a d v i s o r - s t a t u s ( a s enjoyed by I s a i a h ) ; I a m a s s e r t i n g t h a t T r i t o - I s a i a h became t h e p o i n t of p o l i t i c a l o p p o s i t i o n t o t h e theocracy. There i s no c o n t r a d i c t i o n here. 185. Cf, P O D , Hanson, op. c i t 9 pp.209-240. 186, The theocracy d i d n o t r e j e c t the i d e a o f contemp o r a r y prophecy ( c f . Joel and the L e v i t i c a l Temple p e r s o n n e l ) a s long as i t remained within i t s c o n t r o l .

. Y

-.

e x i l i c p a t t e r n of the k i n g and r o y a l c o u r t , a s u g g e s t i o n germane t o the d i s c u s s f o n o f the p r o p h e t i c movement i s i t s awareness and u t i l i z a t i o n o f the c u l t i c t r a d i t i o n s i n the communication o f i t s messages. S c h o l a r s have r e c o g n i z e d

E z e k i e l ' s use o f p r i e s t l y forms and D e u t e r o - I s a i a h ' s marked

a f f i n i t y with the P s a l t e r .

P . von d e r Osten-Sacken l i s t e d

a number o f s c h o l a r s who h a d concluded that the thoughtworld of many of the e x i l i c and p o s t - e x i l i c prophets presupposed the c u l t i c p i c t u r e o f Yahweh as ' e s c h a t o l o g i c a l 187 King'. S c h o l a r s l i k e 3 . Bright w o u l d a d m i t t h a t the c u l t of the second Temple proclaimed Yahweh's Kingship and H i s 188 ' e s c h a t o l o g i c a l triumph' over a l l p e o p l e s . The two p i l l a r s o f the Jerusalem c u l t t r a d i t i o n were the choice o f God t o have H i s Temple t h e r e and t o make 189 D a v i d ' s l i n e a g e the r u l i n g f a m i l y o f His people. The I s r a e l i t e s had i n h e r i t e d a t r a d i t i o n o f Zion which d e p i c t e d the combined a s s a u l t on Zion o f nations and k i n g s and t h e i r 190 r e p u l s i o n by Yahweh. I t was the p r i e s t l y w r i t e r who gave Yahweh was the 191 true K i n g o f the w o r l d , b o t h i n f a c t and f o r a l l time. 187. P O von d e r Osten-Sacken. a r t . c l t . , t1.32. 188. 3 . Bright, A Hi-story o f - l ~ e l , ~ . 4 4 8 . g s h e r r s c h a f t Gottes i m 189. Cf. H.-J. Kraus, Di e Konl' Alten Testament, pp.99 f f . 190. G. von Rad, O l d Testament Theolo I , p.46. heol ogy o f the O l d Y e s tanent, vol. 191. W. E i c h r o d t , T 1 , p.239. t h i s b e l i e f i t s most important c o r o l l a r y :

63
0 . E i s s f e l d t ' s a n a l y s i s o f the ' a c c e s s i o n songs' o f the

Psalter,

192

which e x t o l 1 the r o y a l r u l e of Yahweh,

194

193

1 ed

h i m t o the conclusion that they f r e q u e n t l y d i s p l a y a r a t h e r

e s c h a t o l o g i c a l out1 ook:

The k i n g l y r u l e o f Yahweh, o f which i n the p r e s e n t only tokens a r e t o be seen, w i l l r e v e a l i t s e l f I n g l o r y v i s i b l y t o the whole w o r l d ; o f t h i s the w o r s h i p p i n g community i s quite persuaded.

I . Engnell s t a t e d t h a t the i n t e n s e e x p e c t a t i o n of a
Messiah d u r i n g the c e n t u r i e s o f the a p o c a l y p t i c l i t e r a t u r e ' s p o p u l a r i t y grew o u t o f the r o y a l i d e o l o g y , the s a c r a l k i n g 195 s h i p which I s r a e l shared with many Near Eastern p e o p l e s . He s t a t e d t h a t the concept o f ' w o r l d domination' was an e s s e n t i a l element i n the s a c r a l k i n g s h i p i d e o l o g y and, theref o r e , was a p r i m i t i v e thought a n d not a n e x f l i c i n n o v a t i o n 196 by D e u t e r o - I s a i a h . Engnell h e l d t h a t Judaism a p p l i e d messianic s t a t u s t o l i v i n g persons i n much the same way t h a t e a r l i e r I s r a e l had a n t i c i p a t e d an i d e a l k i n g from D a v i d ' s 197 line. While the prophets may have adopted the concept
o f an 'expected one' from i t s c u l t i c c o n t e x t , i t n e v e r t h e l e s s

remained within the c u l t i n some form, r e p r e s e n t e d a t l e a s t by those passages i n the Psalms which r e t a i n the t r a d i t i o n a l

pp.109-111. - 193. Cf. H. Gunkel, E i n l e i t u n g i n d i e Psalmen, p.329, P s . 47,93,96:10ff.,97,99. 194. 0 . E i s s f e l d t , op. c i t . , p p . l l 0 f . 195. I . E n g n e l l , ' M e s s i a h i n the Old Testament', C r i t i c a l Essays on the Old Testament, pp.215ff. 196. Ib.ld* p.218; C Westermann, The P r a i s e o f God i n the P s a l m s , pp.144f. 197. I . E n g n e l l , a r t . c i t pp.235f.

192.

0 . E i s s f e f d t , The O l d Testament: an I n t r o d u c t i o n ,

. -

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a1 r i t u a l c a t e g o r i e s . The arguments o f these s c h o l a r s concerning the n a t u r e

and i n f l u e n c e of the c u l t in the p o s t - e x i l i c p e r i o d must be

taken i n t o account.

T h e c u l t became a p o t e n t i n f l u e n c e upon

the prophetic-movement and a c o n t r i b u t o r t o the changes which occurred within t h a t t r a d i t i o n . When s c h o l a r s claim

t h a t the prophets gave the a p o c a l y p t i c movement i t s c e n t r a l

themes (Yahweh's Kingship, His judgment upon His enemies, the l i b e r a t i o n of His people and the e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f His 198 rule) they o f t e n n e g l e c t the f a c t that the c u l t proclaimed these same themes a s well. Thls i s s u b s t a n t i a l l y

the argument o f S . Mowinckel, who d e s c r i b e d the r o l e o f the 199 c u l t in the development o f Jewish e s c h a t o l o g y . The s i m i l a r i t i e s between the c u l t i c and p o s t - e x i l i c p r o p h e t i c r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s o f Yahweh's u n i v e r s a l Kingship, the domination o f most phases o f p o s t - e x i l i c Judaism by the c u l t a n d i t s l e a d e r s , a n d the disappearance o f h i s t o r i c a l grounding o f the prophetic f u t u r e hope ( s o t y p i c a l o f the c u l t and u n t y p i c a l o f the p r e - e x i l i c a n d e x i l i c prophets' statements) tend t o confirm the conclusion t h a t t h e r e was a s i g n i f f c a n t r e l a t i o n s h i p between the t r a d i t i o n s o f the c u l t and p o s t - e x l l i c p r o p h e t i c writings. T h i s has been emphasized

by those s c h o l a r s who have observed t h a t the p o s t - e x i l j c

198. 199.

C f . 3 . Hengel, O J . c i t , p.181. S . Mowinckel, Psalmenstudien 1 1 , p p . 2 l l f f .

-.

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prophets served in the c u l t i n a v a r i e t y o f ways.

200

Images taken from the m i l i e u o f the c u l t , which had f o r m e r l y been u t i l i z e d a s i d e a l i z e d p i c t u r e s o f s a l v a t i o n (e.g. I s . 2:2-5) a n d judgment ( I s . 2:lO-22), became more placed i n a

h i s t o r i c i z e d . i n the p o s t - e x i l i c writings ( i . e .

n o n - s p e c i f i e d f u t u r e s e t t i n g or d e s c r i b e d without a r e a l i s t i c h i s t o r i c a l context).

201

The concepts most r e l e v a n t a r e :

the a t t a c k o f the n a t i o n s , the coming o f Yahweh t o j u d g e a n d t o r u l e , a n d the theophany o f Yahweh ( c f . P s . 48:4-8,

96:13,

97:2-5, e t c . ) .

These themes turn u p i n s i g n i f i c a n t passages

The a t t a c k of the 202 n a t i o n s i s found i n e l a b o r a t e form i n Ezek. 38-39, Joel 3-4,

a n d Zech. 12-14.

i n the p o s t - e x i l i c p r o p h e t i c writings.

The theophany i s an important

'element i n the message o f H a g g a i , w h i l e the coming o f God

in judgment and t o r u l e over H i s people i s found i n Malachi

A n examination o f the p r e - e x i l i c prophets r e v e a l s t h a t

t h e s e elements were used q u i t e e a r l y within s p e c i f i c h i s t o r i c a l s i t u a t i o n s ( c f . Amos 5:18-20, Mic. 1:2-5, Zeph.

1:2-8, e t c . ) , where h i s t o r i c a l r e a l i t i e s could be i d e n t i f i e d .

Such s e t t i n g s d i d not e x i s t f o r the p o s t - e x i l i c prophets, 203

s o they became i n s t e a d proclamations o f Yahweh's ( u n i v e r s a l )

Cf. 3 . Lindblom, o c i t s pp.206-210. p.196, d e s c r i b e d t h i s 201. W . Zimmerli, op. 1 I s a i a n i c passages a s 'images 202. T h i s Dassase may be o f e x i l i c o r i g -in. 203. 6. von Rad; Old-Testament Theolog 1 1 , p.297, a t t r i b u t e d to t h i s f a c t , Inter a l i a , the demfse o f c l a s s i c a l

200.

. -. A , .

prophecy.

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Ki ngs h i p .

I would conclude by s t a t i n g that t h e r e were two major b i f u r c a t i o n s o f the prophetic movement a f t e r the e x i l e , one concerning the f u t u r e hope a n d the o t h e r concerning the a t t i t u d e toward the c u l t a n d I t s l e a d e r s h i p . Every post-

e x f l i c p r o p h e t i c f i g u r e a n d composition can be c h a r a c t e r i z e d

a s e i t h e r p r o - c u l t i c or a n t i - c u l t i c o r , s i m i l a r l y , a s ex=
p r e s s i n g a f u t u r e hope ..'beyond h i s t o r y ' or within h i s t o r y .
I t appears to m e t h a t H a g g a i , Zechariah 1-8 a n d Joel

a r e a l l p r o - c u l t i c and t h a t they each o f f e r a d e f i n i t e 204 future hope. -The prophetic f i g u r e s o f the C h r o n i c l e r a r e a l s o p r o - c u l t t c , y e t they do not speak o f a f u t u r e hope beyond 'an immediate h i s t o r i c a l s i t u a t i o n . Taken t o g e t h e r ,

t h e s e w r i t i n g s may be taken a s r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s o f the form

o f t h e o c r a t i c prophecy.

Within the t h e o c r a t i c framework,

they r e p r e s e n t the extremes o f prophets e x p r e s s i n g a f u t u r e beyond h i s t o r y a n d r e s t r l c t e d t o p a r t t c u l a r s i t u a t l o n s . The a n t i - c u l t l c prophetic movement i s more complex than the p r o - c u l t i c . Since the Temple stood c l o s e t o the

c o r e o f the essence o f Judaism, i t held an a t t r a c t i o n f o r a l l Jews. The a n t i - c u l t i c c o n v e n t i c l e s were influenced by

the Temple and included i t i n t h e i r v i s i o n s o f the f u t u r e (cf.

I s . 66:ZO-24).

Trito-Isaiah,

Deutero-Zechariah a n d

204. I h o l d t o the e s s e n t i a l unity o f the book of J o e l ; c f . H.W. W o l f f , J o e l and Amos, pp.6-8. I cannot a g r e e with Wolff t h a t Joel belonged t o the c o n v e n t i c l e milieu (p.12).

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Malachi a l l r e p r e s e n t c l r c l e s which were o r i g i n a l l y proc u l t i c a n d which became e s t r a n g e d from t h e c u l t and d i s e n chanted with i t s l e a d e r s .

Their o p p o s i t i o n t o the c u l t

cannot, t h e r e f o r e , be r e a d i n a17 p a s s a g e s with t h e same i n t e n s i t y ; their w r i t i n g s r e p r e s e n t d i f f e r e n t d e g r e e s o f a l i e n a t i o n from t h e i r s p i r i t u a l home. They h o l d o u t hope

f o r t h e p u r i f i c a t i o n o f the community and i t s i n s t i t u t i o n a l 205 structures. There was no permanent break between the t h e o c r a c y and t h e c o n v e n t i c l e s , f n , t h e s e n s e o f permanent open c o n f l i c t . Hanson's c o n j e c t u r e t h a t t h e C h r o n i c l e r ' s writings i n d i c a t e

a more harmonious r e l a t i o n s h i p between t h e two f a c t i o n s i s

certainly a possibility.
B.

T h e o c r a t i c Prophecy

I have argued that we can e x p e c t c e r t a i n p o s t - e x i l i c

p r o p h e t s t o be s u p p o r t i v e of the c u l t a t Jerusalem and o f i t s leaders.
Of the p o s t - e x i l i c p r o p h e t i c w r i t i n g s , H a g g a i ,

Z e c h a r i a h 1-8 and Joel f i t t h i s d e s c r i p t i o n .

206

Haggai and

Z e c h a r i a h 1-8 stem from t h e r e s t o r a t i o n p e r i o d ; J o e l has been d a t e d t o t h e f o u r t h o r third c e n t u r y B . C .

P O D . Hanson has argued c o n v i n c i n g l y t h a t E z e k . 40-48
and I s . 60-62 r e p r e s e n t ' r e s t o r a t i o n programs' of g r o u p s

205. Both 0 . Pl6ger and P O D . Hanson, i n s t r e s s i n g the c o n v e n t i c l e a s the home o f e s c h a t o l o g i c a l t h i n k i n g , m i s s t h e p o i n t t h a t t h e o r i g i n a l break was o v e r e t h i c a l misconduct by the theocratic leaders. 206. Ezek. 38-39 ( i f p o s t - e x i l i c ) c o u l d be i n c l u d e d a l s o . T y p o l o g i c a l l y , i t i s simtlar t o J o e l 3-4.

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vying f o r the l e a d e r s h i p o f the e a r l y p o s t - e x i l i c com-

muni ty.

207

He represented the f o l l o w e r s o f Ezekiel a s

pragmatic p r i e s t s whose ' a p o c a l y p t i c ' tendencies, l i k e the messages o f H a g g a t and Zechariah, were o p e r a t i v e within a s i t u a t i o n o f community c o n f l i c t and designed to a c h i e v e 208 supremacy and c o n t r o l in that c o n f l i c t . While Hanson
d i d admit a r e a l f u t u r e - o r i e n t e d impatience i n E z e k i e l him-

s e l f , he has s t r e s s e d t o o s t r o n g l y the l e g a l i s t i c s i d e o f t h i s prophet a n d has wrongly l i m f t e d h i s c o n t r i b u t i o n s t o Judaism to the theocracy a l o n e . E z e k i e l we1 1 :

G.W.

Anderson summarized

209

6 z e k i e g represents a transition to a new emphasis i n prophecy and t o new developments i n I s r a e l ' s r e l i g i o n . Although the message i s by no means absent from the teachings o f h i s p r e d e c e s s o r s , he presents i t with a f u l n e s s o f d e t a i l which i s new. In t h i s he h e r a l d s the p o s t - e x i l i c prophecies o f r e s t o ration. He i s a l s o the morning star o f apocal y p t i c , even i f we hold that x x x v i i i a n d x x x i x a r e from a l a t e r w r i t e r . The Z a d o k i t e p a r t y , which included the remnants o f the

p r e - e x i l i c p r i e s t h o o d , claimed Ezekiel a s i t s own.

I t may
210

have c a r r i e d o u t an e d i t i n g o f Ezek. 40-48 which l i m i t e d p r i e s t l y f u n c t i o n i n g t o themselves ( c f . 44:lO-14, etc.).

T h e Z a d o k i t e s were f o r c e d , d u r i n g the r e s t o r a t i o n e r a , t o

walk the l i n e between the e x t r a v a g a n t , u n r e a l i s t f c claims

207. P.D. Hanson, OJ. c i t . , pp.71-75. 208. I b i d . , pp.233-259. 209. Anderson, op. c l t . , p.139. 210. 0 . E i s s f e l d t , op. c r ' p.380; P O D . Hanson, op. C i t s pp.238-240.

-.

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o f the f o l l o w e r s o f D e u t e r o - I s a i a h and the d i s c o u r a g e d 211 They sought r e s i g n a t i o n of the m a j o r i t y o f the people.

t o r e e s t a b l i s h the c u l t o f the p r e - e x i l i c p e r i o d under t h e i r c o n t r o l , u t i l i z i n g o f f i c i a l decree ( a n a l l i a n c e w i t h the P e r s i a n s ) or renewed prophecy ( H a g g a i and Z e c h a r i a h ) t o achieve t h e i r g o a l s , These two e a r l y p o s t - e x i l i c prophets were concerned t o

a d d r e s s themselves t o the discrepancy between the c o n d i t i o n s

i n the l a n d and the promises o f the e x i l i c prophets concerning the r e s t o r a t i o n . a s a background t o t h e i r commands t o the people t o r e b u i l d the Temple. h e r i t e d mainly from D e u t e r o - I s a i a h . a g e ' ( H a g . 2:15-19, Zech. 8 : l l - 1 5 ) This t e n s i o n was i n = The v i s i o n s o f a 'new ushered i n by the r e =

b u i l d i n g o f the Temple can be seen i n D e u t e r o - I s a i a h ' s

d e c l a r a t i o n o f a 'new b e g i n n i n g ' natural f e r t i l l t y ( I s . 4 1 : 1 8 f . ) .

( I s . 42:9)

and a super-

Temple was seen mainly in Ezek, 40-48.

The emphasis upon the 212

Joel ' c r e a t e d ' h i s own tension in a way q u i t e d i s t i n c t

from h i s p r e d e c e s s o r s ,

He c o n t r a s t e d a l o c u s t p l a g u e ( a

Day of Yahweh event t o ilee2) t o t h e e s c h a t o l o g i c a l 'Day o f

Yahweh', when Yahweh would deal with the nations h o s t i l e t o

A l t h o u g h he made use 213 of o l d e r t r a d i t f o n s a n d the p r o p h e t i c w r f t i n g s , Joe'l d i d

H i m and t o His people (4:1-3,9-17).

0 . PI(!ger, o c i t . , p.33, 212. W , Rudolph, a g 3 , S a c h a r j a 1-8, S a c h a r j a 9 4 4 , Maleachi, p.56, summarized H a g g a i ' s r e l a t i o n t o p a s t p r o p h e t s . 213. HOW, Wolff, ~ p eft,, , pp.9-12.

211.

. -9r

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not s u f f e r the c o n s t r a i n t s o f h i s t o r y upon h i s freedom t o c r e a t e a d e s c r i p t i o n of the future.

H a g g a i ' s message centered on the r e b u i l d i n g o f the

Temple.

He was c r i t i c a l o f the community a n d i t s l e a d e r s was p o s t -

o n l y s o long a s the d e c i s i o n t o r e b u i l d (1:Z-11) poned.

He l i n k e d a g r i c u l t u r a l abundance with the l a y i n g of The l e a d e r s ' d e d i c a t i o n

the Temple's foundation (2:15-19).

t o t h i s p r o j e c t e l i c i t e d Haggai's assurance t h a t God was

with them ( 1 : 1 3 ) .
The Temple's presence seemed t o a s s u r e

the f u t u r e peace, p r o s p e r i t y and glory o f I s r a e l ( 2 : 7 - 9 ) .

H a g g a i assumed that the 'new o r d e r ' w o u l d have t o have a

.sacral center.

214

The Temple r e p r e s e n t e d Yahweh's presence 215

on e a r t h and provided the s o l e b a s i s for I s r a e l ' s e x i s t e n c e

a s the people o f God.
H a g g a i ' s use o f the theophany tradition (2:6-7,21-ZZ), 216 which o r i g l n a t e d in the c u l t , appears t o be t h i s prophet's

way o f b r i d g i n g the gap between the r e a l i t y o f l i f e i n

520 B.C.
and. the q u a l i t y o f l i f e a n t i c f p a t e d i n the f u t u r e

( t h e ' a g e o f bounty' d e s c r i b e d by D e u t e r o - I s a i a h ) .

The

view t h a t the theophany r e f e r r e d s o l e l y t o the i n t e r n a t i o n a l

turmoil o f 5 2 0 B . C .
Jerusalem Temple.

f a i l s t o be convincing because i t cannot

account f o r the b r i n g i n g o f the n a t i o n s ' w e a l t h t o t h e

214. G . von Rad, 0 ~ 9 c i t . , p.282. 215. R O E . Clements, God and Temple, p.125; P.R. Ackroyd, 9p. c i t . , p . 1 5 7 . 216. L T r e m i a s , Theophanie, p.68.

71
From our p e r s p e c t i v e , i t seems odd t h a t the l l t e r a r y d e p o s i t o f H a g g a i ' s m i n i s t r y should have been granted canonical s t a t u s :

h i s p r e d i c t i o n s d i d not come t o pass.

C a r r o l l have pointed o u t ,

However, as G o von Rad and R . P .

the same charge could b e - l e y e l e d a g a i n s t D e u t e r o - I s a i a h . There were those who e i t h e r saw a k i n d o f f u l f i l l m e n t o f H a g g a i ' s m i n i s t r y - i n the completion o f the Temple o r who

217

c r e d i t e d H a g g a i ' s r o l e in the r e b u i l d i n g above h i s message. We have a h i n t o f the l a t t e r opinion i n the book o f Ezra

t o the substance o f h l s message.

( k l , 6 : 1 4 ) , whose author r e f e r r e d t o the m i n i s t r y and n o t 218

Zechariah possessed a posi t i v e a t t i t u d e toward the c u l t

and the Temple l i k e H a g g a i , though he d i d n o t e x p r e s s i t as

forcefully.

He d i d not d r i v e the people t o b u i l d the Temple

through e x h o r t a t i o n , b u t motivated them by h i s confidence t h a t Yahweh had w i l t e d i t s renewed e x i s t e n c e (l:l6).

219

H i s a p p r o p r i a t i o n o f p r i e s t l y t r a d i t t o n s was n o t a b l y l e s s
than i t could have been, although one can argue t h a t He took

for granted these t h i n g s .

f e a t u r e d p o s i t i o n (3:l-lO), authorship and intention.

The priesthood was g i v e n a

b u t there are questions as t o

The p r i e s t l y theme of community

p u r i t y i s f o u n d in the v l s i o n s o f Zech. 5 , b u t i t c o u l d have been d e r i v e d from the message o f E z e k l e l , which i n c l u d e d the same theme.

G. von Rad, op. c f t . , p . 2 8 4 ; R.P. C a r r o l l , When Prophecy F a i l e d , pp.150-156. 218. C f . D . L . P e t e r s e n , op c i t . , p.56. 219. 60 von Rad, op. c i t . , p X 5 217;
0

72

Zechariah was s t r o n g l y i n f l u e n c e d by E z e k i e l , f o l l o w i n g
h i m i n a s t r e s s upon humility and e t h i c a l concern, hopes f o r

the f u t u r e Temple, and the use o f the vision-form and b i z a r r e imagery.

220

His theology showed a g r e a t a p p r e c i a t i o n f o r

the thought o f Ezekiel

221

b u t he a l s o had a deep i n c l i n a t i o n

toward the message o f Deutero-Isaiah affa

themes o f com-

f o r t , u n i v e r s a l i s m , dependence upon g r a c e , assurance of God's f a i t h f u l n e s s , and confidence i n God's i n t e n t i o n s f o r the 222 These two prophets a l s o shared c e r Jerusalem community. 223 t a l n 1 i t e r a r y forms , l e a d i n g some s c h o l a r s t o comment on the i n f l u e n c e o f Deutero-Isaiah on Zechariah.
224

A t the same time, t h e r e a r e s t r f k i n g s i m i l a r i t i e s be-

tween Zech. 1:2-6 and 7:4-14 a n d the prose s e c t i o n s o f 225 3 erem i a h One i s simply unable t o c a t e g o r i z e Zechariah

on the b a s i s o f o n l y one o f h i s p r o p h e t i c p r e d e c e s s o r s .

One

0 . E i s s f e l d t , S.c i t . , p.433. POD. Hanson, op. c K , p p . 2 4 9 f . 2 2 2 . P.R. Ackroyd, o ~ . T t . ,p.177; R . Mason, H a g g a i , Zechariah and Malachi , pp.28,J3ff0 2 2 3 . R . F . Melugin, The Formation o f I s a i a h 4 0 - 5 5 , i d e n t i f i e d the v a r i o u s forms o f D e u t e r o - I s a i a h ' s s a l v a t i o n and e x h o r t a t i o n o r a c l e s , pp,13-19,121-128, which a l s o a r e u t i l i z e d by - Zechariah, Jones , H a g g a i ,, Zechariah ar D.R. Jones, 2 2 4 . D.R, and Malachi, Proph p.60; G . A . Smith, The Book o f the Twelve Prophets, v o l . 2, i e N a c h t g e s k h t e des S pp.190f.; L O G . Rignell, Die Sia c h a r j a , cht pp.244f.; K O G a l l i n g , ' D i e Exilswende cilswende i n der S i c h t des S a c h a r j a ' VT if (1952), p.36; W.S. McCullough, The Histor and L i t te errah tu r e o f - t the h e P a l e s t i n i a n Jews from Cyrus t o P.31. 225. M , W e i n f e l d , Deuteronomy a n d the Deuteronomic School, p . 7 ; c f . O.H. Steck, op. c i t . , pp.12 74 ,143f.

220. 221.

---Tzxf

73

must r e c o g n i z e h i s m u l t t p l e r e l a t i o n s h i p and keep them in b a l a n c e in analyzing h i s message. The prophet Joel was a worthy s u c c e s s o r t o H a g g a i and
f o r he maintained t h e i r p o s i t i v e a t t i t u d e to227 ward the Temple a n d i t s r f t u a l s , a f f i r m e d t h e i r hope f o r

Zechariah,

226

a g r e a t f u t u r e and continued t h e i r emphasis upon repentance 228 accompanying Yahweh's Involvement with the community.
J o e l appeared a s a c l a s s i c a l example o f the p o s t - e x i l i c 229 G.W. Anderson summarized Joel within cul t i c prophet. 230 the p r o p h e t i c movement:

There a r e no denunciations o f the r e l i g i o u s , moral, and s o c i a l abuses attacked by the p r e - e x i l i c prophets; a n d the g e n e r a l r e c a l l t o l o y a l observance o f the c u l t i s t y p i c a l o f the p o s t - e x i l i c p e r i o d . The d e s c r i p t i o n o f the coming Day o f Yahweh, and o f the judgment o f the nations i s a l s o i n keeping with l a t e r prophecy. Taken a s a whole, the atmosphere and i d e a s o f the book a r e t y p i c a l o f the s t a g e o f t r a n s i t i o n from prophecy t o a p o c a l y p t i c . J o e l ' s c a l l t o the people t o p a r t i c i p a t e i n the r i t u a l s of the Temple marked the accepted view t h a t J o e l was i n h a r mony with the c u l t and the Temple l e a d e r s h i p o f h i s day. There i s l i t t l e question t h a t the Day o f Yahweh i s the

Ahlstrh, ' J o e l and the Temple Cult o f Jerusalem', V T S u i x (1971), p.61. 2 2 7 . Joe s sarcasm ( 2 : l Z f . ) does n o t i n d f c a t e h f s disenchantment with the c u l t ; i t i s h i s means t o m o t i v a t e t r u e repentance b e f o r e God. 228. A . S. Kapelrlud, Joel S t u d i e s , p.180 229, D . R . dones, I s a l a h 56 66 and Joel , p.131; A.S. Kapel rud, c i t . , p. 176: W x n d e r s on, op, c i t 8 p.147. 230.
226.
G.W.

1p

%:

74
c o h e s i v e themeof the book.
231

The f i r s t two chapters des-

c r i b e a l o c u s t p l a g u e a s a manifested 'Day of Yahweh'; the l a s t chapters d e c l a r e the Day o f Yahweh a s a f u t u r e event

o f judgment a g a i n s t the n a t i o n s .
A blending of the

p r e s e n t and f u t u r e p i c t u r e s appears i n 2:1-17. the f i r s t prophet t o use the phrase a7a7

bl7

232

Joel was

i n relation to

the Jewish f u t u r e hope o f the condemnation o f the n a t i o n s .

G.W.

Ahlstram has concluded, depending upon the works

of H . Gunkel and I . E n g n e l l , t h a t the f i n a l s e c t i o n o f Joel

presented the u n f o l d i n g o f a ~ f v ,the ' t r u e o r d e r of 233 existence'. T h i s apt^ had always been p r e s e n t i n the c u l t a s the ' r e a l o r d e r ' o f t h i n g s .

The n p t v included the

r e a l i t i e s o f Yahweh a s C r e a t o r a n d King, although these r e a l i t i e s were unseen. The Jewfsh community attempted t o

o r d e r i t s e x i s t e n c e by the ;\3tr and saw i t as the g o a l and

future s t a t e o f the people.

I t i s c u r i o u s that J o e l seemed not t o seek t h e manifest a t i o n of the a3tu.
He r e j o i c e d i n answered prayer ( 2 : 1 8 f . )

and in the p r o s p e c t o f an unclouded f u t u r e .

In J o e l , a s in H a g g a i a n d Z e c h a r i a h , Ezekiel made h i s

231. H O W . W o l f f , o c i t . , pp.7-12, a s s e r t e d the authent i c i t y o f the Day o f Ya weh passages and h e l d t o the u n i t y o f the book, r e j e c t i n g t h e o l d e r c r i t i c a l p o s i t i o n . 232. HOW. W o l f f , op. c i t . , p p . 6 f . , a s s e r t e d t h a t 2:l-17 r e f e r r e d t o a comfng c a t a s t r o p h e for Jerusalem. tie argued 1 ) the passage l o o k s t o the future, 2 ) i t speaks o f a g r e a t army not a p l a g u e o f l o c u s t s , 3 ) i t employs ' t r a d i t f o n a l ' p r o p h e t i c d e s c r i p t i o n . However, the c o n t e x t stands a g a i n s t t h l s view and Wolff's arguments a r e s t r a i n e d . 233. G.W. A h l ' s t r h , art. c i t . , pp.60f.

. 8

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influence f e l t .

There a r e strong s i m i l a r i t i e s between the nations a r e g a t h e r e d , d e f e a t e d ,

Ezek. 38-39 and Joel 3-4:

and judged; the Spirit I s poured out upon the p e o p l e ; the 234 f o r t u n e s o f I s r a e l a r e r e v e r s e d (WIXJ 3 7 ~ ~ ) . These

passages e x h i b i t the f u t u r e hope lacking i n the C h r o n k l e s ,

b u t they minimize the e t h i c a l statements c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f

Trito-Isaiah,

Deutero-Zechariah and Malachi.

For t h i s

reason among o t h e r s , I cannot accept 0 . P l t g e r ' s c o n c l u s i o n , 235 and o t h e r s who have f o l l o w e d h f s t h i n k i n g , t h a t Joel 3-4 must have been the product of an e s c h a t o l o g i c a l c o n v e n t i c l e opposed t o the community l e a d e r s h i p .

During the y e a r s spanned by these t h r e e p r o p h e t s ,

.

another s t r a n d o f t h e o c r a t i c prophecy i s d i s c e r n i b l e , which 236 i s r e p r e s e n t e d in the C h r o n i c l e s . T h e Levi t e s , c r e d i t e d

with the r o l e o f p r o p h e t i c spokesman, d i d not m a n i f e s t a 237 future-oriented outlook; they focused on t h e o l o g i c a l doc238 t r i n e s a s they m i g h t r e l a t e t o s p e c i f i c h i s t o r i c a l c r i s e s .
They d i d , however', p l a c e g r e a t emphasis upon c u l t i c r i t u a l

a s a means t o secure v i c t o r y In b a t t l e .

These v i c t o r i e s ,

-.

234. I assume t h a t Ezek. 38-39 was w r i t t e n by E z e k i e l or a d i s c i p l e w i g h t h e t h e o c r a t i c c i r c l e of h i s f o l l o w e r s . 2 3 5 . 0 . P l o g e r , op. c i t . , p p . 9 6 f f . ; H O W . W o l f f , op. tit 9 p.12. W o l f f ' s c a t e g o r i e s (Torah o r c o n v e n t i c l e prop h e t s ) a r e too r e s t r i c t i v e . 236. C f . F.M. C r o s s , 'A Reconstruction o f the Judean R e s t o r a t i o n ' , J B l 94 ( 1 9 7 5 ) , pp.11-14. 237. 0 . "ITger, op. C i t , p . 4 1 . 238. G, von Rad, a r t . c f t pp.269f.

-. -

76

f o l l o w i n g upon proper sacramental p r e p a r a t i o n , were seen a s p r o o f s of Yahweh's f a i t h f u l n e s s a n d a b i l i t y t o save. The

h o l y war i d e o l o g y o f confidence i n Yahweh who f i g h t s f o r I s r a e l was c o n s t a n t l y a p p l i e d .

239

T h e c o n t r o l l i n g a s p e c t o f the C h r o n i c l e r ' s sense o f

h i s t o r y was Yahweh's method o f working through c u l t i c

ritual a n d through the f o r c e s o f I s r a e l t o a c h i e v e H i s p u r 240

poses.

T h i s a t t f t u d e i n v o l v i n g the events of I s r a e l ' s

d i s t a n t p a s t a l s o had c u r r e n t a p p l i c a t i o n i n the C h r o n i c l e r ' s

p o s t - e x i l i c s i t u a t i o n ; even though he d e a l t with prophecy a s
an h i s t o r i c a l phenomenon, the teaching m i n i s t r y of the suc-

c e s s o r s of those prophets was being c a r r i e d out i n h i s own 241 day.

C.

Conventicle Prophecy I have s t a t e d m y support f o r those s c h o l a r s who have

d i s c e r n e d a p o r t i o n o f the p r o p h e t i c movement which was r e j e c t e d by and d i s i l l u s i o n e d w i t h the c u l t i c l e a d e r s h i p o f 242 I t i s perhaps t o o g r e a t a the e a r l y p o s t - e x i l i c p e r i o d . s t e p t o speak o f a p r o p h e t i c ' t r a d i t i o n ' because the e v i dence f o r t h i s movement f n v o l v e s independent blocks o f

material (Trlto-Isaiah,

Deutero-Zechariah and M a l a c h i ) with

0 . P 1 6ger

G o vo n Rad , Der h e i l i g e Krieg s P.9.

Ibid.
s

O.H.

m. PP. 53ff.; P O D . Hanson, e f t . , pp.208-211. art. -

P.4 L .
3

op. c t , p . 3 3

O J .

c i t . , pp.32-208;

77
l i t t l e e x t e r n a l evidence t o s u p p o r t o r t o d e s c r i b e an ong o i n g p r o p h e t i c movement a p a r t from t h e Temple and p r i e s t -

hood,

W e c o u l d indeed w i s h f o r an o b j e c t i v e d e s c r i p t i o n o f

the c i r c l e s from which t h e s e writings came, f o r t h e l i t e r a t u r e i t s e l f b e a r s the d i s t o r t i o n of s u b j e c t i v e rea c t i o n t o d i f f i c u l t c o n d i t i o n s within the Jewish community. Moreover , our know1 edge o f t h e pos t - e x i 1 i c p e r i od i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d by enormous g a p s , More than one s c h o l a r has

lamented t h e l a c k o f s o l i d e v i d e n c e and d e f i n i t i v e s t a t e ments on t h i s p e r i o d and has q u e s t i o n e d t h e p r e s e n t s t a t u s 243 o f r e s e a r c h and the f i n a l i t y o f r e c e n t work, As E z e k i e l was adopted a s t h e b e g i n n i n g p o i n t f o r t h e

a p p e a r a n c e o f p r i e s t l y t r a d i t i o n s w i t h i n t h e p r o p h e t i c movement and a s t h e s p r i n g b o a r d f o r fundamental developments

within Judaism, s o the p r o p h e t i d e n t i f i e d a s D e u t e r o - I s a i a h

p l a y e d a p i v o t a l r o l e i n the p r o p h e t i c movement o f I s r a e l . D . B a l t z e r has s t u d i e d t h e themes common t o E z e k i e l and 244 He noted t h a t both u t i l i z e d t h e Exodus Deutero-IsaSah. t r a d i t i o n , E z e k i e l s t r e s s i n g the new s e r v i c e t o God and D e u t e r o - I s a i a h t h e comforting a s p e c t o f r e l e a s e from bon245 dage. They use d i f f e r e n t v o c a b u l a r i e s , E z e k i e l f a v o r i n g Temple p h r a s e o l o g y and D e u t e r o - I s a i a h employing Jerusalem/ 246 Zion categories. E z e k i e l spoke o f Yahweh's ' g l o r y ' a s

-.

2 4 3 , P.R. Ackroyd, ape -= c f t 8 p.138; S , A , Cook, a r t , c f t 8 p.31, 244. D. B a l t z e r , E z e c h i e l und D e u t e r o - J e s a j a , 245. I b i d . , p . 2 5 . 246. Ibrd 8 p.48.

-.

78

the m a n i f e s t a t i o n o f His presence, w h i l e Deutero-Isaiah 247 saw i t a s the w i t n e s s o f His s o v e r e i g n t y . Ezekiel saw

the people o f the r e s t o r a t i o n a s ' p u r i f i e d ' , w h i l e DeuteroI s a i a h d e c l a r e d them 'redeemed'.

248

B a l t z e r concluded

that, although Ezekiel r e p r e s e n t e d the realm o f the p r i e s t

and Deutero-Isaiah was thoroughly steeped i n Psalmic

t r a d i t i o n s , they have much in common and t h e i r r e s t o r a t i o n 249 messages were q u i t e s i m i l a r . I t i s s i g n i f k a n t t h a t when Deutero-Isaiah c i r c u l a t e d h i s messages o f l i b e r a t i o n , the immediate h i s t o r i c a l s i t u a t i o n c o u l d , a t l e a s t p a r t i a l l y , b e a r the weight o f h i s exaggerations. S c h o l a r s have l o n g noted t h a t Deutero-

. I s a i a h deserved the a p e l l a t i o n ' f a l s e prophet' (according t o the g u i d e l i n e s o f Deut. 1 3 A - 5 a n d 18:15-22), p r e d i c t i o n s d i d not come t o p a s s . n a t i v e t o an honest
250

for his

His e x c e s s i v e a n t i -

c f p a t i o n w i t h o u t h l s t o r i c a l grounding o f f e r e d no r e a l a l t e r g r a p p l i n g with the r e a l i t i e s .

ld, Zimmerli has s t a t e d t h a t the o l d t r a d i t l o n s o f 251 Heilsgeschichte were introduced i n new form t o u n d e r g i r d 252 Deutero- I s a i a h ' s depi c t i o n o f a f u t u r e s a l v a t i o n , He

f o l l o w e d that statement by n o t i n g t h a t

...the e s c h a t o l o -

to C

P.9 9 0 P P . 178-182. Ander son, op. c i t . , p.113, and h i s r e f e r e n c e 0r r e y . Also S R, P . Carroll, ope c i t . , pp. 1 5 l f C f , G, von Rad , O l d Testament t h e o l o g y 11,
0s
0 ,
0

I b i d .I P . 7 1 .

PP.2

252. W. Zimmerli, ' P r o p h e t i c Proclamation and Refnterp r e t a t t o n ' , T r a d i t i o n and TheoTogy I n the O l d Testament, ed. D.A. k n i g h t , pp.90f.

79

g i c a l m i r a c l e of t h e new e x o d u s ' i s b r o u g h t i n t o t h e r e a l m o f h i s t o r y through i t s I d e n t l f i c a t i o n with t h e r e s t o r a t i o n 253 T h e crux of D e u t e r o - I s a i a h ' s message w a s : God's event, a d v e n t i s imminent and i t w i l l be the f i n a l theophany t o 254 I s r a e l and the w o r l d . T h i s c o n c e p t o f t e n s i o n between h i s t o r i c a l event and d i v i n e a c t i v i t y i s important.
B u i l d i n g upon I t , P O D , Hanson

h a s argued t h a t D e u t e r o - I s a i a h m a i n t a i n e d ' t h e c l a s s i c a l p r o -

p h e t i c t r a d i t i o n ' o f b a l a n c e between ' v i s i o n ' (myth and h i s t o r y ) .

255

and ' r e a l i t y '

In D e u t e r o - I s a i a h t h i s t e n s i o n was i n -

creased t o the breaking point:

The v i s i o n i n ch, 4 0 t u g s h e a v i l y a t i t s h i s t o r f c a l m o o r i n g s ; the myth in ch. 51 seems r e a d y t o b r e a k l o o s e f r o m mundane r e a l i ti e s , and the d i s j u n c t f o n coming' between p a s t and f u t u r e a c t s threatens t o s p l i t those a c t s a s u n d e r . Few added s t r a i n s would be req u i r e d t o produce a p o c a l y p t i c . Hanson a l s o n o t e d t h a t t h i s t e n s i o n d i d n o t r e q u i r e t h e apocalyptic l i t e r a r y devlces.

H e Gese c o n t r a s t e d t h e ' f o r m a l
the apocalyptic 'content'

characteristics o f

a p o c a l y p t i c c o n t a i n e d i n Ezeklel ( e x c e p t ch, 38-39) w i t h o f D e u t e r o - I s a i a h and came t o

256

a c o n c l u s i o n s i m i l a r t o Hansen's,

The s i g n i f i c a n c e of t h e

return was a l l - i m p o r t a n t :

253. W . Zlmmerli, ope c i t . , p.218; c f . R.C, Dentan, The Knowledge o f God i n A n c f e n t I s r a e l , pp.212f. 2 5 4 , - C f G von Rad:O%. c i t . , pe243. 2 5 5 . P , D . Hanson, Testament A p o c a l y p t i c Ree x a m i n e d ' , Inter x x v (1971), p p . 4 6 7 f . 256. d e , ' A n f a n g und Ende d e r A p o k a l y p t l k , darg e s t e l l t am S a c h a r j a b u c h ' , Z T h K l x x (1973), p.23,

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1
ment.

Dies i s t n i c h t e i n E r e i g n i s unter d e n v i e l e n E r e i g n i s s e n d e r W e l t g e s c h f c h t e , sonern Z i e l u n d Ende d e r Geschfchte...Der a l t e on i s t z u Ende, d e r neue beginnt mit d e r Konigsherrschaft Gottes a u f dem Zion.

I t was a t t h i s p o i n t , f o r Gese and Hanson, t h a t the apocal y p t i c movement b e g a n t o s e p a r a t e from the p r o p h e t i c move-

Hanson has demonstrated how T r i t o - I s a i a h i s t o be d i f 257 f e r e n t i a t e d from D e u t e r o - I s a i a h . fie argued f o r c o n t i n u i t y on the grounds t h a t they shared the ' e s c h a t o l o g i c a l ' i d e a l
and d e s t i n y o f the community a n d Yahweh's r e l a t i o n s h i p t o

the community.

He a s s e r t e d that, i n T r i t o - I s a i a h ,

there

i s an i n c r e a s i n g l y strong a n d p e r v a s i v e polemic element, 258 which i s absent from D e u t e r o - I s a i a h .

I n h i s analysis o f Trito-Isaiah,

Hanson d i s c e r n e d a

p a t t e r n o f gradual d i s i n t e g r a t i o n o f the a r c h a i c p o e t i c s t y l e adopted by t h a t c i r c l e from Deutero-Isaiah.

This

p r o c e s s enabled h i m t o determine the sequence i n which the 259 C omv a r i o u s passages o f T r i t o - I s a i a h were composed. bined with t h i s breakdown o f p o e t i c form a n d meter, Hanson p o i n t e d t o an acrimonious a t t i t u d e toward the Temple l e a d e r s which became i n c r e a s i n g l y b i t t e r . He a t t r i b u t e d

2 5 7 . P.D. Hanson, O J . c i t , pp.32-46. 258. I b i d . , p.42. 259. Ibid,, p.60, and c f . pp.46-208. The ' c o n t e x t u a l t y p o l o g i c a l ' model which Hanson has developed ( p . 4 1 ) i s adequate, i f a l l h i s assumptions are t r u e (e.g. the breakdown i n p o e t i c s t y l e could be b e t t e r a t t r i b u t e d t o the d i f f e r ences between a u t h o r s ) . A g l a r i n g abuse i s h i s a t t e m p t t o p r e c i s e l y d a t e the p o r t i o n s o f T r i t o - I s a l a h .

-.

81 t h i s a t t i t u d e t o the r e j e c t i o n , by Zadokfte p r i e s t s , o f the Trito-Isaiantc blue-print f o r restoration (Is.60-62) i n 260 f a v o r o f t h e i r own program. I t was t h i s p o l i t i c a l d i v i s i o n which c o l o r e d much o f the e a r l y p o s t - e x i l i c p e r i o d and determined the n a t u r e o f the prophetic movement a t t h i s time and f o r y e a r s t o come. The l i t e r a t u r e included under t h e r u b r i c of 'convent i d e prophecy' i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d by p r e d i c t i o n s o f and y e a r n i n g s f o r judgment a g a i n s t enemies. passage, Trito-Isaiah (59:16-19) In a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c

envisioned judgment by God Himself against

on b e h a l f o f h i s own c i r c l e ( 5 9 : 9 - 1 5 )

those w h o had oppressed them, f o r s a k i n g j u s t i c e , peace a n d 261 truth (59:l-8). Deutero-Zechariah f o r e s a w the d e s t r u c t i o n o f a l a r g e p o r t i o n o f the Jews (13:8, 14:Z) a s w e l l as the a n n i h i l a t i o n of the armies o f the n a t i o n s who would march a g a i n s t Zion (12:3-9, 1k12-13). Malachi a s s e r t e d t h e

n e c e s s i t y of a p u r i f y i n g judgment upon t h e p r i e s t h o o d ( 3 : l - 4 )
a n d o f d e s t r u c t i o n o f the wicked among the p e o p l e (3:5,19-21).

Hanson h a s a s s e r t e d t h a t the use o f the D i v i n e W a r r i o r Hymn bound t o g e t h e r the T r i t o - I s a i a n i c corpus w i t h the 262 Deutero-Zechariah p a s s a g e s . T h i s l i t e r a r y form i s w e l l 263 a n d the e a r l i e r l i t e r a t u r e ( e . g . a t t e s t e d i n the P s a l t e r

260. I b i d . . pp.71-75. 261. Tbfd. , pp.119-121. 262. f . p.98; , c f . P O D . Hanson, ' Z e c h a r i a h 9 and the R e c a p i t u l a t K o f an Ancient R i t u a l Pattern' s - JBL 92 ( 1 9 7 3 ) , p p . 37-59 263. P O D . Hanson, E .c i t . , pp.305-308.
0

a2

Exod. 15, Judg. 1 5 ) .

He f a i l e d t o c o n s i d e r , however, the the He

use o f t h i s form within the t h e o c r a t i c c i r c l e s ( i . e . c u l t ) t o d e s c r i b e Yahweh's Kingship over the n a t i o n s .

assumed, I f e e l wrongly, t h a t o n l y the v i s i o n a r y c i r c l e s o u t s i d e the theocracy u t i l i z e d the form.

To be s u r e , i t

served t h e i r purposes w e l l as a d e s c r i p t f o n of pending d i v i n e judgment, b u t i t a l s o served the theocracy, perhaps within some p o s t - e x i l i c form o f the e a r l i e r c u l t i c dramatizations o f Yahweh's u n i v e r s a l K i n g s h i p .
The authors r e s p o n s i b l e f o r the m a t e r i a l o f Zeck. 9-14,

c o l l e c t i v e l y r e f e r r e d t o as Deutero-Zechariah, were p a r t of

an e s c h a t o l o g i c a l movement which overlapped t h a t o f T r i t o I s a i a h , y e t remaining d i s t i n c t from i t .

264

Deutero-Zechariah a relationshfp There a r e

r e v e a l e d a connection w i t h the theocracy,

265

l a t e r repudiated by both s i d e s ( c f . 1 1 : 7 - 1 4 ) .
266

p o i n t s o f strong p o s i t i v e i n f l u e n c e o f Ezekiel upon DeuteroZechari ah. whereas t h e D e u t e r o - I s a i a n i c tradi t i o n does Hanson's b e s t and

not appear t o make much o f an impression.

arguments for a r e l a t i o n s h i p between T r i t o - I s a i a h

Deutero-Zechariah r e s t e d upon the use o f the D i v i n e W a r r i o r Hymn and t h e intra-community i n v e c t i v e .

I have a l r e a d y

argued t h a t t h i s Hymn, s i n c e i t o r i g i n a t e d i n the c u l t ,

suggested r e j e c t e d c u l t i c o f f f c i a l ( p r o p h e t ? ) , which m i g h t p r o v i d e some i n s i g h t i n t o the d e c l a r a t i o n in 13:Z-6 o f the end of prophecy. 266. R . North, art. c i t . , pp.5lf.

265.

264.

. c i t . , p.286. R . Mason, N a g g a i , 9 ,echarfah and M a l a c h i , p . 1 1 2 , t h a t the c e n t r a l f f gure o f Zech. llt4-14 was a

Cp. P O D . Hanson,

83

c o u l d have y e t been u t i l i z e d by p r o p h e t i c f i g u r e s wlthin the cult.

I b e l i e v e t h a t Zechariah 9 i s an example of t h a t

usage, as an o r a c l e a g a i n s t the n a t i o n s round a b o u t the 267 Jews. A l s o , Hanson has s e r i o u s l y m i s i n t e r p r e t e d Zech. 11:1-3, c l a i m i n g t h a t i t was a t a u n t a g a i n s t J e w i s h l e a d e r s in the community.

I t was an o r a c l e d e l i v e r e d a g a i n s t the Jews'

The terminology, with mention made o f Lebanon

northern n e l g h b o r s , a g a i n s t whom I s r a e l held t r a d i t i o n a l enmfty.

268

and B a s h a n ( a r e a s to the north) and the l a y i n g waste o f

t r e e s and ' j u n g l e '

(the northern a r e a s were much more

f e r t i l e t h a n t h e Jerusalem a r e a ) , would make t h i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n n e a r e r the truth.

0 . P l S g e r s t a t e d that Zech. 9-10 have r e l a t l v e l y s l i g h t 269

'eschatological'

i n t e r e s t when compared t o Zech. 12-14,

Hanson noted a narrowing concern f r o m a w o r l d - p e r s p e c t i v e

(Zech. 9 ) t o Judah (Zech. 14) i n the p r e s e n t arrangement o f the o r a c l e s .

270

The key t o these p a t t e r n s was the i n -

c r e a s i n g note o f disappointment with the e t h i c a l l a x f t y of the l e a d e r s ( c f . 10:2-3, l l : 5 v 1 2 - 1 3 , 1 6 - 1 7 v 1 2 : l O ) .

The

b r e a k between the group o f Deutero-Zechariah and the com-

munity l e a d e r s c l e a r l y occurred on e t h i c a l g r o u n d s and n o t

on the b a s i s o f t h e o c r a t i c ( i . e .

n o n - e s c h a t o l o g i c a l ) and

267. 268. 269. 270,

C f . POD. Hanson, op. c, f t 9 pp.304-309. I b i d . , pp.334-337. n l o g e r , 9p. c i t . , p p . 7 9 - 8 2 . POD. Hanson, op. c,t t ' p . 3 5 5 .

84

conventicte (eschatological) r i v a l r y . Whereas T r i t o - I s a i a h only envisioned punishment f o r t h e i r enemies ( c f . 6 6 : 2 4 ) , Deutero-Zechariah held o u t for

a change o f h e a r t by the community l e a d e r s a n d a r e a l i z a t f o n

of the g r e a t e v i l they had done ( 1 2 1 0 - 1 3 : l ) .

Deutero-

Zechariah d i d not f u l l y abandon the u n i t y of the p e o p l e of 271 God, although T r i t o - I s a i a h appears t o have done s o . Deutero-Zechariah d i d s e e a n e x t e n s i v e p u r i f y i n g judgment, i.e. the d e s t r u c t i o n o f two-thirds o f the p e o p l e i n 1 3 : 8 and

one-half in 1 4 : 2 .
G.W.

Ahlstr8m's comments on the d i s t i n c t i o n between

c u l t i c a p t 3 and h i s t o r i c a l r e a l i t y a r e h e l p f u l in unders%anding Deutero-Zechariah.

I t a l l o w s how c u l t i c f e a t u r e s

suck a s the i n v i o l a b i l i t y o f Zion (Zech. 1 2 a n d 14) can be b r o u g h t i n t o the d e s c r i p t i o n s by the author t o f l e s h o u t

a statement o f hope.
This d l s t i n c t i o n a l s o g i v e s i n s i g h t i n t o Hanson's statements t h a t Deutero-Zechariah maintained ' a very l o o s e ' connection t o the events and persons o f h i s t o r y .

272

In

Zech. 1 2 and 1 4 , according to Hanson, t h f s connection broke down completely: ' t h e v i s i o n i s l e f t l a r g e l y on the cosmlc 273 l e v e l '. The e s c h a t o l o g i c a l e x p r e s s i o n tzjaa ~ 3 7 2 has

The breaking o f the p a s t o r a l s t a v e s i n 11:10,14 a p p e a r a s I m i t a t i o n o f - p r o p h e t i c symbolic a c t i o n s . 2 7 2 . P O D . Hanson, c i t s p.323. 273. I b i d B p.368.

271.

x .-.

85

l i t t l e h i s t o r i c a l v a l i d i t y a n d i t appears f i f t e e n times i n Zech. 12-14. The book o f Malachi was unique f o r i t s d e s c r i p t i o n o f

a c o n v e n t i c l e from a more-or-less
(3:lbff.).

external p e r s p e c t i v e

I t i s o n l y c o n j e c t u r e whether t h i s was an orga-

n i z e d group or an a d hoc g a t h e r i n g o f d i s g r u n t l e d persons i n response t o the l a x i t y o f the priesthood. Malachi d o e s

d e s c r i b e the members o f t h i s c i r c l e as b e l i e v i n g themselves t o be the t r u e p r o p l e o f God ( c f . the short d e s c r i p t i v e phrases o f 3:16-18), s e p a r a t e d from the wicked ( 3 : 1 8 ) ,

segment o f the people s i g n i f i c a n t enough t o be r e c o g n i z e d as the enemfes o f God who w i l l be judged when Yahweh comes

(3:18-19).
Malachi noted s e v e r a l t h i n g s about t h i s group he had found o u t s i d e the o f f i c i a l c i r c l e s and t o which he attached
I

himself:

i t s p a s t o r a l concern was impressive t o him-, i t s

e t h i c a l standard was h i g h and i t s e s c h a t o l o g i c a l b e l i e f s were,

a t l e a s t t o h i m , unique.

The concept o f judgment o f s i n ,

perhaps overlooked by t h e theocracy, provided a s u r e remedy f o r the s i c k n e s s o f i n d i f f e r e n t p r i e s t s . Malachi d i d not

r e j e c t the i n s t i t u t i o n s o f Judaism b u t he r e t a i n e d them, a l b e i t i n a p u r i f i e d form.

I t was t h i s hope f o r r i g h t e o u s n e s s ,

r a t h e r than the e s c h a t o l o g i c a l i n t e r e s t , which l e d Halachi away f r o m - t h e theocracy i n w h i c h he had served and toward the c o n v e n t i c l e .

86
Mal. 3:l-4 and 3:16-24
d o r e p r e s e n t a r e a s of agreement

between t h e < c o n v e n t i c l e and the prophet, which a r e n o t shared by the theocracy. sounded: The e s c h a t o l o g i c a l note was f u l l y

the day f o r p u r i f i c a t i o n and recompense, 'the day

which i s coming'

( ~ mm 7a),

impinged upon the p r e s e n t i n

a more d i r e c t way.

Malachi was t o t a l l y immersed In t h e

h i s t o r i c a l w o r l d , s o t h a t h i s a p p r o p r i a t i o n o f judgment appears a l l that more h i s t o r i c a l ( i . e . less 'non-worldly').

I t was the emphasis on e t h i c a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y which brought

an ' e s c h a t o l o g i c a l p r e s s u r e ' on the present.

Whereas J o e l ,

f o r example, could a l l o w the Day o f Yahweh t o remain a p a r t from the p r e s e n t , Malachi s t r o v e t o b r i n g i t t o the p r e s e n t as the n a t u r a l response o f God t o e v i l ; He could not m o r a l l y
<

tarry! The theme o f M a l . 3 : 1 - 4 centered on the p u r i f k a t i o n

o f the p r i e s t h o o d , i n d i c a t i n g a continuation o f the i n -

s t i t u t f o n s o f the community.

The d e s t r u c t i o n o f 3:19-24

appears t o g o beyond t h i s l f m i t and to i n c l u d e a n o t e of vengeance, w h i l e promising the b l e s s i n g and h e a l i n g of the righteous. Some a 1 t e r a t i o n o f thought p r o b a b l y o c c u r r e d

between these o r a c l e s , b u t the wickedness of the p e o p l e remained the cause and focus o f judgment.

D.

The R i s e o f H e l l e n i s t i c Judaism and A p o c a l y p t i c The emergence o f Alexander the Great a s a w o r l d power

I n the f o u r t h century B . C .

(336-323 B . C . )

was accompanied

87

by the i n c u r s i o n o f He1 l e n t s ti c a n d other western i nf 1 uences 274

i n t o the Near East.

Although t h i s process t o o k many

y e a r s , v i r t u a l l y every a r e a of the Near East experienced a c u l t u r e shock as Greek settlements were placed nearby major cities. A l e x a n d e r ' s g e n e r a l s , who d i v i d e d h i s empire between r e l i e d upon the Greek

them a f t e r h i s death i n 3 2 3 B.C., spirit-devotion pursui ts--to kingdoms.

t o the a r t s , a t h l e t i c s and i n t e l l e c t u a l

hold t o g e t h e r the d i s p a r a t e segments o f t h e i r

However, the Greek c i t y , e s t a b l i s h e d en masse in

conquered a r e a s t o promote t r a d e a n d c u l t u r a l a c t i v i t y , was

an a l i e n b e i n g .

I n i t i a l l y populated by s o l d i e r s and t h e
275

lower c l a s s e s o f Greek s o c i e t y ( h a r d l y the e l i t e corps o f a H e l J e n i s t i c missionary movement) ,

f o r years.

i t remai ned i s o l ated

There were other causes o f turmoil.

M O Hengel pointed

t o a wave o f skepticism t h a t ' s w e p t the Mediterranean r e g i o n s

i n the f o u r t h a n d third c e n t u r i e s B . C .

276

The author o f

Qoheleth may have been a part of t h i s t r e n d , although h i s c r i t i c a l a p p r a i s a l o f l i f e i s understandable within Judaism

and without r e c o u r s e t o f o r e i g n i n f l u e n c e .

There was, i n This

time, a backlash t o the ethos represented by Q o h e l e t h .

r e a c t i o n took the form o f i n c r e a s e d p a t r i o t i s m ( c f , E c c l u s ,

5 0 ) , the emergence of mystfcism a n d unusual personal r e l i -

274, I have f o l l o w e d the treatment o f V . T c h e r i k o v e r , H e l l e n i s t i c C l v i l l z a t i o n and the Jews, f o r m y g e n e r a l unders t a n d i n g o f the events and trends o f t h i s p e r i o d . 275. I b i d . , pp,33f. 276. m e n g e l , O J . -* c i t ' pp.210,249.

g i o u s e x p e r i e n c e s and t h e i n c r e a s e o f e s c h a t o l o g i c a l thought-forms. The! meeting o f Judaism a n d Hellenism d i d not immedia t e l y i s s u e i n a s t r u g g l e between rival r e l i g i o n s : because

r e l i g l o n was a secondary c o n s i d e r a t i o n t o the H e l l e n i s t s

a n d because of the c h a r a c t e r o f t h e p e o p l e who f i r s t i n t r o -

duced H e l l e n i s m t o t h e Jews, t h e r e was l i t t l e c o n f l i c t . H e l l e n i s m h a d been r e c o g n i z e d a s c o n t a i n i n g a r e l i g i o u s dimension, t h e r e may have been a h o s t i l e r e a c t i o n .

If

However,

t h e Jewish community i n A l e x a n d r i a , f o r example, was much imp r e s s e d with H e l l e n i s m , which admired Judaism as t h e o l d e s t (and, t h e r e b y , the most v a l i d ) r e l i g i o n , f a v o r a b l y compared
Moses with the Greek p h i l o s o p h e r s ,
-.

and praised t h e e t h i c a l

statements o f the Hebrew S c r i p t u r e s ,

As i t happened, Judaism

was o n l y g r a d u a l l y exposed t o H e l l e n i s t i c i n f l u e n c e , with such a cumulative e f f e c t that PI. Hengel j u d g e d a l l Jewish r e l i g i o u s e x p r e s s i o n o f the second century B . C . 277 t i c Judaism'.

as 'Heflenis-

In the p r o c e s s o f i n i t i a l i n t e r a c t i o n , the s y n c r e t i s t i c H e l l e n i s t i c r e l i g i o n , a potpourri o f modified b e l i e f s taken from e a r l i e r Near E a s t e r n s p i r i t r e l i g . f o n s , began t o i n f i l t r a t e t h e h i s t o r i c a l l y - b a s e d , m o n o t h e i s t i c Jewish faith.

278

The i n f l u e n c e o f t h i s r e l i g i o n (or, perhaps b e t -

277. 278.
p.30.

I b i d . , p.104. m C . MacGregor and A . C .

Purdy, Jew and Greek,

89

t e r , combination o f r e l i g i o n s ) was h e a v i e s t on t h e younger g e n e r a t i o n s o f Jewish p e o p l e , both i n Judah and throughout the Diaspora. There were a l s o s i g n i f i c a n t i n r o a d s made i n

t h e ruling p r i e s t l y c l a s s e s , which were a c t i v e around the Jerusalem Temple. There was d i f f i c u l t y in combatting t h i s i n v a s i o n ,
279

f o r t h e r e was acceptance i n some q u a r t e r s and because t h e r e was no a p p a r e n t reason why Judalsm c o u l d n o t e x i s t i n a Greek form a s w e l l a s i n Hebrew d r e s s .
A composition l i k e

t h e Wisdom o f Solomon ( c . 80 B . C . ) , which was w r i t t e n in an attempt t o w i n back wayward Jews t o t h e t r a d i t i o n a l f a i t h , c o u l d n o t muster e f f e c t i v e a n t i - H e l l e n i s t i c arguments.

280

T h e Wisdom s c h o o l s , the i n t e l l e c t u a l meeting p l a c e o f Judaism

and H e l l e n i s m , gave the l a t t e r a n o p p o r t u n i t y t o c o n s o l i d a t e

i t s i n f l u e n c e among the Jews a n d their mafnly p h i l o s o p h i c a l o p p o s i t i o n (and then o n l y l a t e r ) d i d l i t t l e t o check i t s 281 i n i t i a l spread.
I t i s beyond doubt t h a t H e l l e n i s t i c b e l i e f s and be-

h a v i o r i n f l u e n c e d much o f Judaism.

T h i s does n o t mean t h a t

t h e e s s e n c e o f J u d a i s m was a l t e r e d o r t h a t Judaism a c c e p t e d f o r e i g n concepts u n c r i t i c a l l y . Hellenism d i d contribute

i d e a s t o the i n t e l l e c t u a l and p o p u l a r atmosphere, the background o f Jewish l i f e .

F o r example, T . F .

Glasson held t h a t

279. There was no f i n a l a u t h o r i t y i n t h i s m a t t e r t o which a l l Jews and Jewish g r o u p s would submit. 280. E.G. C l a r k e , T h e Wisdom o f Solomon, pp.4f. 281. M. Hengel, ope c i t . , p.78,110.

90

Greek t h o u g h t played an important r o l e i n the development o f 282 Jewfsh e s c h a t o l o g y . He d i d not a s s e r t u n c r i t i c a l accep283 He pointed out t h a t tance or minimize P e r s i a n i n f l u e n c e . c o n t a c t with other c u l t u r e s stimulated the Jews t o d e v e l o p
and extend t h e i r own thinking.

Such motifs as heavenly

j o u r n e y s , v i s i t s t o the realm o f the dead, angel m a r r i a g e s , v i s i o n s o f e x i s t e n c e beyond death, demons and watchers a r e 284 common i n Greek w r i t i n g s o f t h i s p e r i o d . The Greek i n f l u ence was more p e r v a s i v e t h a n some s c h o l a r s have r e a l i z e d , 285 wlth a r e a l mark upon f e a t u r e s i n the book o f D a n i e l .
At t h e beglnning o f the second century 6.C., t h e Jewish

i n t e l l e c t u a l community was f u l l y engaged a l o n g a wide 286 front I n t e r n a t i o n a l Wisdom was brought i n t o c r e a t i v e

c o n f l i c t with t r a d i t i o n a l p i e t y .

T o r a h and p r o p h e t i c / s c r i b a l

t r a d i t i o n i s t s grappled with the forms o f Greek r e l i g l o u s exp e r i e n c e s , with t h e f o r e i g n r e l i a n c e upon the cosmos a s the b a s i s f o r understanding e x i s t e n c e . s p e c u l a t i o n came i n t o t h e i r own. Mysticism, legends and

The n o v e l t y occasioned by

the presence of Hellenism and the q u e s t i o n i n g s p i r i t o f t h e

a g e produced a movement o f g r e a t breadth and v a r i e t y .

The movement which embodied the r e j e c t i o n o f Hellenism

-.

2 8 2 . T.F. Glasson, Greek Inflirence c r f Jewish Eschatology, p.84. 283, D.S. RUSSel1, c i t b , p.19; 0 . E i s s f e l d t , ci t 9 p.256. 284. T.F. Glasson, c i t e , ~~.8-12,20-25,59-60,69o 285. A , S c h l a t t e r , kmhte Israels, p p . l O 9 f . 286. M O Hengel, op. c i t . , p p . 2 4 7 f .

x .

91
came i n t o being s l o w l y , only m a k i n g e x t e n s i v e g a i n s as the c o n f l i c t between Jewish and H e l l e n i s t i c thought and behavior was brought i n t o the open. The members o f t h i s movement have The name i s taken from the There i s no

come t o be known a s the Hasidim.

Hebrew t w h , which meant ' p i o u s ' o r ' f a i t h f u l ' .

consensus on the constituency o f the movement, whether the name was a n umbrella d e s i g n a t i o n o f a17 a n t i - H e l l e n i s t i c
,

p a r t i e s o r belonged t o a p a r t i c u l a r group with i t s own h i s t o r y

and purpose.

The Hasidim were mentioned i n I Macc. 2 : 4 2 ,

i n contrast

t o Jews who were w i l l i n g t o d i e r a t h e r than t o break the

Sabbath by defending themselves ( I Macc. 29-41).
. I .

T h e Hasidim

were n o t a l l p a s s i v e ;

287

they were w i l l i n g t o f i g h t , they

were devoted t o the Torah and they were w i l l i n g t o trust the l e a d e r s o f the community t o d e a l f a i r l y ( I Macc. 7:12-14). There was a c o a l i t i o n between the Maccabees a n d the Hasidim under Judas Placcabeus ( I Macc. 2:42-3:9;
-

I 1 Macc. 1 4 : 6 ) , which

s e r v e d as a p o l n t f o r i n t t i a l r e s i s t a n c e a g a i n s t the S e l e u c i d armfes. The H a s i d i m were a l s o d e s c r i b e d i n I Macc. 7:12-14

a s p a r t o f a g r o u p o f s c r i b e s who sought peace a t the f i r s t

o p p o r t u n i t y a f t e r the outbreak o f h o s t i l i t i e s , y e t were mass a c r e d for t h e i r adherence t o t r a d i t i o n a l p i e t y .

I have concluded t h a t the Hasldim included many d i v e r s e

p a r t i e s under t h e i r banner, r a t h e r t h a n being a s e p a r a t e g r o u p

o f i n d i v i d u a l s extremely z e a l o u s f o r Torah and extremely a b l e

287. T h i s a t t i t u d e i s a t t r i b u t e d t o the author of Danie l ; c f . A . Bentzen, D a n i e l , p . 8 7 .

92

soldiers.

I r e a l i z e t h a t many s c h o l a r s h o l d d i f f e r e n t

opinions a n d , more t o the p o i n t , t h a t the i d e n t i t y of the Hasidim was n o t c e n t r a l t o the i s s u e o f o p p o s i t i o n t o the f o r c e s of Hellenism and .the armies o f the S e l e u c i d s .

288

The Hasidim p r o b a b l y came i n t o e x i s t e n c e by opposing those s o c i a l innovatfons c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f Hellenism ( e . g . the gymnasium and a t h l e t i c c o n t e s t s )

289

which c u t a g a i n s t The concomitant

the grain o f Jewish m e n t a l i t y and custom.

a c t i v i t y o f such behavior Included emphasis o f the t r a d i t i o n a l r i t u a l s and p r a c t i c e s o f Judaism.

As the movement grew, s o

d i d the c o n s t e r n a t i o n f o r t h e c o r r u p t Temple p r a c t i c e s , the

compromises with the H e l l e n i s t i c l i f e - s t y l e and the p l o t t i n g

b'f r i v a l s f o r c o n t r o l o f the h i g h p r i e s t l y o f f i c e .
3

This

produced an entrenching o f o p p o s i t i o n and a p o l a r i z i n g o f behavior a n d b e l i e f , w h a t amounted t o a r e t h i n k i n g o f w h a t Judaism r e p r e s e n t e d .

At t h a t p o i n t , open o p p o s i t i o n by

demonstration needed o n l y e x t e r n a l p r e s s u r e t o i n t e n s i f y i n t o c i v i l war,

T h a t p r e s s u r e was provided by Antiochus XV

(Epiphanes) a n d the a t t a c k o f Jason, a former h i g h p r i e s t , on Jerusalem ( I 1 Macc, 5 : 5 f f . , 8 : l f f e ) . The Jews under the l e a d e r s h i p o f Judas Maccabeus were

s o s u c c e s s f u l that they were a b l e t o r e d e d i c a t e the Temple

J c i t , , p . 4 2 6 ; N . H . S n a i t h , The 288. C f . 3 . Bright, O Jews from Cyrus t o Herod, p.38;. Tcherikover, op_. -* cit s p . 198. 2 8 9 , M. Hengel, O J . c i t s p.103.
0

93

i n 164 B.C.

Antiochus' problems i n other a r e a s o f h i s em-

p i r e made i t impossible f o r the S e l e u c i d s t o mount a crushing campaign a g a i n s t the Jews.

H a v i n g achieved the

o b j e c t i v e o f s e l f - d e t e r m i n a t i o n , the H a s i d i c movement began

to disintegrate.

This happened mainly because many o f the

Hasidim d i d not w a n t t o pursue p o l i t i c a l independence; t h e s e were content t o enjoy r e l f g i o u s freedom under any form o f
g o v e r nme n t o

From the b e g f n n i n g , d l f f e r e n t f a c t i o n s of the H a s i d i c

movement had aimed a t t h e i r own g o a l s . The forerunner of the P h a r i s e e s and the Essenes withdrew from the m i l l t a r y 290 l e a d e r s who had assumed p o l i t f c a l c o n t r o l . The P h a r i s e e s , i n t e n t upon educating the common people i n Torah, were not

s o .concerned with p o l i t i c a l freedom a s with freedom t o c a r r y

on w i t h t h e i r work.

The Essenes, a p r i e s t l y dominated

p a r t y , withdrew t o the d e s e r t s o f J u d a h when the l e g i t i m a t e Z a d o k i t e f a m i l y w a s a o t returned t o the o f f i c e o f h i g h priest

291

and they r e a l i z e d t h a t the Hasmoneans p e r p e t r a t e d One such

the same e v i l s as t h e i r H e l l e n i s t i c predecessors.

group s e t t l e d a t Qumran, where a community developed w i t h an emphasis upon r i t u a l p u r i t y , e t h i c a l standards and apocalypt i c orientation.

In time, when tempers h a d c o o l e a and l i f e had r e t u r n e d

Cf. 3. Bright, o pp.448-452; these two groups maintained a form o t h e a p o c a l y p t i c p e r s p e c t i v e i n t o the New Testament p e r f o d . 291. G. Vermes, The Dead Sea S c r o l l s i n P e r s p e c t i v e , p . 6 6 ; W . Foerster, From the E x i l e t o C h r i s t , p.50.

290.

f'

94

t o normal, Hellenism re-entered the c i r c l e s of Jewish l e a d e r ship. The SaddUCeeS, the s o c i a l c l a s s which had formed

around the o l d Zadokite a r i s t o c r a c y , emerged t o h o l d power

i n Jerusalem.

The P h a r i s e e s and the Z e a l o t s (the l a t t e r the

t r u e h e i r s o f the f i g h t i n g Maccabees) remained most c l o s e l y l i n k e d t o the common p e o p l e , who maintained a marked sympathy

with the a p o c a l y p t i c outlook.

The a p o c a l y p t i c authors who had given e x p r e s s i o n t o

their b e l i e f s in the heat o f b a t t l e entered a p e r i o d o f

calm. Whereas e a r l y a p o c a l y p t i c ( e . g . D a n i e l ) had enjoyed

a wide c i r c l e o f r e a d e r s because i t addressed i t s e l f t o g r e a t i s s u e s , l a t e r a p o c a l y p t i c w r i t i n g s were d i r e c t e d t o 292 sma.11 groups o f s e c r e t communities, such a s Qumran.
4

S p e c u l a t i o n s and f a n t a s i e s were given g r e a t e r space a s a p o c a l y p t i s t s , having l o s t the r e f e r e n c e p o i n t o f h i s t o r i c a l c r i s i s , l o s t t h e i r p a s t o r a l z e a l and indulged i n rather i r r e s p o n s i b l e t o p i c s and themes. They r e t a i n e d , however, a

spark o f s p i r i t u a l c r e a t i v i t y which flamed t o l i f e i n the r e b e l l i o n s a g a l n s t Rome i n 7 0 and 1 3 5 A . D . and which c a r r i e d

them through, however i n a d e q u a t e l y , the dark days t h a t f o l l o w e d those d e f e a t s t o a l i n g e r i n g e x i s t e n c e on the f r i n g e

of Judaism's l a t e r l i f e .
The v l o l e n t c o n f l i c t w h i c h marked the Maccabean u p r i s i n g centered on a group o f Jews, l o y a l t o t r a d i t i o n a l Judalsm,

292.

ld. Hengel, op. c i t e , pp.218f.

95

who were .oppressed by adherents t o the H e l l e n i s t i c way o f l i f e within the Jewish community a n d l e a d e r s h i p a n d were 293 persecuted by t h e i r S e l e u c l d o v e r l o r d . The Jewish H e l l e n i s t s were mainly concerned with unlty, which was imp o s s i b l e s o l o n g a s those Jews s t u b b o r n l y held t o the ways

o f the p a s t .

T h e S e l e u c i d s d e s i r e d p o l i t i c a l u n i t y within

J u d a h , which would c o n s t i t u t e a s t a b l e base c l o s e t o Egypt,

t h e i r mllltary enemy, from which t h e i r armies could o p e r a t e freely.
The c o n f l i c t was s o s e v e r e t h a t o p p o s i t i o n t o Hellenism

( o r i g i n a l l y fragmented and unorganized) transcended a l l p a r t y b a r r i e r s a n d produced a u n i f i e d movement with a l i f e and a s e t of g o a l s uniquely i t s own.
Most expressive o f this unlty

was the l i t e r a t u r e produced by the Jews of t h i s era. the turmoil o f the second century B.C.

Given

( f o l l o w i n g h a r d upon

a p e r i o d of i n t e n s e i n t e l l e c t u a l c r e a t i v i t y ) , t h e l i t e r a t u r e
which survived f e a t u r e d d i f f e r e n t combinations o f the v a r i o u s theocratic-priestly, 294 prophetic-eschatological, wisdom and deuteronomistic.
Such works a s t h e book o f D a n i e l , the e a r l y segments o f

t h e o l o g i c a l streams of t r a d i t i o n :

EnOCh,

the Book o f J u b i l e e s , the Testaments o f the Twelve

Patriarchs, T o b i t , e t c . , were products o f t h e m i x i n g o f

293. H.H. Rowley, o c i t . , p.43, stated t h a t 'circumstances c r e a t e d apocalyp c ' 7 r e c o g n i t i o n o f t h e r o l e events played i n a p o c a l y p t i c ' s emergence a s a l i t e r a t u r e . 294. O.H. S t e c k , op. c l t o , pp.205f.; O.H. Steck, a r t . ci t pp . 1 9 7 f .

. 8

-.

96

these d i f f e r e n t t r a d i t i o n s .

The c u r r e n t o f p o p u l a r s t o r i e s

and legends which c r y s t a l l i z e d around the heroes of t h e

past (e.g.

D a n i e l , Enoch, T o b i t , Esther, J u d i t h , Noah, e t c . ) Since the book

were a f f e c t e d by t h i s a c t i v e Interchange.

of Daniel was a result of h y b r i d i z e d t r a d i t i o n s , i t s authors

used a v a r i e t y of p r o p h e t i c and other kinds o f m a t e r i a l i n t t s composition.
295

In sketching h i s a n a l y s i s o f the r i s e o f a p o c a l y p t i c ,
0 . P l g g e r argued from the Maccabean r e b e l 1 ion backwards,

through t h e period of the C h r o n i c l e r t o the e a r l y p o s t - e x i l l c period.

He c o n t r a s t e d the a c t i v i t y o f the Maccabees with the
296

message of the author o f D a n i e l .

He t h e o r i z e d t h a t t h e r e

were groups behind these c o n t r a s t s , each with a l i t e r a t u r e 297 and a world-view o f i t s own. Then, n o t i n g t h a t t h e r e was

a d i v i s i o n among the people i n Maccabean days i n response t o

the i n c u r s i o n o f Hellenism, he argued t h a t Daniel r e p r e s e n t e d

a group which emphasized t h e prophetic writings and the

e s c h a t o l o g i c a l i n t e r p r e t a t l o n o f them a n d t h a t I Maccabees
was the product o f those w h o r e j e c t e d the e s c h a t o l o g i c a l i n -

t e r p r e t a t i o n o f c u r r e n t events and l i m i t e d ' I s r a e l ' t o t h o s e who accepted Maccabean r u l e and a s t r i c t adherence t o Torah.

From t h i s s e t o f ' c i r c u m s t a n c e s , P l g g e r argued t h a t a new ment a l i t y was r e q u i r e d f o r the development o f the a p o c a l y p t i c

L . Morris, op. Book of D a n i e l , ~p.34f. 296. 0 . Ploger, 297. I b i d 9 pp.17

295.

pp. 7 9 f 0 ; E.W. Hea ton 8 T h e

p o l l .

9 .

97

self-consciousness:

the theocracy o f the p o s t - e x i l i c

p e r i o d , with i t s r e d e f i n i t i o n o f I s r a e l as a r e l i g i o u s , non298 p o l l t i c a l community, paved the way for a p o c a l y p t i c . P l i g e r ' s i n s i g h t i n t o the profound change generated by the l o s s o f I s r a e l ' s n a t i o n a l i d e n t i t y needs t o be a f f i r m e d . Y e t , c a r e f u l a n a l y s i s of h i s r e c o n s t r u c t i o n of t h e second century B.C. community shows problems i n h i s c a t e g o r i z a t i o n s He n e e d l e s s l y r e s t r l c t e d both

of w r i t i n g s and p a r t i e s .
t i n c t i o n s between the two.

t h e o c r a t i c and c o n v e n t i c l e m e n t a l i t i e s a n d c r e a t e d f a l s e d i s -

He made r e f e r e n c e t o I Maccabees and the book o f Daniel as works r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f o p p o s i t e world-views:

I Maccabees

t r e a t e d the c o n f l i c t w i t h Antiochus Epiphanes w i t h o u t e s c h a t o l o g i c a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n a n d approved a c t i v e m i l i t a r y opposition. Daniel t r e a t e d the c o n f l i c t with e s c h a t o l o g i c a l

i n t e r p r e t a t i o n a n d disapproved, a p p a r e n t l y , o f m i l i t a r y re-

s i stance.
There was, however, o t h e r treatments which do n o t f i t P l g g e r ' s scheme: I Enoch 85-90 narrated the c o n f l i c t with an

e s c h a t o l o g i c a l I n t e r p r e t a t i o n , with a p p r o v a l o f t h e Macca-

bean f o r c e s .

I t i s d i f f i c u l t t o imagine how t h i s p o r t i o n o f

I ,Enoch m i g h t f i t i n t o P18ger's understanding.

The answer would i n v o l v e t h e r e c o g n i t i o n t h a t I Enoch
85-90 o r i g i n a t e d with a group which h e l d t h a t God c o u l d ac-

h i e v e His purposes through human a c t l v l t y and t h a t He would

298.

0 -

I b i d * p.29.

98

a l s o i n t e r v e n e i n h i s t o r y t o g a i n His ends.

T h i s must

a l t e r P l i g e r ' s hypothesls t h a t t h e t h e o c r a t i c a n d eschatol o g i c a l m e n t a l i t i e s emerged i n the e a r l y p o s t - e x i l i c p e r i o d , maintained s e p a r a t e e x i s t e n c e s a n d were behind t w o mutually d i s t i n c t i v e bodies o f l i t e r a t u r e i n the second century B.C. D i v e r s i t y r a t h e r t h a n u n i t y , a l b e i t within c e r t a i n cons i s t e n t t h e o l o g i c a l t r a d i t i o n s , seems t o have been the r u l e during t h i s period. I have a l r e a d y argued, on the b a s i s of

the book of J o e l , Ezek. 38-39 and the P s a l t e r , that t h e r e

was a r e a l f u t u r e - o r i e n t a t i o n within the theocracy (which

cannot be e l i m i n a t e d by r e f e r e n c e s t o p r o p h e t i c f i g u r e s i n C h r o n i c l e s o r t o I Maccabees). Different eschatological

i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s were a p p l i e d t o the same events by the authors

o f the book o f Daniel and I Enoch 85-90

( d e s p l t e the f a c t t h a t W e must note the

t h e l a t t e r was patterned on Dan. 10-12).

tremendous v a r i e t y o f e s c h a t o l o g i c a l forms a n d f e a t u r e s i n the l a t e r a p o c a l y p t i c w r i t i n g s .

I t i s i l l o g i c a l t o assume

a u n i t y o r a s i m p l l c i t y o f o r d e r when such a design cannot

take i n t o account a l l the evidence. L . Hartman made a s i g n i f i c a n t c o n t r i b u t i o n when he s t a t e d , on the b a s i s o f h i s a n a l y s i s o f many a p o c a l y p t i c t e x t s , t h a t an ' a p o c a l y p t i c schema' u s u a l l y i n v o l v e d :

1) a

time o f t r o u b l e f o r the people o f God, 2 ) God's i n t e r v e n t t o n ( o r an appointed s e r v a n t on h i s b e h a l f ) , 3 ) the judgment of

God, 4 ) the punishment o f 6 o d ' s enemies and 5 ) the r e j o i c i n g

99
o f God's people.

299

This program developed over a long

p e r i o d o f time and could be read back i n t o such events a s the r e l e a s e from e x i l e or the Flood c a t a s t r o p h e , which became t y p o l o g i c a l f o r a c t s o f d i v i n e judgment f n the apoca300 l y p t i c 1 i terature. The s i g n i f i c a n t a s p e c t o f Hartman's work was the f a c t t h a t a 'time o f t r o u b l e ' was the o n l y o b s e r v a b l e p o i n t f o r the a p o c a l y p t i c authors; the o t h e r s t a g e s were the r e s p o n s i b i l i t y o f their interpretation o f r e a l i t y .

For example, the

author o f Dan. 10-12 observed the 'time o f t r o u b l e '

(11:29-39), b u t he could only e n v i s i o n how God w o u l d i n t e r vene, judge and punish and how the r i g h t e o u s Jews w o u l d r e joice.
and

The schema was a v a i l a b l e t o the authors of Dan. 10-12

I Enoch 8 5 - 9 0 , who a p p l i e d i t w l t h i n the context of t h e i r

The conclusion t h a t I drew f r o m m y study o f these sub-

d t f f e r e n t e x p e c t a t i o n s f o r the f u t u r e .

j e c t s was that the theocracy/conventicle d i v i s i o n o f the p o s t - e x i l i c e r a was not as pronounced i n the second century

B.C.

a s i t had been i n the e a r l y p o s t - e x i l i c p e r i o d (when

The

the c o n v e n t i c l e p r o p h e t i c w r i t i n g s were composed).

a t t i t u d e s a s s o c i a t e d with these trends d o have a n a t u r a l s o c i o l o g i c a l foundation (which means t h a t t h e y could have

299. L . Hartman, Prophecy I n t e r p r e t e d , p e 3 0 ; C f e D e P a t t e , E a r l y Jewish Hermeneutic I n P a l e s t i n e , ppe169-175. 300. L e Hartman, O J . c f t . , p.32.

~~

100
emerged a t any p o i n t i n time, i r r e s p e c t i v e o f p a s t or 30 1 f uture-ori entation) The c o n t i n u i t y o f the t h e o c r a t i c

and e s c h a t o l o g i c a l m e n t a l i t i e s throughout the p o s t - e x i l i c period i s questionable. B o t h P O D o Hanson and 0 . P l 8 g e r have a s s e r t e d such continui ty. Hanson d e c l a r e d t h a t the e s c h a t o l o g i c a l menta-lity

was most c l e a r l y d e l i n e a t e d during the e r a o f T r i t o - I s a i a h

a n d Deutero-Zechariah.

According t o h i s r e c o n s t r u c t i o n , because

there was a r e c o n c i l i a t i o n o f sort around 400 B.C.,

the C h r o n i c l e r ' s a t t i t u d e r e f l e c t e d a n h c l u s i n e s s toward 302 p r e v i o u s l y a l i e n a t e d groups within Judaism. However , the r e c o n c i l i a t i o n was not complete; a p o c a l y p t i c authors were s t i l l s t r u g g l i n g f o r l e g i t i m a t i o n i n t h e t h i r d and second 30-3 c e n t u r i e s B.C. P l i g e r s t a t e d t h a t the t h e o c r a t i c m e n t a l i t y developed i n the l e a d i n g p a r t i e s . o f the . r e s t o r a t i o n e r a a n d was the b a s i s f o r the a p o c a l y p t i c o u t l o o k which developed f r o m i t .

T h a t outlook was adopted by the c o n v e n t i c l e s by r e j e c t e d by

the l e a d e r s , who f o l l o w e d a d i f f e r e n t form o f the o r i g i n a l attitude.
304

301. C f . P O D . Hanson, c i t . , pp.211 - 2 1 7 ; he re1 1ed h e a v l l y upon t h e w o r k s o f S O C o l 5 s t s K O Ma nnhelm, and Uto i a , M O Weber, Socl'ology o f R e l i g i o n and E. T' r o e t s c T l z T z k T Teaching o f the C h r i s t i a n C h urche S . C f . c o s . 'RoddB 'M ax Weber and A ncient Judaism' xY x i i (19 I791 9 pp.457-469.

. Y

=PY

'E

101 The books o f Daniel a n d I Enoch a r e c r i t i c a l in the development o f the a p o c a l y p t i c movement, for they a r e the i n i t i a l a p o c a l y p t i c works.
To understand t h i s movement, we

have to seek a f t e r their authors a n d t h e i r forerunners. I t has been g e n e r a l l y accepted t h a t Daniel h a d a com305 p l e x l i t e r a r y h i s t o r y behind i t s p r e s e n t form. The most c r u c i a1 ques ti ons concerni n g i t s nature are: the two-1 anguage composition o f the b o o k , the r e l a t i o n of ch. 7 to what precedes and follows i t and the n a t u r e and purpose of ch. 8-12.
306

I t w o u l d be most r e a s o n a b l e t o i n v e s t i g a t e

t h e s e l a t t e r chapters f o r the b e s t c l u e s r e g a r d i n g the authors h i p o f the book of Daniel and the t h e o l o g i c a l c o n v i c t i o n s 307 behind i t s composition.
E.W.

Heaton polnted out t h a t , s i n c e t h e r e was almost no

p r o p h e t i c m a t e r i a l . in D a n i e l , the authors o f Daniel were 308 c l o s e r t o being s c r i b e s t h a n f o l l o w e r s o f the prophets.

He s t a t e d that the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c p r o p h e t i c t r a i t s a r e mis-

sing:

cosmic imagery, b a t t l e s c e n e s , d e s c r i p t i o n s o f the

Golden Age a n d the f a t e o f the n a t i o n s , and the Messiah. Heaton a l s o argued t h a t the authors o f Daniel and Ben S i r a 309 shared the same Misdom t r a d i t i o n . He pointed o u t t h a t Daniel meditated i n Torah (1:8-16, 9:10-11), sought out the

p.591. 307. 308. 309.

306.

305,

0 . Elssfeldt, o c i t . , pp.522-528. 3 . Barr, ' D a n & , T B (rev. e d . ) , ed. M O B l a c k ,

W.

. -

Zimmerlf, o E.W. Heaton, Ibid pp.19ff.

@

d%

c i t . , p.232. E k of D a n i e l , p p . 3 4 f .

102
wisdom of the ancients (1:17, 2:19-22, occupied himself with prophecies ( 9 : Z ) .
4:35,

5 : 2 3 ) , and

He was a l s o in-

t e r e s t e d i n the dark s a y i n g s o f p a r a b l e s (227-28, 4 : 1 9 f f . ,

5:12).
3 9 : 1-5).

These things Heaton r e l a t e d t o the framework o f Ben

S S r a ' s s t a t e d purpose f o r the l i f e o f a s c r i b e ( E c c l u s .

The d i f f i c u l t y with Heaton's f i r s t argument was t h a t Daniel was not addressing h i m s e l f t o the d e s t i n y o f I s r a e l v i s - h i s the n a t i o n s ; he was concerned about t h e d i v i s i o n w i t h i n the Jewish community (Jew v s . Jew, those who know
God, 11:32, a g a i n s t those who have forsaken the covenant,

11:30).

He was concerned wlth t h o s e who t o o k up arms t o

fight (cf.

11:34) and o t h e r s w h o p a s s i v e l y endured s u f f e r i n g

w h i l e they awafted the expected end (11:33,35; 1212). D a n i e l ' s authors were n o t a s c l o s e t o Ben S i r a a s Heaton t r i e d t o prove.

First, Daniel was portrayed a s a

Second, he d i d not seek o u t t h e

l o y a l Jew who obeyed the Torah; he was never c h a r a c t e r i z e d

a s meditating in the Torah.

wisdom of the a n c i e n t s ; h i s wisdom was imparted t o h i m by

God through d i r e c t r e v e l a t i o n .

310

Third, the author o f

Daniel may have occupied h i m s e l f with prophecies, b u t Ben

310. The author o f Daniel sought t o show t h a t d i v i n e wisdom ( g i v e n by r e v e l a t i o n ) was s u p e r i o r t o a l l e a r t h l y wisdom, even that possessed by Ben Sira. The wisdom for which Daniel was c e l e b r a t e d was n o t the proverbial/gnomic wisdom o f Strach b u t a 'mantic' wisdom, a knowledge of t h e future o r s e c r e t s , gained through dreams or d i v i n a t i o n . T h i s mantic wisdom was no e n t i r e l y f o r e i g n t o the n a t u r e o f I s r a e l i t e Wisdom, b u t moreso t h a n gnomic wisdom; c f . R . 3 . Bauckham, art. c i t . , pp.13f.

103
Sira d i d not appear t o do s o ( d e s p i t e h i s claim t o the con-

trary).

311

Fourth, Daniel was not i n t e r e s t e d i n the dark

When f a c e d with a r i d d l e , he d i d n o t

sayings o f parables.

attempt t o fathom i t s mysteries through h i s i n t e l l e c t ; he

prayed f o r the answer.
I grant the p o s s i b i l i t y that Ben S i r a and the authors

of Daniel may have been brother s c r i b e s , f o r the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f the o f f i c e ( t h e books, study and w r i t i n g , and the i n s t r u c t i o n o f others) a r e found i n both b o o k s .
This fact

i s not p a r t i c u l a r l y t e l l i n g , however, for s c r i b a l i s m was c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f most o f Judaism d u r i n g t h i s era.

I con-

cluded that the d i f f e r e n c e s between t h e two books were more significant than their similarities:

1 ) Dan. 9:2 represented a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c a c t i v i t y o f

the authorship c i r c l e of Daniel ( i . e .

bf

the r e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n

the p r o p h e t i c writings).

T h i s i s beyond the scope o f

Ben Sira.
2)

The concept o f s u f f e r i n g d i f f e r e n t f a t e d the two a s Ben S i r a conformed t o the t r a d i t i o n a l Wisdom p o s t u r e

well.

311. 6. von Rad, Wisdom in I s r a e l , p.258n.25; he was c o r r e c t when he s t a t e d that Ben S i r a ' s concept of the prophets was 'astonishingly i n a d e q u a t e ' . Ben Sira r e g a r d e d them almost t o t a l l y as wonder-workers (48:l-16) and r e v e a l ers of t h e b l e s s e d future o f I s r a e l (36:15f., 48:23-25, 49:10). While he s t a t e d h i s concern with prophecies ( 3 9 : 1 ) , he d i d not mention the e t h i c a l dlmenslon o f the p r o p h e t l c writings. A study o f h i s picture o f the end-time (36:l-17) d l d n o t r e v e a l s p e c i f i c dependence upon the prophets. On t h e whole, what Ben S i r a s a t d o f the prophets d i d n o t r e f l e c t well on h f s r e p u t a t i o n as a s c r l b e .

104
on s u f f e r i n g :

i t was a v o i d a b l e , on the most p a r t , by the The

w l s e man and was an expected r e s u l t of human f o l l y . authors o f Danlel i n t e r p r e t e d S u f f e r i n g (11:33,35)

as proof

o f a s p e c i a l r e l a t f o n s h i p to God a n d something t o be recom-

pensed i n the end-time.

3 ) The c e n t r a l theme o f Ben Sira was devotion t o the

Torah o f God, which a l o n e must be obeyed (34:5-8).

I t was

the Wisdom o f God which l e d men t o p e r f e c t i o n ; dreams and s p e c u l a t i o n s on the u n k n o w n a r e t o be r e j e c t e d ( 3 : 2 1 - 2 4 ) . The authors o f Daniel do n o t r e j e c t Torah, b u t the theme of Daniel was s p i r i t u a l r e a d i n e s s f o r the end-time. For Ben

Sira, the end-time was f a r - d i s t a n t ;

tt could n o t g i v e

meaning t o l i f e ; and e s c h a t o l o g y was p e r l p h e r a l t o g o d l y living.

F o r the authors o f D a n i e l , the end-time was im-

minent and fundamental for how the Jews were t o l i v e . I t i s p o s s i b l e t o s e e the authors o f Daniel and Ben S i r a a s members o f a broad s c r l b a l t r a d i t i o n , b u t we must a l s o emphasize t h e i r q u a l i t a t i v e d i f f e r e n c e s .

Daniel's

authors have a k i n s h i p w f t h e s c h a t o l o g i c a l thought which i s f o r e i g n t o Wisdom c i r c l e s . However, we a r e unable t o say

whether t h i s e s c h a t o l o g i c a l awareness developed within o r

o u t s i d e the theocracy or whether the c i r c l e o f D a n i e l ' s

authors o r i g i n a t e d w i t h i n o r outstde the theocracy.

H a v l n g s t a t e d t h a t the authors o f the book o f Daniel

had some k i n d o f a background i n e s c h a t o l o g i c a l c i r c l e s and

not i n Wisdom groups ( a t l e a s t , t o the same d e g r e e ) , w e

105
must examine an a p o c a l y p t i c a l l y - o r i e n t e d t r a d i t i o n which
d i d have i t s r o o t s i n the Wisdom t r a d i t i o n :

the Enoch

1egend.

The book o f I Enoch i s g e n e r a l l y agreed t o be a c o l l e c t i o n of w r i t i n g s from groups whose i n t e r e s t s i n c l u d e d : the man Enoch, the theme of cosmological s p e c u l a t i o n and w h a t may be i d e n t i f i e d as p r i m i t i v e s c i e n t i f i c i n v e s t i g a 312 tion. Many b i b l i c a l d e t a i l s given about Enoch (Gen.
5:21-24)

correspond t o the Babylonian myths r e g a r d i n g the

seventh primeval k i n g , Enmeduranna, and i t i s p o s s i b l e t o p o s t u l a t e Enoch's unique t r a n s l a t i o n t o the heavenly realm

by comparing i t t o the Sumerian legend o f K i n g Etana, who

attempted t o journey t o heaven a g a i n s t the w i l l o f the 313 gods. However, t h e r e i s l i t t l e substance t o t h e s e r e f e r e n c e s a s they r e l a t e to t h i s l a t t e r phase of the Enoch t r a d i t i o n ; i t remains t h a t Enoch's wisdom/righteousness

was emphasized i n c o n t r a s t t o h i s pagan c o u n t e r p a r t s and was

presented within a genuinely Jewish r e l i g i o u s framework. I a g r e e t h a t one o f the o r i g i n a l motivations o f t h i s Enoch c i r c l e was theodicy, a searching o u t o f the o r i g i n and development of e v i l , i t s judgment by God i n h i s t o r y and i t s
312. M O Hengel, 0 ~ c . i t . , p p . 2 0 4 , 2 1 7 f 0 This m a t e r i a l It i s d e r i v e d from the world-view o f H e l l e n i s t i c Judaism. d i f f i c u l t t o imagine t h a t they could limit themselves t o p u r e l y h i s t o r t c a l material amtdst the cosmological specul a t i o n s , e t c . , which Hellenism had imported i n the p r e v i o u s centuries. 313. C f . 0 . E i s s f e l d t , 1)p. c i t . , p.621, for the r e f e r e n c e s on these s u b J e c t s .

106 r e l a t i o n s h i p t o God.
314

There was a s t r o n g i n t e r e s t i n t h e the concern with f a l l e n

p r e - h i s t o r i c segment o f G e n e s i s :

a n g e l s , the r i s e o f wickedness among m a n k i n d a n d the j u d g ment o f a n g e l s and mankind i n the Flood.

T h i s setting of

judgment p r o v i d e d a p o i n t o f c o n t a c t whereby an e s c h a t o l o g i c a l i n t e r e s t could enter a previously non-eschatological tradition. L a t e r c o n t r i b u t i o n s t o the o r i g i n a l Enoch

m a t e r i a l c o n t a i n g r e a t e r amounts o f f u t u r e - o r i e n t e d material. T h i s e a r l y m a t e r i a l was l i m i t e d t o the Book of Watchers (ch. 1-36) and t h e Astronomical Book (ch. 72-82).

315

The themes o f the former s e c t i o n were t h e f a l l e n a n g e l s , t h e d e m o r a l i z a t i o n of mankind and the pronouncement of doom upon t h o s e a n g e l s . The l a t t e r s e c t i o n c o n t a i n e d a l a r g e d e a l i n g with

p o r t i o n o f s c i e n t i f l c o b s e r v a t i o n (ch. 7 2 - 7 9 ) , t h e movement o f c e l e s t i a l b o d i e s and geography.

The Enoch t r a d i t i o n underwent a profound change a s i t e n t e r e d the e r a o f the Maccabees. The Enoch t r a d i t i o n d i d

have proponcts within t h e Jewish community i n P a l e s t i n e ,

for a d d i t i o n a l segments a p p e a r t o have been composed t h e r e .

The Book of Dreams (ch. 8 3 - 9 0 ) c o n t a i n e d an e s c h a t o l o g i c a l a p o c a l y p s e s i m i l a r t o Dan. 10-12 and i s d a t e d t o the same 316 period. Moreover, i t was o f t r u e H a s i d i c a u t h o r s h i p Bauckham, a r t . c i t . , p p l 6 f . Bauckham f o l o w e ~ . T . N i l i k , op. c i t . , pp.22-41, t h e pre-Maccabean d a t e s o f t h e s e segments. R . J . Bauckham, art. c i t . , p . 1 6 .
R.J.

314. 315. i n stating 316.

107
( i n the sense t h a t i t gave p o l i t i c a l support t o the Maccabean f a m i l y ) and encouraged the Hasidim i n their s p i r i t u a l
a n d p o l i t i c a l endeavors.

The Enoch t r a d i t i o n , t h e r e f o r e , contained two apocalypt i c forms.

On the one h a n d , ch. 85-90 contained an eschato-

l o g i c a l apocalypse, concerned with the f u t u r e and using v a t i c i n i a ex eventu n a r r a t i v e s t o connect the time o f the hero t o t h e Maccabean p e r i o d . I t r e f l e c t e d the v a l u e s o f

the H a s i d i c movement and had h i s t o r i c a l l i m i t s placed upon

it.

On the o t h e r h a n d , the B o o k of Watchers (ch. 1-36)

had

a cosmological apocalypse.

Through the f i c t i o n o f Enoch's

j o u r n e y t o heaven, the authors were f r e e t o s p e c u l a t e o r e l a b o r a t e on the s i g n i f i c a n c e o f the supernatural world f o r 317 them and t h e i r people. GIhile i t i s c l e a r t h a t I Enoch 85-90 came from a H a s i d i c group which had given support t o the Maccabees and
d i d not r e f l e c t a p o l i t i c a l

p a c i f i s m ( a s does D a n . 10-12),

i t was dependent upon the Daniel work for i t s form and conThe Enoch t r a d e n t s were poor authors with l i t t l e 318 creativity, The l a c k o f s k i l l apparent i n the construe-

tent.

t i o n of I Enoch 85-90 supports the view t h a t the book o f

Daniel was the f i r s t c r y s t a l l i z a t i o n o f t h a t pre-occupation within the Jewish community which came t o be c a l l e d apocalyptic.

317. The Slmilitudes o f Enoch ( c h . 37-71) combined b o t h forms, b u t these chapters were dated much l a t e r . 318. A . Bentzen, I n t r o d u c t l o n t o the O l d Testament, v o l . 1, p.258.

108
T H E MESSAGE AND T H E O L O G Y OF ZECHARIAH 1-8

I.

Introduction Zecharfah 1-8

319

o r i g i n a t e d a t an important j u n c t u r e o f

I s r a e l i t e history. d a t e 538-516 B . C . creativity.

The r e s t o r a t i o n p e r i o d , which we may an e r a o f c o n s i d e r a b l e i n t e l l e c t u a l

, was

I t experienced v a r i o u s f o r c e s which molded the

behavior, b e l i e f s and e x p e c t a t i o n s o f the people.

Scholars have observed t h a t the r e s t o r a t i o n of the Jews t o J u d a h was a n t i c i p a t e d by the canonical prophets o f the e x i l i c y e a r s :
36-37)

Jeremiah (ch. 2 9 - 3 0 , 3 3 ) ,

Ezekiel (ch.

a n d Deutero-Isaiah.

The e x p e c t a t i o n was passed t o The hope of r e s t o r a t i o n

the G o l a h community a s a whole.

has been viewed as a n a t u r a l consequence o f the f u t u r e o r i e n t e d Jewish f a i t h , whlch s c h o l a r s have t r a c e d from very 320 e a r l y times a s the r o o t o f Jewish e s c h a t o l o g y .

319. In view of the o v e r - a l l d i r e c t i o n of m y subject, I have chosen t o l i m i t m y a n a l y s i s o f Zechariah 1-8. New cri t i c a l work i s r e q u i r e d on t h i s r a t h e r n e g l e c t e d p o r t i o n o f the p r o p h e t i c l i t e r a t u r e . I have o n l y touched upon t h i s a r e a and have t r e a t e d o n l y the more b a s i c q u e s t i o n s of r e d a c t i o n - c r i t i c i s m , l i t e r a r y - c r i t i c i s m and f o r m - c r i t i c f s m . M y primary i n t e r e s t has been in the a r e a o f t h e t h e o l o g y o f Zechariah 1-8 and, more s p e c i f i c a l l y , Z e c h a r i a h ' s understanding o f the e x i l e a n d r e s t o r a t i o n p e r i o d s , h i s s i g n i f i cance t o the c o n t i n u a t i o n o f the p r o p h e t i c t r a d i t i o n and t o 'the formatfon o f the p o s t - e x i l i c p r o p h e t f c movement and h i s c o n t r i b u t t o n s t o the emergence o f the a p o c a l y p t i c world-view and c e r t a i n a p o c a l y p t i c b e l i e f s . 320. Cf. S. Mowinckel, He T h a t Corneth; 3 . Brlght, A H i s t o r y of I s r a e l , p.150.

109

The r e t u r n f r o m the Babylonian e x i l e , w h i l e motivated by t h i s p a r t i c u l a r f u t u r e hope, was complicated by the hards h i p s encountered i n the land ( c f . Hag. 1 ) .

The e a r l y post-

e x i l i c prophets were f o r c e d t o deal with an unpleasant p r e s e n t r e a l i t y a n d with the u n f u l f i l l e d p r o p h e t i c promises f o r the r e s t o r a t i o n ( c f . H a g . 2:15,19: Zech. 8:lO-11:

'from t h i s day' and

'before those days...but now').

These promises grew o u t o f the words o f the e x i l i c prophets and from the substance o f the Jewish f a i t h . Haggai

a n d Zechariah took up the hopes o f the ' o f f i c i a l ' t h e o l o g y 321 o f the p r e - e x i l i c s t a t e and the e x i l i c communities in

t h e i r concern f o r the D a v i d i c s c i o n ( H a g . 2:ZO-23, Zech.

6:12-14), the coming time of p r o s p e r i t y ( H a g . 2 7 - 9 , Zech.

8 ) a n d the s i g n i f i c a n c e o f the f u t u r e f o r the n a t i o n s round 322 about. These prophets r e i t e r a t e d and remolded the

t r a d i t i o n s o f t h e p a s t much more t h a n they i n t e n t t o n a l l y broke new ground for f u t u r e t h e o l o g i c a l development. While

H . Ringgren may be c o r r e c t in s t a t i n g that the use of v i s i o n s 323 and bizarre images prepared the way f o r new developments,
t h e r e was no evidence f o r any 'new developments' until the second century B.C., more t h a n t h r e e c e n t u r i e s removed from

this period.
Zechariah was the f i r s t prophet t o i d e n t i f y a 'pro-

321. 322. Zechariah's 323.

3 . Bright, o pp. 353f. H a g g a i l o o k e f o r the d e s t r u c t i o n of the n a t i o n s ; hope had a d i s t i n c t i v e u n i v e r s a l i s t i c element. H. Ringgren, I s r a e l i t e R e l f g t o n , pp.332f.

-%.

110
phetic tradition'
324

which gave a c e r t a i n sense of coherence The concept o f

t o statements about p a s t p r o p h e t i c a c t i v i t y .

a u n i f i e d p r o g r e s s i o n o f prophets was i n t e r p r e t e d i n d i f f e r 325 e n t ways by those o f comprehended i t . S i n c e much o f p o s t - e x i l i c Judaism claimed the e x i l i c prophets as t h e i r s p i r i t u a l predecessors on important- overtones. These d i f f e r e n t i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s were symptomatic of a deep d i v i s i o n within the Jewish community o f t h i s e r a . Zechariah 1-8 o u g h t t o be read with T r i t o - I s a i a h i n o r d e r t o more f u l l y g r a s p the dynamics o f the e a r l y p o s t - e x i l i c period.
326

these d i f f e r e n t i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s took

A r e a d i n g o f Zechariah 1-88 H a g g a i and the h i s -

t o r y o f the e r a (Etra 1-6) p r o v i d e s only one v e r s i o n o f the e v e n t s , the t h e o c r a t i c i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . discontent (Trlto-Isaiah, The l f t e r a t u r e o f

Deutero-Zechariah and M a l a c h i )

g i v e s the o t h e r s i d e o f the s t o r y . Zechariah 1-8 i s t o be understood a s the r e c o r d o f an e a r l y p o s t - e x i l i c prophet who was conscious o f h l s r e l a t i o n
t o p a s t prophets and o f the s i g n i f i c a n c e o f h i s day.

His

m i n i s t r y i s t o be viewed as sympathettc t o the l e a d e r s h i p o f t h e community. While h i s messages were s p e c i f i c a l l y

d i r e c t e d t o h i s h i s t o r i c a l s i t u a t i o n , they can c o l l e c t i v e l y

324. I f i t assumed t h a t Ezek. 38-39 was w r i t t e n l a t e r t h a n Zech. 2 t 2 - 6 and 7 t 4 - 1 4 . 3 2 5 . . Other passages which e x h i b i t e d an awareness o f a p r o p h e t i c t r a d i ti on a r e : Ezek. 38:17, Zech. 13:Z-6 and the reworking o f the p r o p h e t i c f i g u r e i n the C h r o n f c l e s . 326. C f . P. and Pl6ger , Theocrac R e s t o r a tTonT i d
0

111 be d e s c r i b e d a s ' . . . a compendium of Old Testament r e l i 327 gion'. His r o l e i n the development o f the a p o c a l y p t i c
I

outlook and b e l i e f s must be viewed from the p r e s p e c t i v e

o f h i s r e f l e c t i o n of h i s own e r a a n d h i s p r e p a r a t i o n f o r

f u r t h e r advances i n i n d i v i d u a l concepts. 11. Zech. 1:2-6, The F i r s t Message In t h i s opening statement, Zechariah s e c u r e l y grounded

h i s statement i n a s p e c i f i c h i s t o r i c a l s i t u a t i o n .

He men-

t i o n e d 1 ) the d i v i n e d i s p l e a s u r e with the p r e - e x i l i c p e o p l e

(v.2),

the need f o r p r e s e n t repentance ( v . 3 ) ,

the obstinancy

o f the p a s t g e n e r a t i o n s ( v . 4 )

and the punishment which h a d

accrued t o such d i s o b e d i e n c e ( v . 6 ) . p a s s a g e , with those of 7:4-8:23,

The message o f t h i s

formed a n e f f e c t i v e com(1:8-6:15).

plement t o t h a t o f the Night-Visions

This passage r e v e a l e d Zechariah's r e c o g n t t i o n o f a prophetic tradition. ferred i n v.4,

and obedience.

The 'former prophetd, t o whom he r e -

a r e viewed as c a l l l n g the people t o repentance

O.H.

Steck viewed t h i s passage a s one member

of a long t r a d i t i o n o f i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f the p r o p h e t i c move-

ment, which he i d e n t i f i e d as belonging t o the deuteronomistic 328 tradition. He summed up t h i s t r a d i t i o n ' s view of p a s t 329 history:

327. W O E . B a r n e s , Haggai and Zechariah, p . x x i f i . 328. O.H. S t e c k , Israel und d as gewaltsame Geschick der Pro heten, p p .60-800 1 d 8 pp.63f.

-.

112

lande s t e t s ungehorsame V o l k ( A ) i s t t r o t z d e r d e r tangmut Gottes e n t s rungenen Vermahn u n g durch d i e Propheten ( 6 h a l s s t a r r i g geb l i e b e n ( C ) und h a t s o das S t r a f g e r i c h t Jahwes ( D ) in den Katastrophen v o n 7 2 2 und 587 v . Chr. auf s i c h gezogen.

... dieses i m V e r l a u f s e i n e s gesamten m Verheissungsvorexilischen Aufenthales i

Zechariah has f o l l o w e d q u i t e c l o s e l y the deuteronomistic p a t t e r n and has accepted the deuteronomistic assessment o f the p a s t .

Given t h i s s i m i l a r i t y between Zech. 1:2-6 and the

deuteronomistic w r i t i n g s , i t would not be s u r p r i s i n g t o d i s c o v e r other s i m i l a r i t i e s w i t h compositions e i t h e r composed o r preserved by the deuteronomistic c i r c l e s .

M O Weinfeld

has s t a t e d t h a t Zech. 1:4-6 i s f o r m - c r i t i c a l l y s i m i l a r t o 330 the prose sermons o f Jeremiah ( e . g . 25:4-5, 26:3-5). O.H. Steck d e c l a r e d t h a t t h e r e i s s o l i t t l e d i f f e r e n c e be-

tween the two that Zechariah must have borrowed the preaching s t y l e a n d thought o f the deuteronomistic c i r c l e s 331 upon h i s arrival from Babylon. The deuteronomistic c l r d e s and the Jeremian m a t e r i a l shared with Zechariah a con-

cern f o r the word o f God, the Toraha obedience and repentance and judgment.
33 2
The deuteronomistic theology p i c t u r e d the word o f God

as the r e a l i t y which gave c o n t i n u i t y and u n i t y t o h i s t o r y

through a p a t t e r n of promise and f u l f i l l m e n t . That word was

M. Weinfeld, Deuteronomy and the Deuteronomic p . 7 ; I . Meyer and L L . H o s s t e l d , Prophet gegen p. 156. O.H. Steck, op. c i t . , pp.143f. W. Brueggemann, -e ma o f the Deuterono332 mistic H istorian',

330

113

an a c t i v e f o r c e i n h i s t o r y which, when spoken i n the 333 p r e s e n t , caused f u t u r e events. W e i n f e l d ' s comments on 334 Jeremiah could be a p p l i e d t o Zechariah a l s o :

Like the deuteronomic o r a t i o n s i n Joshua-Kings, the prophetic sermons i n Jeremiah a r e programmatic in c h a r a c t e r , t h e i r purpose being t o demonstrate t h a t the f a l l o f J u d a h a n d the d e s t r u c t i o n o f the temple, the most h o r r i f y i n g and overwhelming of catastrophes i n I s r a e l i t e h i s t o r y , o c c u r r e d , l i k e the f a l l o f the kingdom 0.f I s r a e l , by the f o r c e o f t h e p r o p h e t i c word o f God.
Z e c h a r i a h ' s use o f the phrase 'word o f God' i s thoroughly deu teronomi s ti c . This passage was not concerned about the repentance and obedience o f the n a t i o n as a whole, a s the e a r l i e r deuteronomic theology had been, b u t o f the i n d i v i d u a l .
335

The d e s t i n y o f the Jewish people h a d a l r e a d y been d e t e r mined by the f a c t o f the r e s t o r a t i o n and the promises o f the Zechariah spoke too d i r e c t l y about the 336 d e s t i n y o f the community ( 2 1 - 5 , 3 : 1 0 , 8:1-8) for t h a t a s p e c t t o be c o n d i t i o n a l ; the s a l v a t i o n o f the people was Yahweh's major g o a l (2:lO-l2, 8:ZO-23). Zechariah makes a e x i l i c prophets.

l a t e r d i s t i n c t i o n between the i n d i v i d u a l a n d the community

(5:1-4);

an appeal i n t h i s message w o u l d not c o n t r a d i c t the

-.

333. M. W e feld, c t t . p.21; P.R. Ackroyd, a. c i t ' p.202. c i t . , p.28. 334. M. W ei nf e l d , 335. I b i d . 8 PP.31 6- ,9 I have chosen t o use t h e E n g l i s h 336. -9 i n Heb verslon for r e f e r e n c e s .

?i

114
o t h e r dimensions o f Z e c h a r i a h ' s message. I f the Night-Visions a r e b e s t understood a s a l i t e r a r y composition from the beginning, Zech. 1:Z-6 i s p r o b a b l y an

example of Zechariah's speaking m l n i s t r y , a l o n g with the v a r i o u s fragments contained i n ch. 7-8 and appended t o i n = dividual visions,

SOB. F r o s t ' s theory t h a t Zechariah 1-8

r e s u l t e d from the c o l l a b o r a t i o n of two i n d i v i d u a l s (one r e s p o n s i b l e f o r the N i g h t - V i s i o n s a n d the o t h e r f o r t h e public ministry),

337

seems t o unnecessari l y simpl i f y the There i s a

d i f f e r e n c e s o f m a t e r i a l within Zechariah 1-8.

wholeness and a humanity t o t h e s e chapters which i s l o s t through such a d i v i s i o n .

1 1 1 .
Zech. 1 r 8 - 6 A 5 ,

The N i g h t V i s i o n s

The Night-VisSons c o n s t i t u t e the c o r e o f Zechariah 338 1-8 as w e l l as supplying most o f the i n t r i g u i n g f e a t u r e s

a n d i n d i v i d u a l problems for i n t e r p r e t e r s .

They contain

t h o s e elements which form Z e c h a r i a h ' s c o n t r i b u t f o n t o the p r o p h e t i c movement t h a t i n f l u e n c e d the development of the a p o c a l y p t i c world-view and d o c t r i n e s o f the second century

B.C.

They a r e c r i s p and o r d e r l y i n s t y l e , the imagery i s The

mundane, y e t b i z a r r e , and t h e i r d e s c r i p t i o n s c r y p t i c . presumption of s c h o l a r s i n p r e c i s e l y I d e n t i f y i n g the

337, 338. p.270.

A . Weiser, I n t r o d u c t i o n t o t h e

L B . F r o s t , O l d Testament Apocal p t i c , p p . 9 3 - 9 6 .
estament,

115 images with f l g u r e s o f the e a r l y p o s t - e x i l i c e r a has spawned widely-differing message. opinions o f the prophet's purpose and

T h e r e a l problem o f h i s t o r i c a l g r o u n d i n g makes the

i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f the v i s i o n s h i g h l y s p e c u l a t i v e and prov o c a t i ve. The f a c t t h a t Zechariah worked Joshua, the h i g h p r i e s t , and Z e r u b b a b e l , the c i v i l governor, i n t o the v i s i o n sequence

compounds the d i f f i c u l t i e s f o r the i n t e r p r e t e r .

The e i g h t They

v i s i o n s d e s c r i b e heavenly a c t i v i t y not e a r t h l y events.

339

a l l p o i n t t o the imminent peace o f the community and a r e i n tended t o g i v e comfort t o a t r o u b l e d p e o p l e , i f not t o

h e l p them understand why the promises o f God have been del ayed.

Each v i s i o n follows t w o broad r u l e s :

1 ) adherence t o

a common p a t t e r n and 2 ) u n i q u e v a r i a t i o n from t h i s p a t t e r n .

C . Jeremias' study o f the Night-Visions emphasized t h i s 340 which c o n s i s t s o f 1 ) a d e s c r i p t i o n o f the pattern ,

vision-scene,

2 ) the r e q u e s t o f the prophet f o r an i n t e r -

p r e t a t i o n o f the scene and i t s meaning and 3 ) t h e response

of the angel b r i n g i n g the s i g n i f i c a n c e o f the scene and i t s

imagery. The f i r s t v i s i o n v a r i e d t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n and The second v i s i o n r e p e a t e d the

appended o r a c u l a r m a t e r i a l . p a t t e r n (1:18-19,20-21).

The third v i s i o n v a r i e d a l l the The fourth v i s i o n

elements and o r a c u l a r m a t e r i a l was added.

339. Y . Kaufmann, H i s t o r y o f the R e l i g i o n o f I s r a e l , v o l . 4 , p.306. 3 4 0 . C . Jeremias, D i e Nachtgesichte des S a c h a r j a , p.10.

116

dispensed with the r e q u e s t and the i n t e r p r e t a t i o n and added 3431 material. The f i f t h v i s i o n t r e b l e d the r e q u e s t and ins e r t e d two short o r a c l e s . r e q u e s t i n t o a statement. The s i x t h v i s i o n transformed the The seventh v i s i o n included a
with c e r t a i n
A

t r i p l e s e r i e s o f the p a t t e r n ( 5 : 5 - 6 , 7 - 8 , 9 4 1 ) omissions.

The e i g h t h v i s i o n conformed t o the p a t t e r n .

symbolic action-scene (6:9-14) cl u s i on.

was added with a s h o r t con-

The imagerylsymbolism o f the Night-Visions i s unique

i n the O l d Testament,
342

surpassing even the a p o c a l y p t i c

f i g u r e s o f the book o f Daniel with i t s b i z a r r e and incons i s t e n t forms.

In l a r g e measure, the D a n i e l i c imagery i s

self-interpreting;

Zechariah's f i g u r e s a r e a b s t r a c t a n d de-

tached and cannot be understood a p a r t from the provided i n .terpre tation.

The l i t e r a t u r e devoted t o the N i g h t - V i s i o n s ( c f . the B i b l i o g r a p h y ) y j e l d e d s u r p r i s l n g l y l i t t l e consensus on the n a t u r e o f the imagery o r the source o f the symbolism. S c h o l a r s have p r o l i f e r a t e d r e f e r e n c e s t o mythic themes and foreign ritual, but Zechariah's d e s c r i p t i o n s a r e n o t en-

hanced by these r e f e r e n c e s and they do not g i v e i n s i g h t i n -

t o h i s purpose.

I f t h e r e are s i g n i f i c a n t sources from which

341. Many s c h o l a r s have concluded that the fourth v i s i o n d e v f a t e s too far from the p a t t e r n o f the o t h e r N i g h t V i s i o n s t o have o r i g i n a t e d with Zechariah. They conclude t h a t i t was o f o t h e r , later authorship. 342. C f . the s t u d i e s by C O Jeremias, op. c i t . , and L . 6 . R i g n e l l , Die Nachtgesichte des S a c h a r j a .

117

Zechariah drew h i s imagery, they a r e p r e s e n t l y unknown t o

Thisconclusion has drawn G.A. N i g h t - V i s i o n s were allegories-the

I

S m i t h t o s t a t e t h a t the

...a

s e r i e s o f conscfous and a r t i s t i c

d e l i b e r a t e t r a n s l a t i o n i n t o a c a r e f u l l y con-

s t r u c t e d symbolism o f the d i v i n e t r u t h s with which t h e pro343 phet was e n t r u s t e d by h i s God'. Other s c h o l a r s , however,

h a v e a s s e r t e d a genuine v i s i o n a r y e x p e r i e n c e b e h i n d the
vision-forms,
344

The conclusion o f 3 . Lindblom t h a t h a l f

o f the Night-Visions were based o + c s t a t i c

experience and
345

the o t h e r h a l f w

created by the prophet in an i n s p i r e d The un-

s t a t e f e l l halfway between these p o s i t i o n s .

n a t u r a l imagery, the number o f v i s i o n s i n s e r i e s and the

apparent c a r e in constructing the v i s i o n s t o s t i m u l a t e ref l e c t i o n seems to lend weight t o Smith's p o s i t i o n .

However,

the r e c e i v e d ( c i r c u l a t e d ) form o f the N i g h t - V i s i o n s appears

t o have been as a l i t e r a r y composition.

There was a s i m i l a r d i v i s f o n on the s e t t i n g o f the m a t e r i a l o f the Night-Visions.

L O G . R i g n e l l placed the
346

v i s i o n s i n the p e r i o d a f t e r the beginning o f the Temple r e b u i l d i n g p r o j e c t (as per the d a t e of 1:7),

as d o many

VOI,

343.

G.A.

S m i t h , The Book of the Twelve Prophets,

2, P.274, 344, w R u d o l p h , Haggai , S a c h a r j a 1-8., S a c h a r j a 9-14, und Maleachi p . 1 3 4 . 345. Lindblorn, Prophecy i n Anctent I s r a e l , p.145. .Go R i g n e l l vw- c It. , p . 2 4 3 . 346. L
I#

118
scholars.
K O G a l l i n g , however, would a s s i g n the v i s i o n s t o

d i f f e r e n t times within a m i n i s t r y which began i n Babylon 347 prior t o 538 B . C . . C O Jeremias went t o g r e a t length t o demonstrate that the v i s i o n s c o u l d be d a t e d t o the same 348 time. I f i t i s accepted t h a t the Night-Visions were f i r s t presented as a l i t e r a r y composition, the accuracy o f the d a t e given i n Zech. l t 7 i s , s e c o n d a r y concern. I n s o f a r as the theme o f t h e Night-Visions i s concerned,
K O E l l i g e r s t a t e d t h a t they d e a l with the in-breaking time 349 of salvation. G o von Rad pointed out how Zechariah d i f -

f e r e n t i a t e d the 'heavenly w o r l d ' from the e a r t h l y a n d t h a t

he s t r e s s e d t h e 'archetypal e x i s t e n c e ' o f the f i n a l t h i n g s 350 i n heaven.

S t r i c t l y opposing these i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s of Z e c h a r i a h ' s ' e s c h a t o l o g i c a l ' views was S . Mowinckel, who d e c l a r e d t h a t Zechariah 1-8 had nothing t o d o with eschatology. He s t a t e d

t h a t Zechariah awallted h i s t o r i c a l ' r e v o l u t i o n , w h i l e h i s imagery o f heavenly a c t i v l t y p i c t u r e d c e l e s t i a l beings which worked behind and through natural a g e n c i e s .

351

I believe

t h a t Mowinckel was c o r r e c t t o i n t e r p r e t Zechariah within the c o n t e x t o f h i s h i s t o r f c a l s i t u a t i o n by h i s predecessors and

3 4 7 . K O G a l l i n g , ' D i e Exllswende in d e r S f c h t des S a c h a r j a ' , VT 9 1 ( 1 9 5 2 ) , pp.18-36; c f . B . S . C h i l d s , I n t r o ductfon t o n e O l d Testament a s S c r i p t u r e , pp.476f. 348. Jeremias concluded t h a t nothing i n the N i g h t V i s i o n s speak a g a i n s t them a s a ' s i n g l e n i g h t ' e x p e r i e n c e . 349. K . Elliger, Das Buch d e r zwtflf kleinen Propheten, v o l . 2, p . 1 0 7 . 3 5 0 . G. von Rad, O l d Testament Theolo 11, p . 2 8 8 . 351. S . Mowinckel, He Th a t Cometh, p p 3 2 l f .

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n o t , as E l l i g e r a n d von Rad s t a t e d , by h i s s u c c e s s o r s . There

a r e no reasons t o j u s t i f y the c o n c l u s i o n t h a t Z e c h a r i a h ' s ' c o s m o l o g i c a l ' statements, which a r e secondary t o h i s ' h i s t o r i c a l ' statements, should be g i v e n primary s t a t u s . However, i t remains t h a t the p o l i t i c a l agencies t o which Mowinckel r e f e r r e d a r e not i d e n t i f i e d i n Zechariah 1-8 (and, perhaps, are not i d e n t i f i a b l e ) . Zechariah may have It

f o r e s e e n r e v o l u t i o n , o n l y t o see h i s hopes d i s s i p a t e d .

was a t t h i s s o r t of. j u n c t u r e t h a t h i s t o r y , a s i t had once

served p r e - e x i l i c prophecy, showed i t s e l f unable t o produce the context which the e a r l y p o s t - e x i l i c prophets sought of
it.
L A . Smith, f o r example, argued t h a t when Zechariah was

, u n a b l e to f o r e s e e the general overthrow o f the heathen i n h i s t o r i c a l terms, he was f o r c e d I . . . t o c a l l i n the apocalyp352 tic'. S m t t h went too far i n t h i s d i r e c t t o n because he

f a t l e d to d i s c e r n Lechariah's a n t i c i p a t i o n o f h i s t o r i c a l
events t o be caused by heavenly f o r c e s through e a r t h l y agencies. The question r e v o l v e s on the q u e s t i o n of whether

Zechariah p i c t u r e d s p e c i f i c people rising i n r e v o l t , a gene-

ral image o f e a r t h l y r e v o l u t i o n o r the impresston t h a t

heavenly f o r c e s w o u l d i n t e r v e n e within the h i s t o r i c a l con-

tinuum.

H. Gese p o s t u l a t e d t h a t t h e N i g h t - V i s i o n s o f Zechariah
352. L A . S m l t h , O J . c i t . , p . 2 8 1 ; S m i t h appears t o have meant the a p o c a l y p t t c w o r l d x e w , which w o u l d have i n c l u d e d the idea o f divine intervention i n history.

120
c o n s t i t u t e d the e a r l f e s t ' a p o c a l y p s e ' .
353

This view has

been opposed on many g r o u n d s , with common r e b u t t a l s being: 1 ) Zechariah 1-8 shares only some c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s with the l a t e r a p o c a l y p t i c l i t e r a t u r e , 2 ) t h e r e i s not enough obs e r v a b l e development t o suggest a connection with the apocal y p t f c l i t e r a t u r e a n d 3 ) the development of the a p o c a l y p t i c 354 Zechal i t e r a t u r e does not r e a l l y i n c l u d e Zechariah 1-80 r i a h d i d employ important f e a t u r e s which p a r a l l e l those of the a p o c a l y p t i c w r i t e r s ( e . g . vision-form, a n g e l o l o g y and 355 imagery ) which mi.ght be taken as a t r a n s i t i o n from prophecy t o a p o c a l y p t i c , b u t there i s l i t t l e evidence t h a t such a development o f these concepts occurred, t h a t such a development i s c o n c e i v a b l e or that such a development i s c o n s t i t u t i v e o f or e s s e n t i a l t o the development o f a p o c a l y p t i c .
~

A.

The F i r s t V i s i o n Cycle Zech. 1:8-17, The F i r s t V i s i o n

1.

The f i r s t v i s i o n was a scene with movement. A 'man' 356 a s t r i d e a horse a n d w a i t i n g i n a shady hollow received o t h e r horsemen, who reported t h a t they h a d t r a v e r s e d the

3 5 3 . H. Gese, ' A n f a n g und Ende d e r Apokalyptik darges t e l l t am Sacharjabuch' m - ZThK l x x (1973), p . 2 4 . 3 5 4 . 'P.D. Hanson, o c i t . , p.251. e Messages o f the A p o c a l y p t i c 355. F . C . P o r t e r , W r i t e r s , p . 23. 3 5 6 . The fargum rendered t W t n ~( 1 : 8 ) ' a t Babylon', l i n k i n g t h e v i s i o n t o the s l t e o f the e x i l e .

121

e a r t h and had found i t ' a t r e s t ' .

The pronouncement

prompted the man ( i d e n t i f i e d a s the a n g e l of God, h l w 7 ~ S n ) t o lament t o God and t o i n q u i r e how long the Jews w o u l d have t o endure His i n d i g n a t i o n ( v . 1 2 ) . The image o f horse and r i d e r was not f o r e i g n t o the
O l d Testament, not even i t s v i s i o n passages ( c f .
6:17).

I1 Kings

Although f o r m e r l y used t o r e p r e s e n t m i l i t a r y

s t r e n g t h , the image was used here t o p o r t r a y something akin t o scouting or information g a t h e r i n g . While a b a n d o f

P e r s l a n army scouts would have been a v a i l a b l e f o r Z e c h a r i a h ' s reference i n 520 B . C . , actually d i d so. i t i s i m p o s s i b l e t o determine t h a t he

A l s o , the r e f e r e n c e i s s u p e r f l u o u s , s i n c e

the v i s i o n provlded the necessary information t o understand the r o l e o f the horseman and t h e i r s i g n i f i c a n c e . The t h r u s t o f the vision-scene (apart from the whole v i s i o n ) i s f o u n d in v . 1 1 : ' a l l the e a r t h remains a t r e s t ' .

T h i s phrase h a s g e n e r a l l y been connected t o the i n t e r n a t f o n a l

s t t u a t i o n i n Zechariah's day ( c . 5 2 0 B . C . ) .

Some s c h o l a r s

have argued t h a t Darius had concluded h i s campaigns t o con357 s o l t d a t e h i s c o n t r o l o f the shaken P e r s i a n Empire. Others have s t a t e d that Darius had captured Babylon i n 5 2 0 B . C . , ef-

f e c t l v e l y c r u s h h g a s e r i e s o f r e v o l t s i n the western r e g i o n

357. A g a i n s t t h i s argument c f . W . Rudolph, op. c i t . , p.78n.18, who s t a t e d t h a t Darfus' e x p e d i t i o n a g a i n s t Babyl o n was y e t in the f u t u r e ( i . e . d i d not begtn u n t i l the summer of 519 B . C . ) .

122
o f the empire.
358
W O E . Barnes argued t h a t the q u i e t i n the

w o r l d a l l o w e d the work en the Temple, i n t e r r u p t e d by the r e 359 v o l t s , to be resumed. Others have s t a t e d t h a t the q u i e t
of t h e world r e f e r r e d s p e c i f i c a l l y t o i'ts p r e p a r a t i o n f o r a

new a c t of God, t h a t p o l i t i c a l events were i n e f f e c t u a l when 360 God made ready t o a c t .

H O G . M i t c h e l l a s s e r t e d t h a t the only time when t h i s

v i s i o n - s c e n e could have been h i s t o r i c a l l y a c c u r a t e was the p e r i o d o f Babylon's domlnation o f the known w o r l d p r i o r t o i t s d e f e a t by Cyrus i n 5 3 8 B . C .
361

I f Zechariah's descrip-

t i o n o f h i s p r e s e n t and f u t u r e i s not r e j e c t e d a s an unsucc e s s f u l attempt t o p r e d i c t the i n t e r v e n t i o n of God i n h i s t o r y b u t accepted a s a r e a l i s t i c r e f l e c t i o n o f a s p e c i f i c

p e r i o d of h i s t o r y , the weight o f M i t c h e l l ' s argument must be

a ckn ow 1ed ge d .
The dashing of expectations a n d the absence o f s i g n s o f God's a c t i v i t y l e d t o the expression o f f r u s t r a t e d
f a i t h i n v.12.
362

This c l a s s i c statement o f anguish ( a l s o

f o u n d in I s . 6:11) was d e r i v e d f r o m the c u l t ( a s seen in i t s 363 f r e q u e n t use i n t h e Psalms, 7 4 : 9 , 8 2 2 , 9 4 r 3 , e t c . ) . P.R.

358. D . R . Jones, H a g g a l , Zechariah and M a l a c h i , pp.58f.; R . Mason, H a s g a i , Zechariah and Ma l a c h f , p.37. 359. W O E . Barnes, op. e f t . , p . 2 4 . 360. L O G . R l g n e l l , o . T t . , p . 4 2 . 361. H O G . M l t c h e l 1 , f ; a s F and Zechariah, p p . 1 2 l f . 3 6 2 . Y . Kaufmann, 3 6 3 . H. Gunkel, E f n eitung in p 0d 3i 0e b 0Psalmen, pp.212,230.

Yo

123

Ackroyd l a b e l l e d t h i s v e r s e the key t o the v i s i o n :

the pro-

p h e t ' s e x p r e s s i o n o f h i s frustrated e x p e c t a t i o n of the coming 364 o f God, T h i s emotion was contained i n the v i s i o n t o s e t the s t a g e f o r w h a t f o l l o w e d ; f t was not meant t o be c e n t r a l . The passage 1:14-17, which the attendant angel charged
365

Zechariah t o proclaim t o the community,

s t r i k e s the most

r e s p o n s i v e chord i n the v i s i o n ' s r e l a t i o n s h i p t o the r e s t of Zechariah 1-8 and ought t o be regarded as the r e a l p o i n t o f The s e c t i o n , w h i l e o f t e n thought secondary 37 because o f i t s o r a c u l a r form, must be o r i g f n a l i n the sense t h a t the vision-scene could not e f f e c t i v e l y stand i n dependently.
The scene makes no sense, e i t h e r as a p i c t u r e
366

the v i s i o n ,

o f q u i e t or as a statement o f f r u s t r a t i o n ; i t must be seen

a s p r e p a r a t o r y f o r the message entrusted t o Zechariah,

368

Concerning t h i s o r a c u l a r s e c t i o n , Y , Kaufmann commen-

ted :

[They] are t o be understood a s i n t e g r a l p a r t s of the v i s i o n s , These a r e n o t prophec i e s appended by Zechariah ( o r some subsequent e d i t o r ) ; they a r e imagined a s spoken by the angel-speaker who proceeds t o e x p l a i n the v i s i ons , While t h i s statement may be too s i m p l i s t i c r e g a r d i n g the

7 .

3 6 4 , P . R , Ackroyd, ' Z e c h a r i a h ' * - PCB ( r e v , e d , ) , e d , M O Black, ~ 6 4 7 , 365. These i s no compelling reason t o l a b e l t h i s v i s i o n a ' c a l l v i s i o n ' , i . e . Z e c h a r i a h ' s commissioning a s a prophet, a s W,A.M, Beuken, Haggai-Sacharja 1-8, p.242, and o t h e r s have suggested. 366. K O Elliger, O J . cit p.101; L O G , Rfgnell, op. c t t ' p.60. 367. C O Jeremias, a, c i t . , p p , 7 4 f f . , p.275. 368. Y , Kaufmann, op,

-.

124

o r i g i n o f the o r a c u l a r m a t e r i a l , t h e r e i s truth i n Kauf-

mann's statement i n s o f a r as t h i s m a t e r i a l was e s s e n t i a l t o

the sense of the v i s i o n . I t supports the theory t h a t the N i g h t - V i s i o n s were i n i t i a l l y a l i t e r a r y composition and were 369 never preached messages. The transition from confusion ( v . 1 2 ) t o c o n s o l a t i o n (v.13) was managed through a s k i l l f u l interchange of r o l e s
by the angel o f Yahweh and the i n t e r p r e t f n g a n g e l , with each

a s s u m i n g a t r a d i t i o n a l prophetic r o l e :
c l ama ti on.
370

i n t e r c e s s i o n and pro-

The prophet himself was a c t u a l l y excluded from

hearing the d i v i n e decree t o the a n g e l , a r e f l e c t i o n o f Z e c h a r i a h ' s sense o f Yahweh's transcendence ( a n i n c r e a s i n g t r e n d d u r i n g the p o s t - e x i l i c p e r i o d ) . Yahweh was conspicuneither

o u s l y absent from the v f s i o n ; He was ' o f f - s t a g e ' , seen nor heard by the prophet.

However, His p a r t i a l i t y t o

the Jewish community and H i s c o n t r o l o f h i s t o r y a r e f u l l y communicated. The scene c a r r i e d o u t with the horsemen and the angel
of Yahweh gave the appearance o f t h e i r independence of

Yahweh.

The angel was i g n o r a n t o f the d i v i n e i n t e n t i o n s f o r

the community and the ' s c o u t s ' operated a t the behest of the angel ( n o t Yahweh).

This rather abstract idea o f angelic in-

dependence can be viewed a s marking a d e p a r t u r e from the

C f . R. North, 'Prophecy t o A p o c a l y p t i c v i a Zechariah', VTSu x x i i (1972), p.50. 3 7 d . R . Johnson, The Cul t i c Prophet in Ancient I s r a e l , p.63. 369.

125 e a r l i e r l i t e r a t u r e , i f i t i s assumed t h a t t h i s was the imp r e s s i o n the author wished t o convey. The essence o f the message Zechariah r e c e i v e d i s exp r e s s e d i n v.13: ' g r a c i o u s and comforting words'.
D,W.

Thomas missed the p o i n t o f the v i s i o n when he s t a t e d t h a t i t r e l a t e d t h a t Yahweh's anger s t i l l burned and t h a t o n l y ' s i g n s 371 of comfort' were o b s e r v a b l e . The t h r u s t o f the v i s i o n was Yahweh's turning t o the Jews, i n c o n t r a d i c t i o n t o e x t e r n a l appearances. The preaching o f comfort a s a recompense f o r p a s t suf-

ferlng developed i n the e x i l k prophets and was continued

by the p o s t - e x i l i c prophets a t the expense o f the e a r l i e r p r o p h e t i c emphasis .upon proper e t h i c a l behavior (although Zechariah included b o t h elements, the e t h i c a l dimension was c l e a r l y secondary). Deutero-Isaiah was the prophet most

c l e a r l y i d e n t i f i e d with the proclamation o f a message of comfort ( I s . 40: 1-2). Deutero-Isaiah determined the e x p e c t a t i o n of the people as they returned from Babylonla for w h a t should have awaited them in Judah.

His d e s c r i p t i o n s were unique; Zechariah was

i n f l u e n c e d , d i r e c t l y o r i n d i r e c t l y , by h i s m i n i s t r y , Many s c h o l a r s have detected the i n f l u e n c e of DeuteroI s a f a h i n Zechariah, m o s t n o t a b l y i n the o r a c u l a r m a t e r i a l

o f 1:14-17 and 2:6-13 i n the matters o f Zechariah's s t y l e

371. D.W. Thomas, ' Z e c h a r i a h ' , B u t t r i c k , p.1060.

IB, v o l . 6 , ed.

G.A.

126
and theology.
37 2

K O G a l l i n g s t a t e d t h a t , i n many a r e a s ,

Zecharfah was c l o s e r t o Deutero-Isaiah and T r i t o - I s a i a h t h a n t o Haggai, with whom Zechariah i s most o f t e n connec373 ted. The r e l a t i o n o f Zechariah 1-8 to Deutero- and T r i t o I s a i a h has been confirmed by s i m i l a r i t i e s i n s t y l e , s u b j e c t matter and vocabulary.
R . F . Melugin has noted t h a t the

o r a c l e s of Deutero-Isaiah took t h e form o f announcements of s a l v a t i o n and assurances o f s a l v a t i o n , s i m i l a r t o statements g i v e n in a c u l t i c s e t t i n g : psalm of lament,

374

the response t o the i n d i v i d u a l

o f which Zech. 1:12 was a c l a s s i c , i f

shortened, example. Melugin analyzed the response formula i n Deutero-Isaiah 375 as follows:

a
b

the admonition not t o f e a r , the d i r e c t address t o the s u p p l i c a n t , the statement o f imminent h e l p , the assurance t h a t Yahweh has heard, the announcement o f the future Yahweh w i l l b r i n g .

The passage Zech. 1:13-17 corresponded w e l l t o M e l u g i n ' s analysis:

a ) v.13 gave the e q u i v a l e n t o f ' f e a r n o t ' , v.14a included t h e ' d i r e c t a d d r e s s ' , vv.14b-15 i n d i c a t e d the forthcoming h e l p , v.16a expressed the assurance t h a t Yahweh has heard the p r a y e r o f v.12, e ) vv.16b-17 announced the f u t u r e w h i c h Yahweh had determined.
Smith, O J . c i t . , pp.259f.; SmRo D r i v e r , The Minor Prophets, v o l . 2, p p . m mf.; f . ; C.G. R i g n e l l , O J o p . c i t . ,, ?tw ee o f the P P . 2 4 4 t * s w . S . McCullough, T h e H i s t o r y and L i t e r a ur P a l e s t i n i a n Jews, p.31.
372.
G.A.

-.

127 Forms s i m i l a r t o those employed by Deutero-Isaiah r e c u r r e d

in 2:6-9,

2:lO-12

and 8 : l - 3 .

Zechariah a d o p t e d c e r t a i n themes w h i c h , although by no means e x c l u s i v e l y , are found i n Deutero- and T r i t o - I s a i a h . He made use o f the Zion-Jerusalem t h e o l o g y , which l e d K.
G a l l i n g - t o s t a t e t h a t he was a f o l l o w e r o f D e u t e r o - I s a i a h . 376

The theme o f comfort f o r the Jews was s t r e s s e d by t h e s e prophets. nations D e u t e r o - I s a i a h ' s teaching on the b l e s s i n g of the was reproduced i n Zech. 2:lO-12 and 8:20-23. theme o f a l l Jews being The

Zechariah f o l l o w e d T r i t o - I s a i a h ' s

p r i e s t s f o r the G e n t i l e s ( I s . 61:6, Zech. 8:20-23).

temporal dichotomy between the 'former t h t n g s ' and the 'new

t h i n g s ' ( I s . 48:3-8)
I

served a s a p a t t e r n f o r Z e c h a r i a h ' s now' d i s t i n c t i o n (8:10-11).

...b e f o r e

those d a y s . . . b u t

D.R. Jones p o s t u l a t e d t h a t Zechariah was a c t u a l l y t a k i n g up

the problem o f D e u t e r o - I s a i a h ' s

u n f u l f i l l e d promises, t r y i n g

t o g i v e them meaning by i n t e r p r e t i n g c u r r e n t events i n t h e i r 377 light.

6 . von Rad i n d i c a t e d t h a t the kernel o f D e u t e r o - I s a i a h ' s

message was the immfnent advent o f Yahweh t o r e v e a l His g l o r y 378 t o the w o r l d . He then s t a t e d that the N i g h t - V i s i o n s r e -

373. 374. pp. 4,130 375. 376. 377. 378.

R.F.

K. G a l l i n g , a r t . c i t . , p.36.
Melugin,he-&mation
Ibid.,

o f I s a i a h 40-55,

pp.13f. K . a l l f n g , a r t . c l t . , p.36. D.R. Jones, op. c r , p . 6 0 . 60 von Rad, op. c'ft 9 p.243.

128
v e a l e d c e r t a i n d e t a i l s o f the 'age t o come'.
379

The

tendency t o r e f e r t o the r e v e r s a l of the f o r t u n e s o f the Jews gained momentum from Deutero-Isaiah and h l s e x p e c t a t i o n

of the r e s t o r a t i o n .

Zechariah a n t l c i p a t e d a future adapted

from t h a t o f Deutero-Isaiah. The occasion which von Rad perceived a s the d i v i s i o n between the ' o l d a g e ' and the ' a g e o f s a l v a t i o n ' was the r e -

turn o f Yahweh t o Z i o n ,

He imposed a s u b s t a n t i a l l y d i f f e r e n t

sense o f the ' r e t u c n ' of Yahweh upon t h a t used by Zechariah. The Hebrew verb 3 7 w can be t r a n s l a t e d ' r e t u r n ' , 'turn' and 380 According t o HOW. W o l f f , t h i s word 'change ( o n e ' s m i n d ) ' . can mean ' r e p e n t ' ,
381

p a r t i c u l a r l y when a p p l i e d t o human be-

h a v i o r ; i t held a c e n t r a l p l a c e i n d e u t e r o n o m i s t i c ,
thought. When a p p l i e d t o Yahweh, i t need n o t mean ' r e t u r n '

i n a physical s e n s e .
Zechariah d i d not employ
3'101 ( 1 : 1 6 )

t o r e p r e s e n t the He spoke of

concept o f a p h y s i c a l r e t u r n o f Yahweh t o Z i o n .

Yahweh's d e c i s i o n t o 'come' a n d t o ' d w e l l ' t h e r e ( t h e Hebrew verbs kiel.

NI>

and

730),

concepts which were borrowed from Ete-

The d f f f e r e n c e s between Ezekiel and D e u t e r o - I s a i a h

a r e not taken up by Zechariah, who d i d not speak o f the p h y s i c a l m a n i f e s t a t i o n o f the d i v i n e g l o r y ( a s Deutero379. 6. von Rad, op. c i t . , 380. W.L. Holladay, T h e R o o t 3 BH i n the Old Testament, pp.53ff. 381. HOW. Wolff, 'Das Kerygma d e r deuteronomistichen Geschichtswerks', Z A W l x x i i i (1961), pp.17lff.

p.2t5.

129

I s a i a h ) o r of the physical changes i n Jerusalem and the Temple a r e a ( c f . Ezekiel 40-48). One can d i s c e r n attempts

t o harmonize the messages o f the e a r l i e r prophets.

There was indeed a strong dependence upon E t e k i e l by Zechari-ah, i n c l u d i n g s t r e s s upon h u m i l i t y b e f o r e God, e t h t c a l behavior a n d the Temple, which was communicated
382

through the use o f the vision-form and obscure symbolism.

I have s t r e s s e d t h a t Zechariah departed from many o f the

emphases of the book of Ezekiel i n o r d e r t o show h i s freedom i r y h i l i z i n g the teachings o f D e u t e r o - I s a i a h . This l a t t e r connection i s a l i n e o f study worth f u r t h e r i n v e s t i g a t i o n ,

for t h e r e i s a r e l a t i o n s h i p between these two prophets

which i s l i k e l y t o be ignored by those s e e i n g Zechariah exc l u s i v e l y as a d i s c f p l e o f E z e k i e l . There was no general agreement r e g a r d i n g the p r e c i s e meaning o f v.15. One cannot i d e n t i f y the n a t i o n s ' a t e a s e '
with c e r t a i n t y nor can the i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of ay35 ~ W Y ,

' f u r t h e r e d the d i s a s t e r ' o r 'helped the e v i l ' , p r o v i d e h e l p

in p o i n t i n g t o s p e c f f i c n a t i o n s w h o d i s r e g a r d e d Yahweh's

will.

P.R. Ackroyd made the p o i n t t h a t the instruments o f

Yahweh's w r a t h , meaning A s s y r i a and B a b y l o n i a , l a t e r f e l l under His judgment because they had overstepped t h e i r com-

382. 0 . E i s s f e l d t , The O l d Testament: an I n t r o d u c t i o n , p.433; F . Horst, Die z w o l f k l einen Propheten, p . 2 0 5 .S D S Russell , The Method and Message o f 3 ewish Ap o c a l y p t i c , p . 9 0 .
0 .

130 mission t o c h a s t i z e I s r a e l .
383

H i s t o r i c a l l y , t h i s theory

i s v e r i f i a b l e , b u t t h a t does not c o n s t i t u t e p r o o f o f t h i s specific interpretation. S t i l l , Ackroyd's understanding

does f i t the context and no o t h e r hypotheses have been y e t o f f e r e d which equal f t . The inquiry i n t o the i d e n t l t y o f the nations r e f e r r e d
t o i n v.15 does not take us f a r .

The second v i s i o n (1:18-21)

t o o k u p the theme o f judgment, a n d s c h o l a r s have connected

v.15 with the succeeding v i s i o n .

While i t , t o o , d i d n o t

s p e c i f i c a l l y i d e n t i f y the n a t i o n s , i t d i d h i n t t h a t Babylon was t o be i n c l u d e d . I t seems adequate, a t t h i s p o i n t , t o

a d m i t t h a t Zecharlah has not expressed himself c l e a r l y

enough t o a l l o w a sound i n t e r p r e t a t i o n and t o r e t a i n t h i s

d a r k statement as .one secondary d e t a i l w i t h i n the g r e a t e r

theme of Yahweh's turning back t o the Jews.

I t heightened

the impact o f Yahweh's renewed compassion f o r the people by a s s e r t i n g H i s anger a g a i n s t the f o r e i g n n a t i o n s . It is m y contention t h a t t h i s f i r s t v i s f o n d e s c r i b e d the d e c i s i o n o f Yahweh t o turn back t o the Jews, ending t h e i r languishment i n e x i l e and t h e i r s u f f e r i n g in the y e a r s of restoration.
T h i s understanding was drawn from s e v e r a l

r e f e r e n c e s within the v i s i o n which m i l i t a t e a g a i n s t a w h o l l y future-oriented interpretation. Zechariah d i d not expect a dramatic m a n i f e s t a t i o n o f Yahweh's power such as t h a t pro-

383.

P.R.

Ackroyd, -. art. c f t . , p.647.

131 mised by Haggai through h i s use of the theophany m o t i f .

I

a r g u e t h a t Zechariah has p i c t u r e d heavenly a c t i v i t y which r e f l e c t e d e a r t h l y events from the end of the e x i l e t o the f u t u r e establishment o f the ' a g e o f b l e s s i n g ' : First, H.G. M i t c h e l l argued t h a t the o n l y time i n which

the w o r l d had been ' a t r e s t ' (v.11) was the p e r i o d p r i o r t o 384 538 B . C . However, . t h e f u l l attainment o f the b l e s s i n g s
o f Yahweh's change o f h e a r t toward the Jews (1:16b-17)

re=

mained y e t i n the f u t u r e .

The end o f the e x i l e and the r e of the advent of

385

s t o r a t i o n were viewed as the ' f i r s t - f r u i t s the kingdom o f God' by the Jews,

a view which p e r s i s t e d

i n some segments o f the community i n t o the second century

B.C.

( c f . the Book o f J u b i l e e s k l 6 - 1 7 ) , Second, Zechariah's use of the p e r f e c t tense

386
(7n~33 i

v.14 and

i n v.16)

i n d i c a t e d a change i n the a t t i t u d e

of Yahweh toward the Jewish community, a change which had a l r e a d y taken p l a c e and h a d a l r e a d y been manifested in h i s tory i n the l i b e r a t i o n of the e x i l e ' s .
387

The re1 ease h a d

384. N o t i c e the phrase Y?N,Z 3s a ~ p wi n I s . 14:7, where r e f e r e n c e was made t o Babylonian r u l e , and the s i m i l a r phrase n t q m r a . . Y 7 m 3s i n Zech. 1 : l l . 385. A . Bentzen, I n t r o d u c t i o n t o the Old Testament, vol. 1, p.259, 386. The p e r f e c t t e n s e v e r b s irnayf, 'you have been ang r y ' ( v . 1 2 ) , and t ? f y , ' t h e y f u r t h e r e d ' (v.15), r e f e r r e d t o the cause o f the e x i l e and the ex e r f e n c e of the e x i l e . a337 be b u f l t ' ( v . 1 6 ) , i h e i m p e r f e c t tense verbs *will and a m 7 , ' i t w i l l be s t r e t c h e d o u t ' ( v . l 6 ) , r e f e r r e d t o the events of r e s t o r a t i o n ; they a r e t o be separated from the events t o which anayvt and n t y r e f e r r e d . The p e r f e c t tense v e r b s 7 n ~ a pand 71130 a r e , t h e r e f o r e , t o r e f e r t o Yahweh's change o f h e a r t prior t o the end o f the e x i l e . I am u n w i l l i n g t o dismiss these verbs a s ' p r o p h e t i c

132 i l l u s t r a t e d t h i s change, according t o Deutero-Isaiah and the l a t e r , t h e o c r a t i c a l l y - o r i e n t e d C h r o n i c l e r ( c f .

36:22f.).

I1 Chron.

When P . R .

Ackroyd s t a t e d t h a t the ' r e t u r n ' of

Yahweh was p a r t o f the process by which He would i n t e r v e n e f o r His p e o p l e , I would s u g g e s t t h a t the termination of the 388 Zechariah, l i k e e x i l e was a p a r t of t h a t i n t e r v e n t i o n . Deutero-Isaiah, counted the days o f Yahweh's g o o d w i l l toAlthough the

ward the Jews from the r e l e a s e from Babylon.

f u l l m a n i f e s t a t i o n o f God's b l e s s i n g s had n o t been immedia t e l y apparent ( a n d s o m i g h t be read i n t o the a n g e l ' s lament

i n v.lZ),

Zechariah d i d n o t doubt t h a t Yahweh was once again

on the s i d e o f His people and t h a t the f u l l r e s t o r a t i o n

w o u l d e v e n t u a l l y be r e a l i z e d .
Third, n e a r l y every s c h o l a r has judged t h a t Zechariah borrowed the Jeremian phrase 'seventy y e a r s ' (v.12).

I t was

a l s o agreed t h a t i t was a round number, n o t t o be taken l i t e r a l l y d e s p i t e the c l o s e c o r r e l a t i o n with the p e r i o d from the beginning o f the e x i l e to Z e c h a r i a h ' s day ( i . e . 587 B . C . 389 t o 520 B . C . ) . The phrase, a s i t was used i n J e r . 2 5 : l l - 1 2 and 29:10, r e f e r r e d t o the p e r i o d o f c a p t i v i t y , which was t o end with the punishment o f Babylon (25:12) and the r e t u r n o f

p e rf e c t s ' , - as i n _ W.H. _ Lowe, The Hebrew Student's Commentary on Z e c h a r i a h , p . . l 8 . 387. C.F. Kef1 , ' Z e c h a r i a h ' , The Kef1 and D e l i t t s c h Commentary on the Old Testament, v 0 1 . IO/Z, p p . 2 3 6 T . ; a l s o S . R . D r i v e r , o p . c i t . , p. rckroyd, cit p.647. 389. H O G . M i t c h e l l , O J . d t ., pp.124f., and L O G . Rignell; O J . c l t * p.45.

-.

%: - .,

133

the Jews t o t h e i r l a n d ( 2 9 : l O ) . r e d around 5 3 8 B.C.

Both o f these events occur-

a n d underscored the importance o f the

e x i l e / r e s t o r a t i o n r e v e r s a l o f Jewish f o r t u n e s . 'seventy-year'

390

The

p e r i o d was concluded when the Jews were L a t e r use o f the 'seventy-year' dated i t s con391

a l l o w e d t o r e t u r n home.

p e r i o d by the C h r o n i c l e r ( I 1 Chron. 3 6 : 2 1 f . ) c l u s i o n t o the d e c r e e o f Cyrus ( i . e .

537 B.C.).

Fourth, a c a r e f u l comparison o f v.12 and v.16 r e v e a l s a c e r t a l n paradox ( i f t h i s v i s i o n i s t o be understood t o t a l l y r e f e r r i n g t o the future). scene was s e t i n 5 2 0 B . C .
I f i t i s assumed t h a t the v i s i o n -

(or was intended t o d e s c r i b e a

f u t u r e s e t t i n g ) , the angel ought t o have been aware t h a t the Temple h a d been under c o n s t r u c t i o n for f i v e months ( c p . H a g . 1 : 1 4 f . t o Zech. 1 : 7 ) , Jerusalem was a l s o being r e b u i l t ( c f . Hag. 1 : Q ) and the c i t i e s o f Judah (by a n a l o g y ) were a l s o i n v a r i o u s s t a g e s o f completion. According t o v.12, even w h i l e these t h i n g s were i n prog r e s s , Yahweh y e t r e t a i n e d His I n d i g n a t i o n with the Jews. However, the i n d i c a t i o n s t h a t Yahweh's mind had changed were t o be the r e b u i l t Temple, the r e s t o r e d Jerusalem and the new Judean c i t i e s ( c f . 1 : 1 6 b - 1 7 ) . t i o n , which extended from 537 B . C . , The e r a o f t h e r e s t o r a was a p p a r e n t l y viewed by

Zechariah as a time i n t e n s i o n , In which the Jews were b o t h

v$

390. C . F . Whitney, 'The Term Seventy Years C a p t i v i t y ' , VT i v (1954 a p.64; A. Orr, 'The Seventy Years i n B a b y l o n ' , v i (1956 , pp.304-306; P . R . Ackroyd, 'Two O l d Testament W s t o r i c a l Problems o f the E a r l y P e r s i a n P e r i o d : B. The "Seventy Y e a r s ' P e r i o d ' , JNES x v f i ( 1 9 5 8 ) , p.25.

134

the o b j e c t of Yahweh's renewed l o v e and s u b j e c t t o the harsh realities of life. The purpose o f t h i s f i r s t v i s i o n , a p a r t from any s t r u c t u r a l r o l e i t m f g h t p l a y i n the Night-Vision s e r i e s , was o b v i o u s l y t o comfort the people o f God and t o a s s u r e them t h a t the promises o f the p a s t were i n process o f being f u l filled. W e can see that Zechariah has confirmed the e f f i c a c y

o f Yahweh's change o f h e a r t and His i n t e n t i o n t o b l e s s Jeru-

salem, o n l y he recognized t h a t he was l i v i n g i n the i n t e r r e g -

num between e x i l e and f u l l r e s t o r a t i o n , when Yahweh's r u l e

was o b s e r v a b l e t o n e i t h e r His p e o p l e nor t o the n a t i o n s .
2.

Zech. 1:18-21, T h e Second V i s i o n The second v i s i o n c o n s i s t e d o f two s t a t i c images o f

f o u r horns and f o u r workmen.

The e x p l a n a t i o n of the meaning

o f the combined p r e s e n t a t i o n , s u p p l i e d by the i n t e r p r e t i n g

angel ( v v . I 9 b , Z l b ) , provided the s o l e means o f understanding

the r e l a t i o n between the two, f o r they a r e d e p i c t e d a s n o t interacting: the workmen a r e the agents o f God, s e n t t o put

t o f l i g h t the horns, the enemies o f God a n d H i s p e o p l e .

T h e p i c t u r e o f the 'horn' ( l i p ) as a symbol of an i n d i v i d u a l ' s strength and honor was t r a d i t i o n a l i n Hebrew t h o u g h t (cf.

I Sam. 2:1, P s . 18:2, e t c . ) and could a l s o be s u g g e s t i v e

~ f 0.. Plager, L ) P . c i t . , p p . 4 2 f . ; P l 6 g e r accepted t h i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . o f the C h r x c l e s ' r e f e r e n c e , but charged that Zechariah adapted t h e phrase t o h i s own use.

391.

135 o f r o y a l power ( J e r . 4 8 : 2 5 ) , a l t h o u g h i t s o r i g i n a l meaning 392 was unknown. The f i g u r e o f the 'workman' ( W m ) was not absent from the p r o p h e t i c l i t e r a t u r e . Deutero-Isaiah used

the term t o r e f e r t o those who constructed i d o l s (40:19) and Ezekiel

, more

c l o s e l y p a r a l l e l i n g Z e c h a r i a h ' s usage, in

21:36 spoke of 'workmen o f d e s t r u c t i o n ' . The v i s i o n i t s e l f c o n s i s t e d o f the r e v e l a t i o n of c e r t a i n heavenly a c t i o n s p r e l i m i n a r y t o the d e s t r u c t i o n of God's enemies and was ( a p p a r e n t l y ) l i n k e d t o t h e f i r s t v i s i o n through a r e f e r e n c e t o ' t h e n a t i o n s ' (1:15) and ( p e r h a p s ) t o the l a s t v i s i o n , which portrayed the beginning o f j u d g m e n t . There i s an immediate problem when we attempt t o ident i f y the ' f o u r horns'. This a p p e l l a t i o n i s u s u a l l y taken t o

r e f e r t o the f o u r p o i n t s o f the compass a n d , consequently, the t o t a l i t y o f nations h o s t i l e t o Yahweh. view i s c o n t r a d i c t e d However, t h i s

by the statement t h a t the judgment was

d i r e c t e d only a g a i n s t those nations which had s c a t t e r e d

J u d a h (vv.19,21).

I t i s d i f f i c u l t t o see how the punishment

of the few could p r o p e r l y b e extended t o a u n i v e r s a l j u d g ment. W e do know t h a t the empires beglnning with A s s y r i a and Babylon comprised such v a s t geographical r e g i o n s t h a t they were p e r c e i v e d by the Jews a s ' w o r l d ' empires. W e c o u l d then

understand 1:18 a s a r e f e r e n c e t o a world empire, r a t h e r than the nations a s a s l n g u l a r e n t i t y .

3 9 2 . F. Brown, S . R . D r i v e r , C . A . B r i g g s , Hebrew and E n g l i s h Lexicon o f the O l d Testament, p.901.

136 This b r i n g s us t o another problem. The o n l y ' w o r l d

empires' which would q u a l i f y for judgment around the time o f Zechariah would have been Babylonia and P e r s i a . Persia

would have been exempt from judgment because she d i d not p l a y a r o l e i n Jerusalem's d e f e a t and because she had r e l e a s e d the Jews from t h e i r e x i l e . When the v i s i o n s t i p u l a t e d

judgment a g a i n s t those who s c a t t e r e d the Jews and s u b j e c t e d them t o the humili.ation o f the e x i l e ( i n f e r r e d i n l:Zl), 393 Babylon i s g i v e n c e n t e r s t a g e . A l a r g e - s c a l e judgment a g a i n s t a s p e c i f i c h i s t o r i c a l e n t i t y would appear t o focus on the c r i t i c a l events upon which the r u l e o f t h i s r e g i o n hinged.

I b e l i e v e that i t i s necessary t o i n t e r p r e t t h i s v i s i o n ,
as the f i r s t , as a d e s c r i p t i o n o f heavenly p r e p a r a t i o n s f o r c e r t a i n h i s t o r i c a l events w i t h i n the p e r i o d o f r e s t o r a t i o n . Babylon's empire was destroyed by the P e r s i a n s i n 538 6.C.
and the c i t y was retaken in Zechariah's l i f e t i m e a f t e r a

short r e b e l l i o n .
vengeance.

The theme o f r e t a l i a t i o n was s t r e s s e d ;

Babylon was the c u l p r i t o f the p a s t and the v i c t i m o f God's

The t h r u s t o f the v i s i o n was the p r e p a r a t i o n of God's 394 f o r c e s f o r judgment. H . G . M i t c h e l l commented: This [ i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f the horns as the sum o f the world powersj seems t o have been

393. 394.

-.

H O G . Mitchell, I b i d 9 p.133.

s. c' it

p.134.

137
n e a r l y the thought o f the prophet; b u t i n dev e l o p i n g i t c a r e must be taken to avoid the mistake o f i n c l u d i n g . . . t h e enemies of both kingdoms, o r those o f the Jews a f t e r the Babyl o n i a n p e r i o d , for these horns symbollze the power o n l y of t h e p e o p l e s , e s p e c i a l l y the Babylonians, who by t h e l r h o s t i l i t y contributed to the f i n a l overthrow o f the Jewish s t a t e a n d the bantshment o f the Jewish people from their soil. In this way, M i t c h e l l i d e n t i f i e d the horns a s Babylon and, perhaps, the s m a l l e r people-groups which h a d helped the Jews t o t h e i r d e s t r u c t i o n (Jer. 12:14, Ezek. 25:3,8;
28:24).
K.

G a l l i n g d i d not f i n d t h i s k i n d o f e x p l a n a t i o n s a t i s f a c t o r y 395 a n d i n s i s t e d that Babylon i s meant s o l e l y . Mitchell's i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , more s p e c i f i c a l l y , r e f e r r e d t o the preparat i o n o f d i v i n e f o r c e s t o f r e e the l a n d ( w h i l e the Jews were being f r e e d from Babylon's control). This complex statement

goes beyond the evidence of the passage a n d I , l i k e G a l l i n g ,

am h e s i t a n t t o i n c l u d e the s m a l l e r Judean peoples with the

Babylonian world-power. I t i s acknowledged t h a t t h i s scene was n o t d e s c r i p t i v e o f an a c t u a l event b u t o n l y the p r e l i m i n a r i e s t o an i n t e n ded a c t i o n .

396

G o von Rad's contention that the t h r u s t of the

v i s i o n was the r e v e l a t i o n o f the e x i s t e n c e o f heavenly powers missed the r e a l p o i n t ( L e . that Yahweh has preThe manner o f H i s i n t e r v e n t i o n d i d n o t ocHis f o c u s was upon the i n e v i t a b i l i t y of

pared t o a c t ) . cupy Zecharfah.

395. 396.

K O G a l l i n g , art. c i t . , p . 2 3 . G , von Rad, op. c T , p . 2 8 6 .

138

d i v i n e judgment, n o t upon the inhabitants/symbols of the heavenly w o r l d . One can argue that Zechariah considered the a n g e l s the r e a l executors o f Yahweh's w i l l a n d n o t , for example, the P e r s i a n s ( a l t h o u g h Zechariah d i d not make any s p e c i f i c references to this relationship).

I t remains an important

q u e s t i o n i n the development of c e r t a i n a p o c a l y p t i c b e l i e f s as t o whether Zechariah intended h i s r e a d e r s t o i d e n t i f y the a n g e l i c - f o r c e s with the P e r s i a n s ( o r some o t h e r h i s t o r i 397 c a l m i l i t a r y power). As M i t c h e l l s a i d i n summary: The workmen d o not r e p r e s e n t P e r s i a a l o n e o r with any number o f other powers. The only s a t i s f a c t o r y explanation f o r them i s i n d i c a ted i n 6 S f f . There i s e v i d e n t r e f e r e n c e t o the conquest o f Babylonia. In a l l u d i n g t o i t , however, Yahweh ignored human i n s t r u m e n t a l i t i e s .
.

If we a r e t o i n t e r p r e t Zechariah on t h i s p o i n t from t h e per-

s p e c t i v e o f the p r e - e x i 7 i c and e x i 7 t c p r o p h e t s , we have t o s t a t e t h a t M i t c h e l l was in e r r o r . Zechariah h a d i n mind the

He viewed

P e r s i a n s or another, unnamed, human agent.

Yahweh's c o n t r o l o f h i s t o r y a s manifested through e a r t h l y e n t i t i e s and f o r c e s .

T h e r e were three ways in which the w r i t e r s o f the O l d

Testament d e s c r i b e d the outworking o f h i s t o r i c a l e v e n t s .

If,

f o r example, we analyze the r e f e r e n c e s t o Babylon's conquest o f Jerusalem in 587 B . C . , we f i n d : 1 ) Jeremiah p r e d i c t e d the

f a l l o f Jerusalem as the work o f Yahweh through the agency of

397.

H O G . Mitchell,

O J .

-. cit

, pp.134f.

139

Babylon ( c f . 3er. 2 5 : 9 ) ,

2 ) Ezekiel a t t r i b u t e d the des-

t r u c t i o n d i r e c t l y t o the hand o f Yahweh (Ezek. 5:8) a n d

3 ) the C h r o n i c l e r ' s h i s t o r i c a l n a r r a t i v e d e s c r i b e d Babylon's

m i l i t a r y campaign a g a i n s t a r e c a l c i t r a n t v a s s a l ( I 1 Chron.
36:6ff.).

Each type o f r e p o r t was v a l i d w i t h i n i t s context.

However, i n the l a t e r development o f the p r o p h e t i c t r a d i t i o n , the assumption behind the second c a t e g o r y ( i . e . t h a t Yahweh

a c t u a l l y had used p o l i t i c a l instruments i n His g u i d i n g o f

'

h i s t o r y ) began t o be d i s c a r d e d i n favor o f a more l i t e r a l interpretation ( i . e . that Yahweh could i n t e r v e n e d i r e c t l y in

h i s t o r y without r e s o r t t o human a g e n c i e s ) . Z e c h a r i a h , moving w i t h i n the e x i l e / r e s t o r a t i o n e r a and aware o f the wide-spread p o l i t i c a l i n s u r r e c t i o n , e n v i s i o n e d heavenly a c t i v i t y which, i n h i s m i n d , would be f u l f i l l e d through p o l i t i c a l c a t e g o r i e s .
H i s i n t e n t i o n was to 'spiritu-

a l i z e ' the p o l i t i c a l r e v o l u t i o n s he f o r e s a w i n t o a c t s o f Yahweh. This k i n d o f thought seldom occurred i n the pro-

p h e t i c movement p r i o r t o Deutero-Isaiah.
P.D.

Hanson contended that the d i s t i n c t i o n between a c t s

o f God p e r p e t r a t e d through human agents and the d i r e c t i n t e r -

vention by God i n t o h i s t o r y c o n s t i t u t e d th.e balance upon which prophecy swung i n t o a p o c a l y p t i c . r i a h done, i n Hanson's system?

B u t w h a t has Zecha-

He d i d n o t take the opportu-

n i t y t o i n t e g r a t e h i s knowledge o f the i n t e n t i o n s of Yahweh

i n t o h i s t o r l c a l terms and i t i s n o t apparent t h a t he saw

140

Yahweh a c t i n g o u t s i d e the a g e n c i e s o f h i s t o r y . grounds, then, Zechariah cannot be c a t e g o r i z e d .

398

On t h e s e

I f Zechariah based h i s v i s i o n s upon h i s t o r i c a l ent i t i e s and c a t e g o r i e s , he has remained a 'prophet' i n Hanson's system and has only made e x p l i c i t a long-accepted view of the r e l a t i o n s h i p between the h i s t o r l c a l realm and

the 'world above' ( L e . t h a t heavenly a c t i v i t y produced

e f f e c t s In history).
A k i n d o f l i m i t e d symmetry l i n k e d

these two realms, although Zechariah r e f u s e d t o e l a b o r a t e

on i t .

In s o doing, he took a long s t e p toward opening a

breach between the execution o f the d i v i n e w l l l and the cont i n u i t y o f h i s t o r y , a form o f e x p r e s s i o n o f t e n found i n the apocalyptic literature. I t appears t h a t t h i s v i s i o n ought t o be reduced t o and i n t e r p r e t e d a s p r e p a r a t i o n for a l i m i t e d a c t of r e t r i b u t i o n a g a i n s t Babylon, r a t h e r t h a n a scene o f ' e s c h a t o l o g i c a l ' judgment.
399

The r e s t r i c t i o n s o f vv.18,21 seem t o p r e c l u d e

I t w o u l d t h e n be c o n s i s t e n t f o r

a universal action.

Zechariah t o see P e r s i a excluded from the judgment a g a i n s t

398. Hanson r e j e c t e d Zechariah as an a p o c a l y p t i s t on t h e grounds that he moved i n a s o c i o l o g i c a l context p r o t e c t e d by the community l e a d e r s (=.c i t . , p.251). However, Hanson d i d n o t c o n s i d e r the l a r g e r p i c t u r e o f the Jews' cond i t i o n of powerlessness, disenfranchirement a n d f r u s t r a t i o n under Babylonian and Perslan domination which, i n an e a r l i e r s e t t i n g ( L e . E z e k i e l ' s ) , Hanson admitted a certain apocac i t . , pp.233f.). l y p t i c tendency ( 0 Cp. b l . - k h ~ h , O J . c i t . , p.83, who s t a t e d t h a t 399. Zechariah was breaking new g r o u n d i n h i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of t h e future.

141 which has the 401 does meaning ' t o rout', ' t o d r i v e away' i n the H i p h i l ,
mh,

the h o s t i l e f o r c e s .

400

A l s o , the verb

not have the f u l l impact o f d e s t r u c t t o n w h i c h could be a n t t c i p a t e d with a scene o f judgment ( c f . J u d g . 8:12, Ezek. 3 0 : 9 , 402 1 1 Sam. 1 k 2 ) .
'

It has been accepted w i t h o u t comment that t h e r e was no

o r a c u l a r m a t e r i a l f o l l o w i n g t h i s vision-scene. m a t e r i a l within the o t h e r vision-forms
26-13,
3 : 8 - 1 0 , 4:6b-lOa)

Such 1:14-17,

(e.g.

appear t o have been r e l a t e d themaT h i s v i s i o n a n d the f o l l o w i n g

403

t i c a l l y t o the v i s i o n - s c e n e .

one may have been intended t o be r e a d t o g e t h e r , o r a c u l a r m a t e r i a l ( 2 6 - 1 3 ) appended t o both.

with the

I t i s c e r t a i n t h a t Zechariah intended t o comfort the

s t r u g g l i n g community through t h i s v l s i o n .

It i s n o t ex-

p r e s s l y s t a t e d that Babylon o r any other people was t o be punished f o r i t s h u m b l i n g of J u d a h . However, the promise o f

such judgment, on b e h a l f o f a powerless group such a s t h e Jewish community, w o u l d h a v e been a source o f c o n s o l a t i o n . The turning o f Yahweh t o the Jews s i g n a l e d His determination
t o r e s t o r e His people t o t h e i r l a n d ( a s d e s c r i b e d i n the

f i r s t vision).

The second v i s i o n expounded the theme of

4 00 . C . Jeremfas, op. c i t . , p.154. 401. F. Brown, S . R . Driver, C . A . B r i g g s , E . cit 9 p.189. 402. Cf. t h e t e x t u a l a l t e r a t i o n s suggested by s c h o l a r s i n L.G. R i g n e l l , p.69; o t h e r s , l i k e W . R u d o l p h , op. e f t . , p.82, s t a t e t h a t the ' h o r n ' was symbolic of the ' p a w e r ' o f a nation and was n o t t h e nation i t s e l f . 4 0 3 . R. North, art. c i t . , p.48.

-.

142

Yahweh's r e a d i n e s s t o s t r i k e )Ifs enemtes.

The v i s i o n h a s no

p o i n t u n l e s s i t had t o do with f r e e i n g the Jews with the ach i e v i n g o f God's purpose for the f u t u r e . t i o n , Babylon played a r o l e . 3. Zech. k 1 - 1 3 , The Third V i s i o n

In e i t h e r d e s c r i p -

In t h i s third v i s i o n , Zechariah d e s c r i b e d a man w i t h a

measuring l i n e , gofng f o r t h t o measure the boundaries o f the r e s t o r e d Jerusalem. The i n t e r p r e t i n g a n g e l , however, or-

dered another angel t o i n t e r c e p t h i m a n d t o inform h i m that Jerusalem would not be r e b u i l t with w a l l s because t h e r e would be too many p e o p l e d w e l l i n g i n i t and because Yahweh would p r o v i d e s u p e r n a t u r a l p r o t e c t i o n i n the form o f a ' w a l l o f fire'. The image o f a ' w a l l o f f i r e ' c o n s i s t e d of the j o i n i n g
o f two symbols q u i t e common i n the Old Testament.

The w a l l

r e f e r r e d n a t u r a l l y t o the f o r t i f f c a t i o n s h a b i t u a l l y surrounding s t r a t e g i c p o s i t i o n s a n d population c e n t e r s a g a i n s t a t t a c k , w h l l e the f i r e expressed the s u p e r n a t u r a l manner o f the defense, While the image o f l i g h t / f i r e h a d a h i s t o r y of c u l t i c
and semi-magical

connections both i n I s r a e l and the a n c i e n t

Near E a s t , i t would be wrong t o f o r c e an i n t e r p r e t a t i o n on t h i s v i s l o n which would be e s c h a t o l o g i c a l .

W. Rudolph, for

example, saw t h e f t g u r e o f f i r e a s a u t o m a t i c a l l y an i n d i c a t o r

143
of e s c h a t o l o g i c a l thought:
404

Dass wir h i e r Bereich e s c h a t o l o g l s c h e n Denkens stehen, l i e g t a u f d e r Hand. Dabei k l i n g e n mythologische V o r s t e l l u n g e n aus d e r U r z e i t (Gen. 3 2 4 ) wie aus den Anfangen d e r Geschichte I s r a e l s (Ex. 3 : 2 , 13:21, v g l . Jes. 4 : 5 ) a n , u n d I s r a e l s Kabod i s t h i e r n i c h t a u f den Tempel beschrankt ( H a g . 2 : 9 ) , sondern e r f u l l t d i e ganze S t a d t ( v g l . J e s . 60:lf.). Wie d i e V o l k e r w e l t gegen Jahwe n i c h t s ausrichten k a n n ( 2 , V i s i o n ) , s o l i e g t auch d e r Schutz s e i n e r S t a d t g a n z i n s e i n e r Hand u n d n i c h t i n Menschlichen Verkehrungen.

T i e d c l o s e l y t o the Image o f f i r e w a s the p i c t u r e o f ' g l o r y

i n the midst of the c i t y ' ( v . 5 ) ,

i n whlch Zechariah has

u t i l i z e d the theme o f E z e k . 4 k 1 - 5 , combining the Kabodconcept with an element o f the Zion-Jerusalem theology of D e u t e r o - I s a i a h a n d the deuteronomistic c i r c l e s . I t i s also

noteworthy t h a t the v i s i o n o f the Temple i n Ezek. 40-48 employed the f i g u r e of a man with a measuring instrument.
W.

Rudolph's opinion t h a t t h i s scene was an i n d i c a t i o n

o f e s c h a t o l o g i c a l thought was worthy o f f u r t h e r remarks, f o r

t h e r e h a s been a c o n s i s t e n t attempt t o t r a c e the development

of a p o c a l y p t i c thought a n d d o c t r i n e through a c o u p l i n g o f
myth and e s c h a t o l o g y .
405

One need n o t b e t o o l e e r y o f r e -

c o g n i z i n g a p e r v a s i v e use of mythic theme i n the p r o p h e t i c l i t e r a t u r e although the prophets, by a n d l a r g e , eschewed the l a r g e r concepts of mythic thought.

404, W . R U d O l p h , o Cit p.860 405. C f . the B i b 1 ography f o r the works o f H. Gunkel, S . Mowinckel, H . Gressmann; a more r e c e n t advocate o f t h i s theory was S O B . F r o s t , O l d Testament A p o c a l y p t i c .
0

144
Myth, which centered on the c y c l i c a l conception o f the

y e a r l y r e b i r t h o f l i f e , and prophetic thought, which grew i n t o a l i n e a r p e r c e p t i o n o f h i s t o r y a s a s u c c e s s i o n of h i s t o 406 r i c a l events , were e s s e n t i a l l y incompatible. The use o f mythic m o t i f s by the prophets p r i o r to the p o s t - e x i l i c prophets d i d not demonstrate e s c h a t o l o g i c a l o r i e n t a t i o n any more t h a n d i d t h e i r use i n the Genesis c r e a t i o n s t o r i e s , f o r mythic elements were common i n the popular world-perception 407 o f those e r a s . Zechariah was a c t i v e a t a j u n c t u r e in Jewish h i s t o r y when a r e t u r n to mythic i d e a s i n t r o j e c t e d a new v i t a l i t y i n t o the Jewish thought-process I s a i a h a n d Deutero-Zechariah). (cf. Trito-

Although the imagery of

Zechariah was b i z a r r e , i t was d e s c r i p t i v e o f heavenly events

a n d not o f events beyond h i s t o r y ( i . e .

mythic).

We cannot

determine Z e c h a r i a h ' s motivation f o r u t i l i z i n g h i s imagery, much l e s s know whether he intended a m y t h i c a l l y - i n f l u e n c e d p i c t u r e o f the f u t u r e (oftentimes the a u t h o r ' s purpose I Sthe s o l e c r i t e r i o n f o r arriving a t such a p i c t u r e ) . This v i s i o n p i c t u r e d two r e s u l t s o f Yahweh's r e t u r n t o the Jews: e x t e r n a l p r o t e c t i o n a n d i n t e r n a l abundance.

With-

o u t t h e d i v i n e d e c i s i o n t o dwell i n Zion, t h e r e c o u l d be hope

o f n e i t h e r d e f e n s e or growth; the i n i t i a t i v e , a s Zechariah

r e p e a t e d l y a s s e r t e d , r e s t e d with Yahweh.

This v t s i o n must be

100f. and 110-112.

407.

406.

G o von Rad, 9p. c i t

3 . Lindblom,

x. c l t . ,

-.

, pp.99-125,
p.422.

e s p e c i a l l y pp.

145

i n t e r p r e t e d within the context o f His d e c i s i o n t o a c t a n d the goal of f u t u r e b l e s s e d n e s s . Scholars have, a t times, attempted t o r e l a t e the 'angel
with the measuring l i n e ' t o a particular h i s t o r i c a l b a s e .

Some have i n t e r p r e t e d the f i g u r e as r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of a c a u t i o u s d e f e n s i v e Jewish party which allowed i t s e l f t o be 408 l i m i t e d by the 'day o f small t h i n g s ' m e n t a l i t y . Others assumed that Z e r u b b a b e l , i n o r d e r t o secure h i s a u t h o r i t y in 409 the a r e a , t r i e d u n s u c c e s s f u l l y t o f o r t i f y Jerusalem. Others b e l i e v e d t h a t the people h a d been p r e p a r i n g t o r e b e l 410 S u c h r e c o n s t r u c t i o n s have missed a g a i n s t the P e r s i a n s . the c e n t r a l theme o f the v i s i o n :
with renewed mercy ( 1 : 1 6 ) ,

having turned t o t h e Jews

God h a d given His guarantee t h a t

the people would l i v e a p r o t e c t e d and s a t i s f i e d f u t u r e e x i s The defense o f l i o n , one o f the c e n t r a l p o i n t s of 411 the Jerusalem c u l t t h e o l o g y , was f o r c e f u l l y s t a t e d h e r e , tence. This v i s i o n worked t o p r o v i d e assurance t o the p e o p l e
t h a t Jerusalem had been r e s t o r e d t o i t s p o s i t i o n as the one

e a r t h l y p l a c e where Yahweh's g l o r y would d w e l l . the memory o f 587 B . C . ,

412

Against

Zechariah made c l e a r the f u t u r e proThe promise o f a g r i c u l t u r a l

vision of divine protection.

408. C f . G o von Rad, c t t ' p.287. 409. D.W. Thomas, a r t . c i t . , p.1064. 410. P O Haupt, ' T h e i s ; f s o f Zechariah', JBL 32 (1913), pp.109-111. 411. C O Jeremias, op. c i t . , pp.174f. 412. There was no s e n s e i n which ' ...fur S a c h a r j a w i e d e r h o l t s i c h d i e vorgangene Z e i t der Grosse i n d e r neuen Zeit': LA. Rignell, E .c i t . , p.78.

x .-.

146

f e r t i l i t y , a common p r o p h e t i c image p r i o r t o the e x i l e , was i n t e n s i f i e d ( a s i t had been by Deutero-Isaiah a n d , t o a more modest d e g r e e , by E t e k i e l ) . The message o f D e u t e r o - I s a i a h ,

which promised m a t e r i a l b l e s s i n g apart from human obedience

a n d e x a l t e d the g r a c e o f God a t the expense o f human respon-

s i b i l i t y , f i g u r e d prominently i n the message o f t h i s v i s i o n

o f Zechariah's.

K . G a l l i n g argued t h a t the s e t t i n g o f t h i s v i s i o n c o u l d

n o t have been Jerusalem because the f i g u r e with the measuring

l i n e was g o i n g f o r t h t o t h a t c i t y .

413

He noted t h a t the

c a l l t o the e x i l e s t o l e a v e Babylon was recorded i n 2 6 - 7 . He reached the conclusion that Zechariah a c t u a l l y m i n i s t e r e d

i n both Babylon and Jerusalem.

While I a g r e e with the major-

i t y o f s c h o l a r s t h a t Zechariah ministered only i n Jerusalem,

I f i n d that G a l l i n g has seen t h a t the end o f the e x i l e must form a part o f Z e c h a r i a h ' s understanding o f the r e s t o r a t i o n
a n d must stand behind the scene o f t h i s v i s i o n .

Perceiving t h i s vision within i t s social context of

520 B.C.

a l l o w s the understanding that Zechariah has s t a t e d

Yahweh's i n t e n t i o n for Jerusalem's f u t u r e e x i s t e n c e ( L e . t h e form o f the community a f t e r the r e s t o r a t i o n has been completed):

the 'man' went forth t o see how long and wide the 414 c i t y would be, o n l y t o be t o l d that the p o p u l a t i o n of the

K O G a l l i n g , a r t . c i t 9 .p.33. c i t . , p.137; 414. HOG. Mitehell,=. -* c i t D p.84; S . R . Driver, op. c r , p . 1 9 0 .

413.

-. -.

GI.

Rudolph, ap.

147 c i t y a n d i t s spaciousness would not permit the l i m i t a t i o n s of walls. This message would have been v a l i d a t any p o i n t onwards.

from 538 B.C.

I t does n o t seem convincing t o argue t h a t Zechariah h a d t h o u g h t s of a heavenly c i t y on the o r d e r o f E z e k i e l ' s Temple v i s i o n (Ezek. 40-48) o r o f some c i t y d i s t i n c t i n thought This possibility

from the r e b u i l t c e n t e r o f the r e s t o r a t i o n .

cannot, however, be t o t a l l y dismissed because i t was d u r i n g the p o s t - e x i l i c era t h a t the b e l i e f developed t h a t e a r t h l y e n t i t i e s were based upon e t e r n a l p r o t o t y p e s , such as the ex415 This d o c t r i n e ample f o u n d i n Wisdom o f Solomon ( 9 : 8 ) . p r o b a b l y had not developed i n Z e c h a r i a h ' s day to the p o i n t where i t would have been meaningful t o the people. The s e c t i o n 2:6-13 has been g e n e r a l l y regarded a s a group o f o r a c l e s gleaned from the p u b l i c m i n f s t r y o f Zecha416 riah, although Y . Kaufmann saw them a s messages from the i n t e r p r e t i n g angel ( a n d , t h e r e f o r e , as 1 i t e r a r y c o n s t r u c t s 417 As i n the f i r s t v i s i o n , t h e r e has w i t h i n the v i s i o n ) . been a s k i l l f u l s p l i c i n g o f the m a t e r i a l t o the scene.

How-

e v e r , these o r a c u l a r v e r s e s a r e not as c e n t r a l t o the v i s i o n a s a whole as 1:13-17 was t o the f i r s t v l s f o n . However, the

415. Cf, the d i s c u s s i o n o f 60 von Rad, op. c i t . , ' t h e archetypal e x i s t e n c e o f the f i n a l pp.287f0, things i n c f . Exod. 25:9,40 on the p a t t e r n of the t a b e r n a c l e o f Moses). $16. G.A. S m i t h , o c i t . , p p o 2 5 9 f . , and K O G a l l i n g , art. c i t . , p . 2 0 , r e g a r d ng m 7 a s perhaps twenty y e a r s -or t o the o t h e r o r a c l e s o f t h i s passage. 417. Y . Kaufmann, op. c i t . , p . 2 7 5 .

. P

148 absence o f 2:6-13 from the v i s i o n would s e r i o u s l y i n t e r r u p t

the c o u r s e of t h e n a r r a t i v e . While I a m i n concurrence with L O G . R i g n e l l ' s i n s i s t e n c e t h a t Z e c h a r i a h was i n t i m a t e l y i n v o l v e d with t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f the ' o r a c u l a r s e c t i o n s ' and their appending t o t h e body o f 418 I r e c o g n i z e t h a t t h i s h y p o t h e s i s i s bethe Night-Visions, yond p r o o f .

I b e l i e v e that Zechariah's c r e a t i v i t y (perhaps

i n tandem with the u s e o f p a s t p r o c l a m a t i o n s concerning t h e

r e s t o r a t i o n e r a ) gave r i s e t o 2:6-13 s e c t i o n s o f t h e N i gh t-Vi s i ons. and t h e o t h e r n o n - v i s f o n

I found i t v e r y s u r p r i s i n g t h a t few s c h o l a r s have g i v e n 419 There i s a d i f f i c u l t s u p p o r t f o r the MT i n t h i s p a s s a g e .

thread of l o g i c through t h e s e v e r s e s :

1 ) the c a l l o f t h e
2 ) t h e com-

e x i l e s i n B a b y l o n i a t o r e t u r n t o Zion ( v v . 6 - 7 a ) ;

m i s s i o n i n g o f one t o s i g n a l judgment upon Babylon ( v v . 7 b - 9 ) ;

3 ) t h e c a l l of God t o t h e e x i l e s t o r e j o i c e o v e r t h e news of

H i s coming (vv.10-11);

and 4 ) t h e announcement o f God's p l a n

f o r the f u t u r e , with an admonition t o r e v e r e n c e b e f o r e H i m (vv.12-13). The m a j o r q u e s t i o n s concerning t h i s p a s s a g e a r e :

1 ) what m o t i v a t e s t h e change from t h i r d - p e r s o n t o f i r s t - and back t o t h i r d - p e r s o n ; r o l e i n vv.8-9;

2 ) who i s s p e a k i n g the f i r s t - p e r s o n

and 3 ) who i s a d d r e s s e d i n t h e s e verses.

I have n o t followed the path o f modern s c h o l a r s h i p i n

making t e x t u a l emendations i n t h e s e v e r s e s t o produce a comp r e h e n l i b l e v e r s i o n which d i s t o r t s the m i n i s t r y o f Z e c h a r i a h ,

Keil,

418. 419.
O J

Cf. t h e c i t . , pp.247f.

LOG. R i g n e l l ,

. C f t . , p.93. Yt i c a Ti'n t e r p r e t a t i o n of 'pre-cr

C.F.

149 p l a c e s the prophet's a u t h o r i t y in question and smoothes o v e r

the changes in speakers.

'angel'),

The agent o f God (which would be the

who c a l l s the e x i l e s t o r e t u r n , i s commissioned t o

s i g n a l the beginning o f judgment upon Babylon, r e p e a t s the

words o f Yahweh i n vv.10-11

and c a l l s the Jews t o r e v e r e n t

a t t e n t i o n t o w h a t Yahweh was about t o do.

The passage was

meant t o be the words o f the angel f o r the people; the prophet was o n l y the v e h i c l e o f the message. The ' a u t h e n t i c a t i o n o f m i n i s t r y ' statement took s e v e r a l d i f f e r e n t forms i n Zechariah 1-8, 6:15. The b a s i c phrase was
I

o c c u r r i n g i n 2:9,11;

4:9;

...that you w i l l

know t h e L o r d

of hosts has s e n t me'. f e a t of Babylonta ( 2 : 9 ) ,

I t was used in r e f e r e n c e s t o the dethe b u i l d i n g o f the Temple ( 4 : 9 and Ezekiel

6:15) a n d Yahweh's d w e l l i n g with His people ( 2 1 1 ) . motivated t o use h i s own. Ezekiel a 'self-recognition'

used a s i m i l a r phrase, from which Zechariah was most l i k e l y

W.

Zimmerli l a b e l l e d the p h r a s e i n

word or a 'word o f demonstration'

which d e r i v e d from the l e g a l language involved in the p r o c e s s 420 o f proving a p o i n t . Ezekiel used this phrase p r i o r t o a d i v i n e a c t i n which Yahweh r e v e a l e d Himself. lowed h i m c l o s e l y i n t h i s r e g a r d . The c a l l t o f l e e Babylon ( 2 : 6 - 7 ) Zechariah f o l -

has been i n t e r p r e t e d

as p e r t a i n i n g to the e x i l e s remaining t h e r e i n Z e c h a r i a h ' s

420. W . Zimmerli, 'The Message o f the Prophet E z e k l e l ' , I n t e r p x x l l t (1969), pp.147f.

150
day.
42 1

However, t h e r e a r e grounds f o r K O G a l l i n g ' s i n t e r -

p r e t a t i o n of the v e r s e s as a c a l l r e f e r r i n g t o the r e l e a s e o f 538 B.C.

422

In t h i s context, the Jews addressed by

Zechariah could s e e themselves as p a r t i c i p a n t s in the d i v i n e

p l a n which spanned the end o f the e x i l e , the r e s t o r a t i o n

y e a r s a n d the f u t u r e f u l f i l l m e n t o f Yahweh's promise t o d w e l l with H i s people.

P O D . Hanson argued t h a t Zechariah f o l l o w e d E r e k i e l

c l o s e l y i n form a n d theology i n the N i g h t - V i s i o n s , b a s i n g h i s contention p a r t i a l l y on Z e c h a r i a h ' s use o f the verb d w e l l ' , a n d the n o u n
book o f E z e k i e l .
423

)m, ' t o

?xn,

'glory',

concepts c e n t r a l t o the

The concept o f Yahweh's g l o r y employed

by Zechariah was c e r t a i n l y informed by E r e k i e l ' s usage; i t would have been u n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f Zechariah to have borrowed i t d i r e c t l y from the Jerusalem c u l t m i l i e u . Zechariah

d i d not appear I n t e r e s t e d i n the c u l t beyond the Temple r e -

b u i l d i n g p r o j e c t ; h i s message d i d n o t contain the same adherence t o p r i e s t l y m a t e r i a l as d i d E z c k i e l ' s . In the s e c t i o n 2:lO-13 Z e c h a r l a h ' s commitment t o the i n c o r p o r a t i o n o f the nations i n t o the covenant with Yahweh, which I s r a e l t h e r e t o f o r e h a d e x c l u s i v e l y enjoyed.
W . Rudolph, op. c i t . , p.89.

This

421,
nell, o 4& p.175.
422.

KO Galling, a r t . T t pp.19-21; a l s o L O G . RigC i t . , p.94. T D . Hanson, O J . c i t . , p . 9 4 ; C O Jeremias, 9p. c i t

- -.,

-.

151
f e a t u r e showed another f a c e t o f h i s harmony with DeuteroI s a i a h and h i s d i v e r g e n c e from the message of H a g g a i and Ezekiel.

G. Fohrer claimed t h a t Zechariah saw Yahweh's i n 424

t e n t i o n of extending the punishment o f Babylon t o the n a t i o n s ( c f . h i s f n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f the second v i s i o n ) ;

however, I would a s s e r t t h a t Zechariah saw Yahweh b r i n g i n g

the nations i n t o a r e l a t i o n s h i p of b l e s s i n g with Himself on

the b a s i s o f these v e r s e s .

Zechariah remained a p a r t i c u l a -

r i s t by r e t a i n i n g Zion a s the ' c e n t e r of the w o r l d ' and the

Jews a s God's own p e o p l e , b u t he moved beyond the p a r o c h i a l conception o f Yahweh's Kingship extending o n l y t o the borders o f I s r a e l .
4.

Zech. 3:l-10, The Fourth Vtsion In the f o u r t h v i s i o n , Joshua ben-Jehozadak,

425

the h i g h

p r i e s t , stood b e f o r e the angel o f Yahweh, accused by an i n dividual i d e n t i f i e d as 'the accuser'

(7130n)

and d r e s s e d

i n dirty robes.
declaration
426

Zechariah witnessed the angel o f Yahweh's t h a t Joshua had been d e l i v e r e d ( a p p a r e n t l y Subsequently, Joshua's

from the e x i l e ) by the work o f God.

r o b e s were exchanged for c l e a n ones t o e n a b l e h i m t o resume

h i s p l a c e a s the c u l t i c head o f the Jewish community.

was charged by the angel t o keep God's ways.

He

He was then i n -

vested w t t h t o t a l a u t h o r f t y over the Temple and with right o f

a c c e s s t o the heavenly assembly.

p.54.

424.

G o Fohrer, D i e Propheten d e s A 1 ten Testaments,

UOl.

5 9

152 The r e c o r d o f the i n v e s t i t u r e o f the p r i e s t o f Yahweh

was f o u n d i n the Penteteuchal n a r r a t i v e s o f Exod. 2 9 : 4 f f .

and Lev. 8:lff.,

427

w h i l e the change o f raiment was s i m i l a r

t o the s i t u a t i o n experienced by K i n g Jehoiachin ( I 1 K i n g s

27-30).

Some s c h o l a r s have d i s c e r n e d the i n f l u e n c e o f the

428

Babylonian A d a p a myth

on the i n s p i r a t i o n o f t h i s scene,
The f i g u r e of ' t h e

although the resemblances a r e s l i g h t .

a c c u s e r ' made h i s s o l e appearance i n the prophetic l i t e r a t u r e h e r e , preceding the l a t e r f i g u r e of S a t a n , where the word was t r a n s l i t e r a t e d i n t o a proper name ( I Chron.21:l; c f . 429 J o b 1-2).
3bw

The v i s i o n took the c l e a n s i n g o f the high p r i e s t and p l a c e d i t i n the world above. The presence o f the a c c u s e r

e l i m i n a t e d the p o s s i b i l i t y o f the scene being a r e l i g i o u s ceremony in the t r a d i t i o n a l sense.

430

Joshua's f i l t h y r o b e s

are v a r i o u s l y e x p l a i n e d a s symbolic o f personal s i n , the corp o r a t e g u i l t o f the p e o p l e , P e r s i a n o b j e c t i o n s t o Joshua's 431 leadership, the presence o f a rlval t o Joshua for h i s

4 2 5 . This f i g u r e d i d n o t have a moral dimension; the concept of a n e v i l being opposed t o Yahweh developed l a t e r . 4 2 6 . Note t h a t the S y r i a c P e s h i t t a included ' \ ~ 5 a t 1 bef o r e i n a 7 i n v . 2 and i s t o be f a v o r e d over the MT on cont e x t u a l grounds. 4 2 7 . H O G . May, ' A Key t o the I n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f Zechar i a h ' s V i s i o n s ' , J B L 5 7 (1938), p.175, saw the Babylonian New Year ritual a s c e n t r a l t o the imagery of the scenes. 428. P.R. Ackroyd, ' Z e c h a r i s h ' , P C B ( r e v . e d . ) , p.648; L B . P r f t c h a r d , Ancient Near Eastern T e x t s , pp.101-103. 429. H. Ringgren, Word and Hi sdom, pp.168ff. 430. L O G . Rignel7, c i t . , pp,105,109. 431. H. Ewald, ' D i e ungsten Propheten der A l t e n Bundes', D i e Propheten des A l t e n Bundes, v o l . 3 , p.196.

153
off ice,

432
433

an o b j e c t i o n o f Joshua lodged by the people o f

the land

or the e f f e c t o f the e x i l e experience.

434

The

p o i n t of the scene was the c l e a n s i n g o f Joshua and the grant i n g o f a u t h o r i t y o v e r the Temple t o him ( 3 : 7 ) .

Joshua appeared t o r e p r e s e n t the p r i e s t h o o d r a t h e r than

the community as a whole. Joshua's r e c l o t h i n g and charge a f f e c t h i s p l a c e a s the head o f the p r i e s t h o o d a n d as the mediator f o r the p e o p l e . He was t o have access t o the heavenly assembly, a u t h o r i t y over the Temple and a r o l e an= t i c i p a t i n g the coming ' b r a n c h ' .
435

The b l e s s i n g s of the f u t u r e

were l i n k e d d i r e c t l y t o the performance o f p r i e s t l y a c t i v i t y

(3:8-10).
Although t h i s v i s i o n was o f t e n dropped from the sequence
o f the N i g h t - V i s i o n s on v a r i o u s grounds,
436

I f i n d that i t s

place i s l o g i c a l and f u l l y j u s t i f i a b l e .

The v i s i o n f o l l o w e d

i n the pattern o f the f i r s t t h r e e v i s i o n s (which d e s c r i b e the

p r o v i s i o n s Yahweh made for His p e o p l e ) .

The main problem,

which centered on the v i s i o n ' s a n t i c i p a t i o n o f the f u t u r e p r i e s t l y l e a d e r s h i p of the community, was one o f a u t h o r i t y .

T h e f i g u r e of the h i g h p r i e s t was n o t presented i n a benevo432 0 A . JePse n , 'K l e i n e B e i t r age z um Zwolfprophetenbuch: i t i / 4 ' , Z A b 1 x i ( 1 9 4 5 0 4 8 ) ~ p . 106. p.106 17; E. S e l l i n , D i e 433 D W .h .o lmas , a r t . -0, cit hetenbuch, p.49 5 0 P . R . Ack royd, art. c i t . , p.64 8; R . Mason, op. 0 i tchel 1,i.Tt. c i t , p. 5 0 ; H O G . M s P.1 50. e 435 T h i s I s assum i n g t h a t h v i s I o n was not a l a t e r a d d i t l o n t o the vision-sequence; t h e p o l n t t o remember i s that t h e Mlght-Vlsions c i r c u l a t e d in their f i n a l (present) form. 436. C f , C O Jeremias, op. c i t , p p . 2 0 l f f .

-.

-.

154

l e n t l i g h t , an argument which s t a n d s a g a i n s t a d a t e o f a u t h o r s h i p a f t e r Z e c h a r i a h ' s time.

The f a c t that Joshua, a contemporary of Z e c h a r i a h ' s , p l a y e d the c e n t r a l ( a l b e i t p a s s i v e ) r o l e i n t h i s v i s i o n scene r e q u i r e d a c l o s e r e l a t i o n s h i p between the s c e n e and Z e c h a r i a h ' s day. The n a t u r e o f t h e c l e a n s i n g r i t u a l c a l l e d i n t e r p r e t a t i o n ( i . e . an event s e t i n

f o r a non-historical the world above),

T h i s a c t , w h i l e without h i s t o r i c a l founda-

t f o n , was n e v e r t h e l e s s r e a l and v a l i d f o r Zechariah and t h e community.

.

T h e a u t h o r o f t h i s p a s s a g e was d e a l i n g with the

i s s u e o f Joshua's w o r t h i n e s s a n d l e g i t i m a c y a s t h e s p i r i t u a l l e a d e r of t h e r e s t o r a t i o n community. The i d e a t h a t t h e r e when t h e

a c t u a l l y e x i s t e d a p e r i o d o f time a f t e r 538 B . C .

h i g h p r i e s t was unworthy t o f i l l h i s o f f i c e does not make

s e n s e ( i n terms o f a l a t e r a u t h o r ) .
The a u t h o r i z a t i o n g r a n t e d by 3 : 7 a l l o w e d the a p p r o p r i a t i o n by the p r i e s t h o o d o f p r i v i l e g e s once b e l o n g i n g t o the monarchy.
437

A k i n g had b u i l t t h e Temple and had a p p o i n t e d

a p r i e s t to serve him as 'royal chaplain'.

been b u i l t a d j a c e n t t o the p a l a c e .

T h e Temple h a d

The c u l t had c e n t e r e d ,

t o a d e g r e e , on the f l g u r e o f Yahweh, the heavenly K i n g , and 438 H i s e a r t h l y r e p r e s e n t a t i v e , an adopted son. In marking

t h i s t r a n s i t i o n , Z e c h a r i a h d i d a n t i c i p a t e the f u t u r e p r e -

437. G. F o h r e r , A H f s t o o f I s r a e l ite Religion4. ~ 3 4 1 . 438. C f , A.R. Johnson, e R o l e o f the K i n g i n the Jerusalem C u l t u s ' , The L a b y r i n t h , ed. S O H . Hooke, p p . 7 3 f f .

155

dominance o f the h i g h p r i e s t l y f a m i l i e s .

Z e r u b b a b e l , a s an

o f f i c i a l r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f the P e r s i a n author1 ty, could n o t have been granted control o f the Temple w l t h o u t renouncing t h a t a l l e g i a n c e ; t h e r e was no i n d i c a t i o n t h a t he d i d such a thing.
60

Zech. 1 : 8 - 3 : 1 0 ( C o n s o l i d a t i o n ) However s c h o l a r s have viewed the nature and o r i g i n of

the N i g h t - V i s i o n s , most have acknowledged the c l o s e - k n i t structure and careful construction. There have been s e v e r a l
439

t e n t a t i v e i n v e s t i g a t i o n s i n t o the r e l a t i o n s h i p s between the v a r i o u s v i s i o n s a n d the r e s u l t s have w i d e l y d i f f e r e d .

M Y

purpose here t s not t o r e i t e r a t e the arguments o f f e r e d by o t h e r s c h o l a r s b u t t o p r e s e n t a d i f f e r e n t understanding of the b a s i c p a t t e r n s within the Night-Visions.
As many s c h o l a r s have observed, Yahweh's turning back t o

the Jews (however t h a t a c t i o n be understood) was the t h r u s t

o f the f i r s t v i s i o n .

Within the l a r g e r c o n t e x t o f the r e -

s t o r a t i o n p e r i o d , i t assumed a g r e a t e r s i g n i f i c a n c e in the f u t u r e - o r i e n t e d f a i t h o f t h e Jewish communfty.

As i t was

understood, the change i n Yahweh's a t t i t u d e determined the end of the e x i l e a n d made p o s s i b l e the r e s t o r a t i o n . The r e s t o r a t i o n o f the community, according t o Zech.
1:14-17,

c o n s i s t e d o f Yahweh's a c t i v e anger a g a i n s t the

n a t i o n s * a t e a s e ' ( 1 : 1 5 ) , His determlnation t h a t the Temple

4 3 9 . C f . H. Gese, art. c i t . , pp.ZOff., Testament i n t r o d u c t i o n s .

a n d many Old

156 should be r e b u i l t (1:16) a n d His motivation o f the recons t r u c t i o n of Jerusalem ( 1 : 1 6 ) .

In the sense that these en-

t i t i e s e x i s t e d p r i o r t o the e x i l e , Zechariah hinted a t a r e -

turn t o that s i t u a t i o n .

However, the tenor of the age was

a d i f f e r e n t one; Yahwism had been given a w o r l d - p e r s p e c t i v e

d u r i n g the e x i l e , which was seen r e f l e c t e d p a r t i c u l a r l y in

the m i n i s t r y o f Deutero-Isaiah.

Yahweh's f a v o r toward His

p e o p l e a n d the c e n t r a l i t y o f Zion-Jerusalem a n d the Temple a r e viewed as having u n i v e r s a l s i g n i f i c a n c e , not in the o l d mythic vfew b u t i n the awareness that the peoples of the w o r l d were t o have a r e l a t i o n s h i p with Yahweh. Scholars have l o n g mentioned the r e l a t i o n s h i p between the second v i s i o n and 1:15: the d i s f a v o r o f Yahweh a g a i n s t

the .nations was manffested in the p i c t u r e o f His r e a d i n e s s . t o d e f e a t them,

I would s u g g e s t t h a t there a r e a d d i t i o n a l
the r e b u i l d i n g o f the c i t y

t i e s between the mention o f the Temple and Jerusalem i n k 1 6

and the t h i r d a n d f o u r t h v i s i o n s :

would n o t l e a v e it v u l n e r a b l e t o i n t e r n a l weakness or a t t a c k from o u t s i d e ( 2 : l - 5 ) , w h i l e the new Temple would pass o u t of 440 pol Wcally-influenced hands t o the renewed p r i e s t h o o d .

T h e overarching theme o f these f i r s t f o u r v i s i o n s would

y view, Yahweh's p r o v i s i o n s f o r the people f o l l o w i n g be, i n m 441 His d e c i s i o n t o turn back t o them with mercy, T h h could

440. 441.

P b R . Ackroyd, c f t . , p.187. Ibid, , pp.177,%;x Mowinckel

, I)P.

b -

cit

p.120.

157 be comprehended c h r o n o l o g i c a l l y (even though the author may n o t h a v e thought I n such a s t r u c t u r e d way). I n i t i a l l y there

was Yahweh's d e c i s i o n t o end the time of His anger a g a i n s t the Jews (1:14-17). P r e p a r a t i o n s could then be made f o r an Then could com-

imminent a t t a c k upon His enemies (1:18-21),

mence the p h y s i c a l r e s t o r a t i o n of the people, t h e i r l a n d and their cities: the p e o p l e could dwell s a f e l y a n d enjoy the The f u l f i l l m e n t o f the d i v i n e 1 ) the r e -

p r o s p e r i t y of God (2:l-5).

p l a n , according t o Zechariah, would i n c l u d e :

b u i l d i n g o f Jerusalem, i t s Temple a n d the c i t i e s o f J u d a h (1:16-17);

2 ) the g l o r y of Yahweh
(am7

7133)

dwelling w i t h -

in Jerusalem ( 2 5 ) ; 3 ) the d w e l l i n g o f Yahweh in the midst o f the people with the nations drawn t o Him (2:lO-11);
bestowal o f i n d i v i d u a l p r o s p e r i t y ( 3 : l O ) . and the

We can thereby s e e that these v i s i o n s were concerned

with communlcating the r e a l i t y o f Yahweh's s p e c i f i c a c t s of

p r o v i s i o n for the people w i t h i n H i s purpose f o r the p e o p l e a s

a whole,

Taken i n d i v i d u a l l y o r t o g e t h e r , they r e v e a l

Z e c h a r i a h ' s understandfng o f the process by which Yahweh would e s t a b l i s h the new community f i r m l y , a s w e l l as h i s dec-

laration o f the nature o f i t s e x i s t e n c e beyond the s t r u g g l e

o f i t s formative stages.

In l i g h t o f the h i s t o r i c a l s i t u a t i o n of Z e c h a r i a h ' s day, the e x p e c t a t i o n s sttmulated i n the p a s t and the i n n e r s t r u c t u r e o f the f o u r v i s i o n s , i t appears that Zechariah has p l a c e d primary Importance upon the turning back o f Yahweh t o

158
the people.
I t c a r r i e d i n embryo the elements o f the

f o l l o w i n g v i s i o n s ; Z e c h a r i a h ' s emphasis was upon the change i n Yahweh's a t t i t u d e , s p e c i f i c a l l y the attendant r e s u l t s . Speaking o f the r e l a t i o n s h i p between the f i r s t t h r e e v i s i o n s , H.G. M i t c h e l l s t a t e d t h a t they '...form

a series,

prepare the r e a d e r f o r i n c r e a 442 sed f a i t h i n God f o r the f u t u r e ' . The f o u r t h v i s i o n could a l s o be included because i t pointed beyond i t s e l f t o the day when the Temple w o u l d be f u n c t i o n i n g and hardships w o u l d be a t h i n g o f the p a s t (3:7-10).
CO

the o b j e c t o f which w a s . . . t o

The Second V i s i o n Cycle Zech. 4 : l - 1 4 , The Fifth V i s i o n

to see

1.

I n the f i f t h v i s i o n , Zechariah was 'reawakened'

a seven-branched candlestick/lamp f l a n k e d by two o l i v e t r e e s .

There was no movement i n t h e scene, y e t i t posed the most d i f f i c u l t y f o r interpretation. The s e c t i o n 4 : 6 b - l 0 a was an

a c c r e d i t e d message o f the angel (perhaps through Zechariah) t o Z e r u b b a b e l , which i n t e r p r e t e d the p r o g r e s s i o n o f the d i a l o g u e between the angel a n d the prophet ( t h i s s e c t i o n can be considered independently of the r e s t o f the v i s i o n ) .

442. HOG. M i t c h e l l , op. c i t . , p.139. T h i s statement r e f l e c t e d the judgment t h a t t h e i r s t t h r e e v i s i o n s were a ' r e v i e w o f the p a s t ' which Zechariah wished t o pass on t o t h e people.

159

The menorah was a common image i n the Old Testament and

h a d a r o l e i n the I s r a e l i t e c u l t u s , perhaps d a t i n g back t o

the w i l d e r n e s s t a b e r n a c l e ( c f , Exod. 25:31-37).

I t was used

i n Solomon's Temple, the second Temple a n d Herod's Temple.

One may attempt t o draw some s i g n i f i c a n c e from the use of the menorah in these d i f f e r e n t s e t t i n g s , b u t the summarization i s inadequate and i n c o n c l u s i v e , b e s t In t e r p r e t e r . The image o f the o l i v e t r e e s was even l e s s comprehensible.
4

T h e v i s i o n remains i t s own

In J e r , 11:16 a n d H o s . 14:7, f o r example, the p e o p l e

a r e compared with o l t v e t r e e s which were regarded a s h a v i n g g r e a t beauty, The Temple area had boasted many s u c h t r e e s .

O l i v e branches were used in the observance o f the F e a s t o f Tabernacles in Nehemiah's day (Neh. 8 : 1 5 ) .
Again, this line

o,f i n v e s t i g a t i o n a d d s l i t t l e t o the understanding of the

vision. In the a n a l y s i s o f the menorah, one i s q u i c k l y drawn t o i t s r o l e a s the c u l t i c r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f the presence of God. The theophany of God was symbolized by l i g h t : 'der k u l tische

Leuchter i s t das z e i c h e n h a f t e Sein d e r g o t t l i c h e n Epi443 However, t h i s judgment does n o t endure s c r u t i n y phanie' ,

a g a i n s t the i n t e r p r e t a t i o n p r o v i d e d by the v i s i o n I t s e l f because i t l e a d s away from the p o i n t :

t h a t goes on i n the world (4:lOb).
443.

Yahweh sees everything The phrase w f t h i n t h i s

H. Gese, a r t , e f t . , p.29.

160

v e r s e , y l ~ i t33s bWm1arnS was reminiscent of the t a s k o f the f i g u r e s o f the f i r s t v i s i o n :

Y ? N ~l 3 Y 7 m

(1:ll).

The pur-

pose of t h i s v i s i o n was s i m i l a r t o that o f the f i r s t , i n t h a t Yahweh's omniscience was f e a t u r e d .

As i n the p r e v i o u s v i s i o n , an e a r t h l y s e t t i n g f o r t h i s

v i s i o n d i d n o t appear p o s s i b l e .

I f , for example, i t were

assumed that the menorah and the o l i v e t r e e s were symbolic

of the Jerusalem c u l t watched over by Yahweh, t h e r e a r e no

connections between the f i g u r e s in the scene t o the s u p p l i e d explanatloos.

We must s e e t h a t the scene was p l a c e d i n the

heavenly realm and t h a t the imagery r e l a t e d c o n s i s t e n t l y t o the i n t e r p r e t a t i o n ( c f . 4 : 1 0 b , l 4 ) . The key t o the second h a l f o f the v i s i o n was v.14 with i t s enlgmatic r e f e r e n c e t o ' t h e two sons o f o i l ' . This

v e r s e was a l m o s t unanimously i n t e r p r e t e d i n r e f e r e n c e t o Joshua a n d Z e r u b b a b e l , the two l e a d e r s o f the Jewish commu444 n i ty. N a t u r a l l y , they were the only i n d i v i d u a l s w h o h a d an o f f i c i a l a s s o c i a t i o n with o i l (which had been used t o a n o i n t the k i n g s of I s r a e l , c f . I Sam. 10:1, and which w o u l d be used t o consecrate the h i g h p r i e s t s a f t e r the r e s t o r a t i o n 445 period ).

From t h i s passage and the symbolic a c t i o n of 6:9-14,

many' s c h o l a r s have determined t h a t the government of the Jews

Cf, P . R . A c k r o y d , a r t . c i t . , p.648; H O G . M i t c h e l l , op. c i t . , p.165; W , Rudolph, o c r , p.108. 09 oT G a b r i e l , Untersuchungen T 5 . W. R u d o l p h , l o c o -c H u b e r das a , t . Hohepriestertum, p . 7 .

444.

. - fi

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i n Zechariah's time was a dyarchy ( i . e .

r u l e by two i n d i v i -

duals).

While i t was t r u e t h a t the monarchy only e x i s t e d

i n the imagination o f the people a n d t h a t the p r i e s t h o o d was

emerging as a real p o l i t i c a l power i n the community, t h e r e was no r e a l evidence t o s u g g e s t i n what manner and f o r w h a t reasons Joshua and Zerubbabel would have r u l e d i n tandem. The t w o men were addressed t o g e t h e r i n Haggai, b u t i t would be naive t o assume they worked in harmony. This unique junct u r e i n Jewish h i s t o r y would be a p r e c a r i o u s p o i n t upon w h i c h t o b u i l d a hypothesis t h a t the h e i r o f David and the high p r i e s t held equal author4 t y .
I would a s s e r t t h a t the phrase ' t h e sons o f oil' was not

intended t o r e f e r t o Joshua a n d Zerubbabel b u t t o two a n g e l i c

attendants o f Yahweh:

446

1 ) in c o n t r a s t t o H a g g a i , Zechariah

d i d not mention Zerubbabel and Joshua t o g e t h e r elsewhere;

2 ) the same phrase y ~ i 53 l 1 1 7 ~ >y ( v . 1 4 ) was found i n 6 : 5 ,

where i t r e f e r r e d t o the a n g e l i c executors o f the d i v i n e w i l l ;

3 ) the word f o r ' o i l '
( 7 h ~ 7 )i n

v . 1 4 was r e l a t i v e l y r a r e and

was not used elsewhere i n r e f e r e n c e t o the o i l o f a n o i n t i n g 447 ( the word 7bW was used e x c l u s i v e l y for t h a t ) a n d , theref o r e , the argument t h a t the phrase meant ' t h e two anointed ones' was c o n s i d e r a b l y weakened; 4 ) w h i l e Joshua h a d osten-

446. F . Haeusermann, Wortempfang und Symbol i n der a , t , l i c h e n P r o p h e t i e , p.99; P O Haupt, a r t , c i t . , p.115. 447. Cp. L . Kohler, ' A r c h a o l o g i s c h e s . ~ . Eine archai s t l s c h e Wortgruppe', ZAW x l v i (1928), p . 2 1 9 ; L O G , R f g n e l l , op. c f t . , p J 7 1 , n o t i c e d t h e d i f f e r e n c e I n u s a g e between
1b0

and

TaY7.

162

s i b l y been g r a n t e d a c c e s s t o t h e heavenly assembly a n d t o t h e p r e s e n c e of Yahweh i n 3 : 7 , a n g e l i c b e i n g s a l s o enjoyed that privilege. Joshua's s t a n d i n g was n o t intended t o be

taken l i t e r a l l y b u t e f f e c t i v e l y (and Z e r u b b a b e l was c e r t a i n l y n o t g r a n t e d t h a t s t a t u s ) , s o i t would be d i f f i c u l t t o understand the o l i v e t r e e imagery in terms o f human b e i n g s . The transcendence o f Yahweh, which was s o e v i d e n t e l s e w h e r e 448 i n Z e c h a r i a h , d i d n o t a l l o w human b e i n g s i n His p r e s e n c e ;
H i s chosen a n g e l s m i n i s t e r t o H i m e x c l u s i v e l y ; a n d 5 ) t h e r e

was no i n d i c a t i o n t h a t e i t h e r Joshua or Z e r u b b a b e l were anointed: Z e r u b b a b e l p r o b a b l y was never a n o i n t e d a s k i n g o f

t h e Jews a n d Joshua p o s s i b l y was never a n o i n t e d ( i f t h a t p r i v i l e g e was accorded o n l y t o l a t e r h i g h p r i e s t s ) .

This

v e r s e demanded an i n t e r p r e t a t i o n which accorded n o t a p i c t u r e

o f t h e r e s t o r a t i o n c u l t p r o v i d e n t i a l l y k e p t by Yahweh, b u t

o f a h o l y God who was aware o f the c u r r e n t e v e n t s i n t h e

world.
I f Z e r u b b a b e l was n o t i n t i m a t e d i n v.14, t h e r e must have

been some r a t i o n a l e f o r the i n c l u s i o n o f t h e messages add r e s s e d t o h i m i n 4:6b07,8-10a. The most l i k e l y e x p l a n a t i o n

w o u l d be that the Temple was a l s o f i g u r e d i n t o the v i s i o n a s

the d w e l l i n g - p l a c e o f Yahweh (which Z e r u b b a b e l had been com-

448. The interpreting a n g e l mediated the p r o p h e t i c mess a g e t o Z e c h a r i a h i n t h e f i r s t v i s i o n (Yahweh d i d n o t speak t o t h e p r o p h e t i c d i r e c t l y ) and p r o c l a i m e d t h e d i v i n e message i n 2:7-9, Yahweh used a n g e l i c f o r c e s t o a c h i e v e H i s w i l l on earth (cf. 6:l-8).

163

missioned t o b u i l d ) , which was the e a r t h l y c o r r e l a t i o n o f the heavenly abode o f God from which He would be aware o f
a l l earthly actlvity.
449

There were many s c h o l a r s w h o s t a t e d t h a t the message t o Zerubbabel i n v v . 6 b - 7 was a w a r n i n g t o h i m not to use f o r c e The

i n gaintng the d e s i r e d p o l i t i c a l freedom f o r the Jews.

message w a s intended ( p e r t h i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n ) t o persuade the Jews that Yahweh was a b l e t o achieve w h a t human i n s t r u m e n t a l i t i e s c o u l d not. Another understanding o f such an

i n t e r p r e t a t i o n would be G o von Rad's o b s e r v a t i o n t h a t v . 6 b 450 contained an echo o f I s r a e l ' s c r y i n her holy wars. Under t h i s d i r e c t i v e , Zerubbabel would have been empowered, as m i l i t a r y l e a d e r s o f o l d e r a n d l a t e r times ( c f , the d e s c r i p .

t i o n s in I Maccabees o f the Jewish c a m p a i g n s a g a i n s t the S e l e u c i d power i n the second century B . C . ) , t o make the neces-

s a r y p r e p a r a t i o n s f o r war, r e l y i n g upon the Spirit o f Yahweh

for v i c t o r y .
I t seems more a p p r o p r i a t e t o s e e Zerubbabel as the moving

f o r c e behind the r e b u i l d i n g o f the Temple than as a m i l i t a r y leader.

In t h a t c a p a c i t y he h a d been confronted by many o b =

Zechariah assured h i m t h a t Yahweh's the hindrances,

s t a c l e s t o the work.

Spirit would b r i n g the work t o completion:

f o r m i d a b l e a s they m i g h t have appeared, would vanish, and

4 4 9 . C f , S O H . Hooke, 'The Myth and R i t u a l P a t t e r n in Jewish and C h r i s t i a n A p o c a l y p t l e ' , The L a b y r i n t h , ed. S O H . Hooke, p.219. 450. G o von Rad, Der h e i l i g e Krieg i m Alten I s r a e l , p.66.

164

Zerubbabel would f i n i s h h i s t a s k . The second message ( v v . 8 - l 0 a ) gave the same promise i n

a s l i g h t l y more e x p l i c i t form: those unable t o p e r c e i v e the hand of God i n ' t h e day o f small t h i n g s ' ( i . e . 538-520 B . C . ) would r e j o i c e a t Z e r u b b a b e l ' s s u c c e s s f u l d i r e c t i o n of the project. The message was d i r e c t e d t o Zerubbabel i n h i s Those who argued

c a p a c i t y a s the b u i l d e r o f the Temple.

t h a t ' t h e new age comes with Z e r u b b a b e l ' as he b u i l t the 451 d i d not g r a s p Z e c h a r i a h ' s understanding of ZerubTemple b a b e l ' s r o l e i n the community.
2.

Zech. 5:l-4, The S i x t h V i s i o n The s i x t h v i s i o n showed Zechariah a scene with move-

ment, a f l y i n g s c r o l l w h i c h t r a v e l l e d through the a i r over 452 the land. Zechariah was a b l e t o i d e n t i f y i t and t o g i v e
i t s measurements ( a departure from h i s r o l e i n other v i s i o n -

s c e n e s ) , a l t h o u g h i t s f u n c t i o n was unknown t o him until the i n t e r p r e t i n g angel p r o v i d e d the e x p l a n a t i o n : the s c r o l l was

the oath (3%1) o f the covenant, the c u r s e upon d i s o b e d i 453 ence which would d e s t r o y the s i n n e r s in the l a n d . M O Weinfeld asserted that four motifs a r e found in t r e a t i e s 454 1 ) a statement and documents o f the ancient Near East:

p.117.

451. L A Rigne71, c i t . , p.164, 4 5 2 . Scholars genera l y h a v e agreed that Y L I N ~ referred t o the l a n d o f J u d a h and not t o the ' w o r l d ' o f the n a t i o n s . 4 5 3 , C f . Deut, 2 8 : 1 5 f f . , 2 9 : 1 9 f f . ; W . R u d o l p h , op. c i t . ,

454,

M O Weinfeld,

a. c i t '
- 0

p.109.

165 o f d i v i n e wrath, 2 ) a d e s c r i p t i o n o f a c u r s e which was t o s e t t l e upon the breaker o f the agreement, 3 ) an oath i n s c r i b e d i n a document and 4 ) the t h r e a t o f the o b l i t e r a t A o n o f the covenant-breaker's name and memory. These were

e a s i l y i d e n t i f i a b l e elements i n the vision-scene a n d may p r o v i d e an intended covenant context f o r the scene. The image o f a s c r o l l was not a n u n f a m i l i a r one t o the p r o p h e t i c writings, being found in J e r . 3 6 : l f f . and Ezek.
2:9,

3:l-3.

These these i n s t a n c e s , the s c r o l l played a r o l e Jeremiah's s-croll contained h i s p a s t

i n judgment n a r r a t i v e s :

messages o f judgment a g a i n s t the monarchy o f J u d a h and E t e k i e l ' s s c r o l l , given h i m a t h i s commissioning as a prophet, was symbolic o f h i s message o f doom concerning Jerusalem. This v i s i o n conformed c l o s e l y t o the p a t t e r n d i s c e r n e d
i n the N i g h t - V i s i o n s .

The s c r o l l was symbolic o f Yahweh's

judgment a g a i n s t those of the Jewish community w h o had t r a n s g r e s s e d the d i v i n e standard. The images o f the t h i e f and the

f a l s e swearer may intend have been taken as r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of s i n s a g a i n s t man and God which were p r o h i b i t e d by the two t a b l e t s o f the commandments given t o Moses ( c f . Exod. 455 31: 1 8 ) . Another view made t h e s e f i g u r e s r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of the major s o c i a l problems o f the e a r l y p o s t - e x i l i c commu456 n i ty. I t was' unfortunate that f u r t h e r evidence was not

455. 456.

L.G.

D.R.

R i g n e l l , op. c i t ' pp.186f. Jones, 9. c i t ' p.81.

-.

166

provided, f o r the v i s i o n ' s c r y p t i c statements cannot be i n t e r p r e t e d w e l l i n terms o f s o c i o l o g i c a l s e t t i n g which was r e l a t i v e l y unknown to us. The a c t o f judgment d e s c r i b e d i n the v i s i o n - s c e n e has given s c h o l a r s much d i f f i c u l t y . By r e l a t i n g the mention o f

the house o f the s i n n e r t o the a s s e r t i o n of Ezektel t h a t future r e t r i b u t i o n w o u l d be c a r r i e d out on an I n d i v i d u a l b a s i s (Ezek. 1 8 : l f f . ) , WOE. Barnes and H O G . M i t c h e l l have concluded t h a t t h i s v i s i o n contained a promise t h a t Yahweh would never a g a i n p u n i s h t h e nation a s a whole, b u t would 457 take vengeance on s i n a t the i n d i v i d u a l l e v e l . These 458 s c h o l a r s saw the deteronomistic theory o f r e t r i b u t i o n rej e c t e d , a s i t had been e a r l i e r by Jeremiah and E z e k i e l .

This

i n t e r p r e t a t i o n reduced the v i s i o n t o no more t h a n a statement

of policy.
A . v a n Hoonacker, who i n t e r p r e t e d a l l e i g h t v i s i o n s as

r e f e r r i n g t o the p a s t e x i l i c h i s t o r y o f I s r a e l , i n t e r p r e t e d t h i s v i s i o n a s d e s c r i p t i v e o f the e x i l e , when the s i n s of the people under the monarchy were punished.
460

459

E. Sellin

regarded i t a s a p i c t u r e o f judgment upon the Jews who h a d remained i n Judah d u r i n g the e x i l e .

M O B i E , s e t t i n g the

v i s i o n within the c o n t e x t o f the e s c h a t o l o g i c a l Day of Yahweh,

E , Barne s , ap. c i t . , pp.25f.;
0
0

J . H O G Mitchell, O

Wei nfel d, fE. c i t o, p p o 3 0 7 f f van Hoo nac e r , P e t i t s Prophetes, p . 6 2 1 . Se1 1 i n , 9p. c i t . , pp.460ff.

167

r e l a t e d i t t o the b i b l i c a l maxim:

'judgment b e g i n s i n t h e
461

house o f the L o r d ' ( I P e t e r 4:17; c f . Ezek. 9 : 6 ) .

6iF

c h a r a c t e r i z e d t h t s v i s i o n as a d e s c r l p t i o n of t h e c l e a n s i n g o f the l a n d i n p r e p a r a t i o n f o r t h e coming e s c h a t o l o g i c a l a g e (cf. Is. 2:lff., Ezek. 40-48, Zech. 1 4 ) .

L.G.

Rignell

g e n e r a l i z e d on the theme of the v i s i o n :

' e s handel t s i c h

darum, Jahwe e i n h e i l i g e s Volk z u s c h a f f e n , indem d i e Sunder

aus I s r a e l a u s g e r o t t e t werden'.
judgment o f 587 B . C .

462

Van Hoonacker's o p i n i o n t h a t the v i s i o n d e s c r i b e d t h e

must be r e j e c t e d on the grounds t h a t t h e elements o f the v i s i o n a r e n o t a l i g n e d with h i s t o r i c a l e v e n t s nor with the themes o f t h e o t h e r v i s i o n s .
I f t h e r e were any s o u r c e for t h e c o n t e n t o f t h i s v i s i o n ,
463

i t would seem t o b e the book of E z e k i e l .

There was, f o r

example, t h e judgments of Ezek. 9:1-11,

1 1 : l - 1 3 and 2 0 : 3 3 f f . ,

which were c a r r i e d o u t s t r i c t l y on a moral b a s i s ( t h e repen-

tant and r i g h t e o u s were s p a r e d w h i l e t h e r e b e l l i o u s and i d o l a t r o u s were consumed). In Z e c h a r i a h ' s v i s i o n t h e r e was a f o c u s on purl t y a n d g u i l t l e s s n e s s (which E z e k i e l s t r e s s e d ) a s i t a p p l i e d t o t h e r e s t o r a t i o n community a n d i t s i n s t i t u -

461. M e ME, Das Buch S a c h a r j a , p.65. 462. L O G . R i g n e l l , O J . c f t . , p.186. 4 6 3 . C f . D. B a l t z e r , Ezechiel und D e u t e r o j e s a j a , pp.98f. , where he summarized E z e k i e l ' s s t r e s s upon t h e p u r i f i c a t i o n of t h e p e o p l e and c o n t r a s t e d i t with D e u t e r o - I s a i a h ' s emphasis upon their redemption. I t was E z e k i e l ' s r e q u i r e m e n t w h i c h was p i c k e d up h e r e by Z e c h a r i a h ,

168

tions.

464

The f o r c e s a t work i n Zechariah's scene, s e l e c t i v e

d e s t r u c t i o n and u l t i m a t e p u r i f i c a t i o n , were a l s o o p e r a t i v e i n Ezekiel.

I would s u g g e s t t h a t Zechariah looked a t the harsh cond i t i o n s i n the land which threatened t o d e s t r o y the community d u r i n g the y e a r s 538-520 B.C. Yahweh's purifying judgment. as the beginning (and end) o f The essence o f the community

was r e t a i n e d w h i l e making sense o f the d i f f i c u l t i e s encountered. Zechariah saw h i m s e l f l i v i n g in the p e r i o d of purific a t i o n p r i o r t o the age o f f u l l b l e s s i n g .
3.

Zech. 5:5-11,

The Seventh V i s i o n

The seventh v i s i o n presented Zechariah with a mysterious scene o f movement. forth' The prophet saw a v e s s e l ' g o i n g The i n t e r p r e t i n g angel

(under some s o r t o f impetus).

e x p l a i n e d t h a t the v e s s e l , an ephah, contained the i n i q u t t y o f the whole l a n d . Zechariah was permitted a l o o k f n s i d e

the ephah a n d he saw the f i g u r e o f a woman, i d e n t i f i e d a s 'wickedness'

( i ~ y w ? ) , attempting t o escape.

Two women with

stork's wings, o s t e n s i b l y c e l e s t i a l b e i n g s , bore the ephah

and i t s contents toward Babylon. The image of the ephah was a common one t o . every-day Jewish l i f e , a v e s s e l which could contain a dry measure of

464. 3 . Muilenberg, ' E z e k i e l ' B l a c k , pp.569-571.

9 -

PCB ( r e v . e d . ) , ed. M.

169

approximately t h i r t y - e i g h t l i t e r s .
466

465

I t would be, however,

more l i k e l y that the ephah was here r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f a v e s s e l o f indeterminate s i z e . The conjecture that the

f i g u r e in the ephah was an i d o l (on the grounds t h a t the cont a i n e r was o f i n s u f f i c i e n t volume for a human form) must be r e j e c t e d ; one cannot a s s e s s a vision-scene by r e c o u r s e t o physical d a t a . The imagery o f the winged women has no

p a r a l l e l i n the Old Testament; exegetes o f e a r l i e r y e a r s ,

m a r k i n g t h e i r a s s o c i a t i o n with an unclean bird, l a b e l l e d them

messengers o f S a t a n ,
467

The woman i n the ephah, the c e n t r a l f i g u r e i f the scene, provoked many q u e s t i o n s which s c h o l a r s have d e a l t with. cluded: The candidates for the source o f the image have i n Eve, the Queen of Heaven ( c f . Jer. 7:18), the
468

. E g y p t i a n goddess I s i s , Ashtoroth o f Canaan and the strange woman ' o f ~ r o v . 7r5ff. The f a c t that the Hebrew word for 469 'wickedness' i s feminine ( a y w ~ )may have been i n f l u e n t i a l ,

although the e f f e c t would p r o b a b l y have been the r e v e r s e . The most l i k e l y arguments for the i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of t h i s f i g u r e have been those which connect the woman t o I s r a e l ' s

4 6 5 . R . B . Y . S c o t t , 'Weights, Measures, Money and Time', P C B ( r e v . e d . ) , ed. M O Black, p.38. 466. I t would be u n l i k e l y t h a t the ephah r e p r e s e n t e d a temple; cp. S . Marenof, 'Note Concerning the Meaning of t h e word, "Ephah", Zechariah 5 : 5 - 1 1 ' , AhL x l v i i i (1931-32) , PP. . . 204ff 467. A . Jeremias, Das A l t e Testament i m L i c h t e des a l t e n O r i e n t , p.684. f . C O Jeremias, 2 . c k , ppm196f., for l i t e r a t u r e %cer:ing these i n t e r p r e t a n n s . 469. H , Gese, a r t . c i t . , p.31.

170
tendency t o i d o l a t r y o r I s r a e l ' s u n f a i t h f u l n e s s t o Yahweh, her Husband. The emphasis o f the v i s i o n d i d n o t l i e in the i d e n t i f i c a t i o n of the image a s much a s i n t h e e f f e c t ( L e . the removal of the wickedness o f the people. There was i n s i g h t

here i n t o Z e c h a r i a h ' s understanding o f Yahweh's determination

t o e l i m i n a t e s i n in His people:

the r o o t cause ( o r essence)

of the Jews' r e b e l l i o u s n e s s a g a i n s t the w i l l o f Yahweh would

be f u l l y removed. ternal defects. The community was t o b e purged from i n Zechariah surpassed the thought o f the f o r -

mer prophets by attributing the wickedness i n man t o something distinctly 'other',

a p e r s o n i f i e d source ( o r a personi-

f i c a t i o n ) o f e v i l ( c f . Gen. 3 : l f f . a n d I K i n g s 2 2 : 1 9 f f . ) . The s u p e r f i c i a l resemblance o f this scene t o the desc r i p t i o n o f the d e p a r t i n g g l o r y i n Ezek. 1 and 10-11 i n v i t e d

a deeper examination.

There was correspondence between the

throne (Ezek. 1 0 : l ) a n d the ephah, the f l y i n g cherubim

( 1 0 : 3 ) a n d the women with wings, the ' g l o r y '
( 1 0 : 4 ) and the

'wickedness'

a n d each m a k i n g room for the o t h e r in Babylon

and Jerusalem.

There were many s i m i l a r i t i e s , suggesting

t h a t Zechariah a n t i c i p a t e d the removal o f s i n from the community p r i o r t o the m a n i f e s t a t i o n o f Yahweh's g l o r y a t the Temp1 e.
kann zwar sagen,

L.G.

R i g n e l l observed that '...man

d a s s d i e B i l d e r s p r a c h e e i n e "apokalyptische" F a r b u n g habe,
d a keine Wirklichkeit i m Hintergrund stehe.

Jedoch f i n d e n

171
s i c h innerhalb des A T g e w i s s e P a r a l l e l e n ' .
470

The prophet

may have conceived o f the removal o f s i n (which was an abs t r a c t concept) without m a k i n g an h i s t o r i c a l r e f e r e n c e , b u t the l a c k o f h i s t o r i c a l grounding cannot be the s o l e c r i t e r i a
i n judging a passage a p o c a l y p t k .

The woman-figure a s a per-

s o n i f i e d a n t i t h e s i s t o Yahweh (or His g l o r y ) c o n t r i b u t e d something s l g n i f i c a n t i n t h f s d i r e c t i o n , although i t would be s u r p a s s i n g l y d i f f i c u l t t o determine Z e c h a r i a h ' s i n t e n t i o n i n a passage whose i n t e r p r e t a t i o n must be g i v e n wide l a t i t u d e .

I t i s an i n t e r e s t f n g note t h a t the p o s t - e x i l i c theocracy

developed the m e n t a l l t y w h i c h t r u s t e d c u l t i c ritual f o r the 471 The concept o f t h e commuremoval o f the p e o p l e ' s g u i l t . n i t y a s t h e congregation of Yahweh ( m w S h 3 ) grew o u t o f the b e l i e f in Yahweh's e s s e n t i a l l y benevolent a t t i t u d e toward the people.

I am not a r g u i n g that t h e r e w a s no o t h e r way o r no

I am s t r e s s i n g Z e c h a r i a h ' s understanding t h a t commu-

o t h e r time i n which t h e Jews could have been c o n s i d e r e d ' s i n less'.

n i t y p u r i t y was included in Yahweh's purpose f o r the people

and that h i s view may have i n f l u e n c e d ( o r have been i n f l u -

enced by) the developing o f f i c i a l theology of the theocracy. The removal o f 'wickedness' from the community made p o s s i b l e the continuing p l a n o f Yahweh t o achieve H i s purposes for the Temple and community ( i . e . t h e i r purity). It

was t h I s view Zechariah h e l d up f o r t h e people.

p.7.

470. 471.

LOG. Bignell, & 0 c i t a p.194. 0 . P l o g e r , 99. c i t . , p.43; W. F o e r s t e r , op. c i t . ,

-.

172
40

Zech. 6 : l - 1 5 ,

The E i g h t h Vision

The l a s t v i s i o n r e v e a l e d t o Z e c h a r i a h four c h a r i o t s p u l l e d by d i f f e r e n t - c o l o r e d h o r s e s , p r o c e e d i n g f r o m between 472 two c o p p e r mountains a n d g o i n g forth t o w a r d the f o u r p o i n t s o f t h e compass. The c h a r i o t s d i d n o t f o l l o w any p a t -

tern i n their movement, a l t h o u g h t h e r e was a d e f f n l t e emphas i s on the n o r t h c o u n t r y , B a b y l o n .

T h e image o f t h e c h a r i o t was s i m i l a r t o t h a t o f t h e
horsemen o f the f i r s t v i s i o n , i n that t h e y s y m b o l i z e d m i l i t a r y power. Z e c h a r i a h has shunned the s u p e r n a t u r a l v e h i c l e

of f i r e ( c f . I 1 Kings 2:11, 6 : 1 7 ) f o r a more mundane f i g u r e .

As i n t h e f i r s t v i s i o n , the c o l o r s o f t h e h o r s e s d i f f e r e n -

t i a t e the c h a r i o t s a n d t h e d i r e c t i o n s o f their m i s s i o n s ; h o w e v e r , t h e r e was no immediate b a c k g r o u n d f r o m which this i n f o r m a t i o n may have been t a k e n . The c o p p e r m o u n t a i n s , even 473 i f they d e r i v e f r o m some mythic c o n t e x t , do not appear t o h a v e been i n c l u d e d with any p a r t i c u l a r t h o u g h t i n m i n d .
The p o i n t o f t h e v i s i o n was s t a t e d i n v . 8 :
g o toward the north c o u n t r y . . . V ~ ~ ? nu 9 t 1 7 3 t 1 ' .

'these that The meaning o f

the l a s t p h r a s e has been i n t e r p r e t e d d i f f e r e n t l y by s c h o l a r s .

A m a j o r i t y o f s c h o l a r s , r e l y i n g on the t r a d i t i o n a l unders t a n d i n g o f the c h a r i o t - i m a g e a s a w a r i n s t r u m e n t , h a v e t r a n s y (God's) l a t e d the p h r a s e with the s e n s e o f release m 474 anger ' O t h e r s , namely G. v o n - R a d and R . Mason, p r e f e r r e d

4 7 2 . C f , C O J e r e m i a s , op. c i t s p p . l l l f f . 473. C f . L O G . R i g n e l l , O J . c i t , pp.198ff0, regarding the v a r i ous i n t e r p r e t a t i ons. 474. H O G . Mjtchell, 1)p. c i t . , p p . l 8 l f , .

-. -.

173 the t r a n s l a t i o n

'

. mgive r e s t t o my

(God's)

Spirit'.

475

However, I do n o t f e e l urgency t o hold one view o v e r t h e other. The i n t e n t i o n o f the author may have i n c l u d e d both 476 i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s w t t h i n the s i n g l e statement. There a p p e a r s t o be a d e s c r i p t i o n w i t h i n t h i s v i s i o n scene of a l i m i t e d a c t i v i t y .
R m Mason, f o r example, s t a t e d

that he saw i n t h i s p i c t u r e a f u r t h e r s t a g e i n the f r e e i n g o f t h e e x i l e s from B a b y l o n . He concluded that t h e e v e n t

d e s c r i b e d was b u t a f o r e t a s t e o f ' t h e f u t u r e complete v i c 477 t o r y ' o f Yahweh. L O G . R i g n e l l supported t h i s view by p o f n t i n g o u t that Babylon ( a n d n o t the n a t i o n s a t l a r g e ) was 478 It would be d i f f i c u l t the s o l e i n t e r e s t o f the prophet. t o s e e here t h e d e s c r i p t i o n o f a f i n a l , u n i v e r s a l (or eschat o l o g i c a l ) judgment.
479

There was no s e n s e h e r e o f a r e p e t i t i o n of t h e thought

o f Hag. 2 : 2 0 - 2 3 , which d i d f o r e s e e the g r e a t shaking o f t h e

n a t i o n s prior t o t h e e s t a b l f s h m e n t o f the Jewish kingdom under Z e r u b b a b e l , There was b u t a l i m t t e d a c t i o n which 480 s e r v e d t o f a c i l i t a t e t h e u n f o l d i n g o f the d i v i n e p l a n .

C i t m , pp.60f. tit., p.216: 'ommein dop476, C f m L m G . Rignell, e Hefden und H e i l fur das p e l t e n Aspeckt: G e r i c h t uber Vol k G o t t e s ' 4 7 7 . R. Mason, loco c i t , P . R . Ackroyd, a r t . c i t pm6490 J . cit p.216. 478. L o G m R f g n e r O 4 7 9 . W . Rudolph, o c i t . , p.125, f o l l o w e d t h i s d e f e a t with the n a t i o n s ' r e c e p t o n b y Yahweh. 480. Z e c h a r i a h o p e r a t e d - w i thin a g e n e r a l c o n t e x t witho u t f u l l y i n c l u d i n g the nations i n s p e c i f i c scenes.
O J .

475. R. Mason,

G o von Rad, Old Testament Theology 11, p.287;

-+

-. .

174

The p a s s a g e 6:9-14

c o n t a i n e d the n a r r a t i v e o f God's
481

command t o Z e c h a r i a h t o p e r f o r m a s y m b o l i c a c t i o n , l a r t o those o f Ezekiel ( i . e . on the head o f J o s h u a ) .

simi-

t o form a c r o w n and p l a c e i t

The r o l e s o f J o s h u a , Z e r u b b a b e l

(who was i d e n t i f i e d a s a r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f the ' b r a n c h ' ) ,

a n d the ' b r a n c h ' were q u i t e intertwined by Z e c h a r i a h in t h i s

passage:

Joshua (vv.11,12aa,13b),

Zerubbabel (vv.l2bb,l3aa)

a n d the ' b r a n c h '

(vv.12ab,12ba,13ab,l3b).

The r o l e s were n o t d i s t f n g u i s h e d very w e l l , o w l n g t o the

c o n f u s i o n inherent in J o s h u a ' s t a n d i n g i n ' for the ' b r a n c h ' a n d Z e r u b b a b e l v i e w e d a s the ( f o r e r u n n e r o f t h e ) ' b r a n c h ' by some s c h o l a r s . 'branch'; J o s h u a was c r o w n e d and a d d r e s s e d a s the

Z e r u b b a b e l w a s a d d r e s s e d a s the one who s h o u l d r e -

b u i l d the T e m p l e ; and the ' b r a n c h ' was the one who w o u l d g r o w

i n h i s p l a c e , b e a r r o y a l h o n o r and s i t and r u l e upon h i s

throne.

The common r e f e r e n c e t o emending the t e x t t o r e p l a c e

J o s h u a ' s name with Z e r u b b a b e l ' s

i n v . 1 1 ( a s the s u b j e c t o f

the c r o w n i n g ) i s l o g i c a l t o a d e g r e e , b u t the c h a n g e was 482 I t was c l e a r , on s u p p o r t e d by no m a n u s c r i p t e v i d e n c e .

the one hand, t h a t o n l y a D a v i d i d e c o u l d o c c u p y t h e t h r o n e

o f I s r a e l ; on the o t h e r , Z e r u b b a b e l w o u l d h a v e b e e n d l s q u a l i -

LOG. Rignell, the MT; Y . Kaufmann, ( t o Z e r u b b a b e l ' s name exegesis'.

481. P r o heten

Cf.

G o Fohrer, Die s y m b o l l s c h e n H a n d l u n g e n d e r

p.224, rightly defended c a l l e d the e m e n d a t i o n example of preposterous

175

f i e d a s a r u l e r as l o n g a s he remained a P e r s i a n o f f i c i a l .

I t would be c o n c e i v a b l e t h a t the p r i e s t h o o d was b r o u g h t i n

a s Yahweh's ' c a r e t a k e r ' l e a d e r s h i p until the D a v i d i c h e i r

withdrew from f o r e i g n a l l e g i a n c e , i n Z e c h a r i a h ' s v i e w .

I t was i n t e r e s t f n g t o note t h a t the ' b r a n c h ' ,

as a

t i t l e used by the p r o p h e t s i n r e f e r e n c e t o a ruling f i g u r e , o c c u r r e d i n p a s s a g e s marked by a merging o f r o y a l and s a c e r 483 d o t a l elements. 3 . Baldwin a s s e r t e d t h a t the t i t l e had ' m e s s i a n i c ' s i g n i f i c a n c e in Z e c h a r i a h 1-8 ( 3 : 8 , 0:lZ) bec a u s e i t concerned n o t s i m p l y Zerubbabel b u t a f u t u r e i d e a l k i n g of the Jews ( c f .
I s . 4:2,

Jer. 23:5,33:15).

The crown which Z e c h a r i a h was t o have made was c a l l e d

a memorial ( i l ? ~ ) a, reminder e l t h e r f o r Yahneh t o keep H i s

promise concerning t h e coming r u l e r or f o r the p e o p l e t o r e member the f a c t that Yahweh would keep f a i t h with them.

It

seems b e t t e r t o h o l d t o the l a t t e r o p t i o n , s e e i n g t h a t t h e c.ommand t o p l a c e the crown i n t h e Temple came a s a word o f Yahweh

Whatever one concluded a b o u t Z e r u b b a b e l ' s p o s i t i o n i n t h e community, the f a c t remained t h a t he was not t o wear t h e
As i t s t a n d s , Z e r u b b a b e l ' s r o l e i n Z e c h a r i a h ' s eyes 484 was demeaned: he was t o b u i l d the Temple, b u t he c o u l d not

crown.

r u l e o v e r i t or t h e communtty ( a t l e a s t f o r the p r e s e n t ) .

483. 3 . P r o p h e t s ' , VT 484. Background o f

B a l d w i n , 'Semah a s a Technical Term in t h e x i v (1964), p.97. Mason, o c i t . , p . 5 5 ; B . Halpern, ' T h e R i t u a l Z e c h a r d ' s T m p l e Song' , C B Q x l (1978) , p . 184.

176

Zechariah may be implying t h a t the Jews could do without Zerubbabel as a r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of the D a v i d i c l i n e w h i l e not r e j e c t i n g the promise to David; Zechariah may have been
t h i n k i n g about Z e r u b b a b e l ' s son or g r a n d s o n as the ' b r a n c h ' ,

One must

t h a t Zechariah d i d not i n t e n t i o n a l l y l a y

the foundation f o r the ascendancy o f the p r i e s t h o o d a s i t has been d e s c r i b e d d u r i n g the p o s t - e x i l i c p e r i o d . There was no t r a c e o f the p r i e s t - k i n g ; he presented a scene with

a p r i e s t s i t t l n g on the throne of another.

The symbolic

a c t i o n (whether or not i t was c a r r i e d o u t ) was d i s t i n c t l y r e l e v a n t t o the e a r l y p o s t - e x i l i c age because the monarchic a l r u l e was uncommitted,
-

The prophet seemed t o a l l o w a

temporary figure t o r e p l a c e the D a v i d i c r u l e , someone n o t p o l i t i c a l l y compromised by P e r s i a n l o y a l t i e s , u n t i l t h a t k i n g

w o u l d come, whose right i t was t o r u l e ( E z e k . 21:27),
D.

Zech. 4:l-6:15

(Consolidation)

I a r r i v e d a t a d i f f e r e n t conclusion r e g a r d i n g the internal arrangement o f the Night-Visions p r i m a r i l y because I

c o u l d n ' t accept the judgment o f s c h o l a r s who suggested the

c e n t r a l i t y o f the f i f t h v i s i o n (4:l-14) w i t h i n the v t s i o n constructfon, In m y e v a l u a t t o n o f that v i s i o n , I o u t l i n e d

the arguments which precluded, f o r me, the p o s s i b i l i t y o f

a p r i n c i p a l r o l e i n the Might-Visions.
The turning p o l n t o f the i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f the v i s i o n -

scene r e s t e d upon t h e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f ' t h e sons o f o i l ' ,

177
I argued t h a t the phrase d i d not r e f e r t o Joshua and Zerubbabe1 and t h a t i t would have been more c o n s i s t e n t t o i n t e r -

pret i t a s r e f e r r i n g t o c e l e s t i a l beings which m i n i s t e r e d t o

Yahweh. The v i s i o n contained two complementary t h r u s t s : the f a c t o f Yahweh's w a t c h f u l n e s s over the world and the r e a l i t y o f H i s h o l i n e s s which s e p a r a t e d H i m from t h a t w o r l d . This

understanding o f the v i s i o n presented a base upon which the f o l l o w i n g v i s i o n s could b u i l d . The l a s t t h r e e v i s i o n s could be i n t e r p r e t e d a l o n g two lines: t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f a p u r i f i e d community i n Judah

and the a c t i v i t y i n v o l v i n g Yahweh's judgment o f s i n ( i n a l l

i t s forms).

The a m b i g u i t y o f the l a s t v i s i o n s u g g e s t s t h a t

t h e s e two s t r a n d s o f thought ought t o be considered o p p o s i t e s i d e s o f the same c o i n a n d not as mutually e x c l u s i v e o p t i o n s . The thread o f connection i s the r e a l i z a t i o n t h a t each scene d e p i c t e d an a c t which grew out o f Yahweh's holy n a t u r e , a p e r s p e c t i v e which lends a t r u e u n i f y i n g f o r c e t o the l a s t

v i s i ons

In c o n t r a s t t o the f i r s t f o u r v i s i o n s w h i c h d e s c r i b e d the p o s i t i v e a c t s o f Yahweh t o p r o v i d e f o r the s t r u g g l i n g community, the l a s t f o u r v i s i o n s i d e n t i f y the d i v i n e h o l i n e s s which a c t s a g a i n s t a l l m a n i f e s t a t i o n s o f s i n . Yahweh's g r a c e dominated the f i r s t v i s i o n s in a way similar t o i t s r o l e in D e u t e r o - I s a i a h ' s messages; His demand f o r p u r i t y i n the l a s t v i s i o n s was as i n s i s t e n t a s i n p o r t i o n s o f t h e book

178
of Ezekiel. I t was, i n f a c t , Z e c h a r i a h ' s r e l a t i o n s h i p t o E z e k i e l which stood out s t r o n g l y i n these v i s i o n s . The theme o f a

p u r i f i e d people f i t for Yahweh's s e r v i c e ( w h i c h c o u l d be understood within the Jews' a n t i c i p a t i o n o f the completed 485 Temple f u n c t i o n i n g under Joshua's l e a d e r s h i p ) was found

i n e x p l i c i t form i n the s i x t h a n d seventh v i s i o n , and was exp r e s s e d l e s s d i r e c t l y i n the f i f t h and e i g h t h .

*

The i n f l u e n c e

o f Ezekiel was f e l t most f o r c e f u l l y i n these v i s i o n s ; the

concept o f a p u r i f i e d people f o r a holy God was an important message o f t h i s prophet.

IV.

Zech, 7:4-8:23,

T h e ' F a s t i n g ' Sermon

1 0

The l a s t two c h a p t e r s o f Zechariah,,consisted o f a dated h i s t o r i c a l event ( a r e q u e s t f o r a r e l i g i o u s judgment addressed t o the Jerusalem Temple personnel, 7 : l - 3 ) t i o n o f statements o f the prophet ( 7 : 4 - 8 : 2 3 ) .
and a c o l l e c -

I t was u n -

l i k e l y t h a t Zechariah was p e r s o n a l l y r e s p o n s i b l e for the verses of introduction ( 7 : l - 3 ) , s i n c e they were p a r t o f the

0.

e d i t o r i a l framework observed elsewhere ( 1 : 1 , 1 : 7 ) ,

P l 6 g e r ' s contention t h a t the p r i e s t l y l e a d e r s o f the Babyl o n i a n r e t u r n e e s were concerned t o make the new Temple the c e n t e r o f the P a l e s t i n i a n community and t o r e g a i n t h e i r p o s i -

t i o n s o f a u t h o r i t y within the governing a d m i n i s t r a t i o n of

485, C f , 0 . P l 8 g e r ' s arguments: c i t . , pp.43f.

O J .

179
the Jewish homeland may r e v e a l i n t e r e s t i n g i n s i g h t s i n t o the

i n c l u s i o n o f t h i s r a t h e r i n s i g n i f i c a n t e v e n t i n the p r o p h e t ' s record. Twenty-two months h a d p a s s e d s i n c e t h e d a t e a s s o c i a t e d

with the appearance o f the N i g h t - V i s i o n s
G.A.
486

( c p . 7:l with 1 : 7 ) .

S m i t h noted t h a t dramatic changes had occurred i n the

l a n d during t h i s time:

In Jan. 519 Temple and c i t y a r e s t i l l t o be b u i l t . Zerubbabel has l a i d the f o u n d a t i o n ; t h e completion i s y e t future ( 1 : 7 - 1 7 ) . The p r o p h e t ' s duty s i t o q u i e t t h e p e o p l e ' s apprehensions about the s t a t e o f t h e w o r l d , t o provoke t h e i r z e a l , g i v e them c o n f i d e n c e i n t h e i r g r e a t men, and, above a l l , a s s u r e them that God i s r e t u r n e d t o them and t h e i r s i n i s parfar doned. B u t i n Dec. 518 t h e Temple i s b u i l t t h a t the p r i e s t s a r e s a i d t o belong t o i t ; t h e r e i s no o c c a s i o n for c o n t i n u i n g the f a s t o f t h e e x i l e , the f u t u r e has opened a n d t h e h o r i z o n i s b r i g h t with M e s s i a n i c hopes. Most o f a l l , i t i s f e l t that the hard s t r u g g l e with t h e f o r c e s o f n a t u r e i s o v e r , and the p e o p l e a r e exhorted t o t h e v i r t u e s of the c i v i c l l f e . They have time t o l i f t t h e i r eyes from t h e i r work and t o s e e the n a t i o n s coming from a f a r o f f t o Jerusalem.

so

T h u s , when Z e c h a r i a h spoke o f t h e changes I n l i f e for the better (cf. 8:lOff.), growth in t h e l a n d . The message d f v i d e d e a s i l y i n t o a r e v i e w o f the p a s t
(7:4-14),

he may have been p o i n t i n g t o o b s e r v a b l e

t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f t h e p r e s e n t (8:1=3aa) and a
o f t h e f u t u r e (8:3ab-23).

survey

There a r e p a r a l l e l s in

t h e s e s e c t i o n s with Zech. 1:2-6 and the ' o r a c u l a r ' portions

S m i t h , op. c i t . , pp.258f.

486.

G.A.

180
o f the N i g h t - V i s i o n s , which w o u l d be i n d l c a t i v e of a cons i s t e n t preaching s t y l e (or, a l t e r n a t e l y , a wide-rangfng final redaction), The h d s t o r i c a l occasion f o r the p r e s e n t a t l o n of t h i s m a t e r i a l was the r e c e p t i o n on Temple grounds o f a d e l e g a t i o n 487 s e n t t o i n q u i r e of the p r i e s t s and prophets. There was no consensus among s c h o l a r s whether t h i s group came from B e t h e l , Babylon, Samaria, a settlement i n Judah away from Jerusalem or some other l o c a t i o n . Since t h e r e can be l i t t l e

more t h a n s p e c u l a t i o n made a t t h i s p o i n t , the matter should

be l e f t open.

The purpose of the i n q u i r y , however, was whether the f a s t commemorating the d e s t r u c -

c l e a r l y stated:

t i o n o f the Temple should be continued. Z e c h a r i a h ' s 'response' t o t h i s q u e s t i o n appears t o be

488

a l i t t l e disjointed,
W.A.M.

p o s s i b l y owing t o an e d i t o r ' s heavy

hand i n assembling a s e r l e s of the prophet's remarks. Beuken t r e a t e d 7:4-14

a s a L e v i t i c a l sermon,

489

u t i l i z i n g G o von Rad's c a t e g o r y ; b u t the elements of the 490 form ( d o c t r i n e , a p p l i c a t i o n and e x h o r t a t i o n ) were m i s s i n g .

Zechariah's s t y l e may have become a prototype from w h i c h

487. M O B i E , o c i t . , p.90, argued unconvincingly t h a t the presence o the prophets demanded an e s c h a t o l o g i c a l tnterpretation. 488. P . R . Ackroyd, O J . c i t . , p.208. 489. W , A . M . Beuken, l a p . T t . , p p . l l 8 f f . 490. G o von Rad, 'The t e n i c a l Sermon i n I and I 1 C h r o n i c l e s ' , The Problem o f the Hexateuch and Other Essays, p.271.
c

. P

181

the L e v i t i c a l sermon-form developed, f o r t h e r e were some l i n e s o f c o n t i n u i t y between Zechariah a n d the l a t e r L e v i t i c a l prophets which I n c l u d e Zech. 7:4-14 and the l a t e r form. The framework o f the trial speeches o f Deutero-Isaiah ( c f .
43:22-24, 491 gree,
5O:l-3)

may be i n f l u e n t i a l here t o a minor de-

Within the theme o f f a s t i n g , Zechariah r a i s e d the

q u e s t i o n of what c o n s t i t u t e d a s i n c e r e f a s t , s t a t e d the l e s s o n o f ' l a t e ' obedience, g a v e a b a s i s for d o i n g 6od's

w i l l and r e l a t e d the r e s u l t s of f a i l i n g t o a c t r i g h t e o u s l y

b e f o r e God,

One notlces the s t r o n g I n f l u e n c e o f deuteroespecially

nomistic phraseology and content i n Zech, 7:4-14,

492

i n the r e a c t i o n of the p e o p l e t o the g i v i n g o f ' t h e law and

the words' ( v . 1 2 ) . which the prophets had done i n an Zechariah reminded the

attempt t o turn them back t o Yahweh.

p e o p l e of the p a s t in a l l i t s b r u t a l i t y i n o r d e r t o p l a c e them in a p o s i t i o n to hear the words o f Yahweh and t o rece'ive them i n obedience. Zechariah's o p i n i o n o f Yahweh's a t t i t u d e toward the

Jewish community (8:1-3aa) r e p e a t e d almost word-for-word

h i s statements i n 1:14,16a.

His assessment o f the e x i l e and

r e s t o r a t i o n was not made i n terms o f the h i s t o r i c a l a c t of r e l e a s e , but within Yahweh's change o f h e a r t and His determl-

n a t i o n t o do them good.
~ ~~~

T h i s change o f a t t i t u d e of Yahweh

491, 492.

R.F.

Melugin, O J . -* c f t 9 p.47. E.W. Nicholson, Preaching t o the E x i l e s , pp.40-55.

182
( n o t the achievements o f the p e o p l e ) was held u p by Zechar i a h a s the means whereby the community would be r e v i t a l i z e d . The new e r a was conceived by Zechariah a s a period o f time marked by d i v i n e presence and b l e s s i n g (8:3ab-8, cf.

2:10-11).

The concept appears t o be an amalgamation o f I t revealed

themes taken from Ezekiel and Deutero-Isaiah.

Zechariah's assumption t h a t Yahweh's r e l a t i o n s h i p t o the p e o p l e w o u l d p a r a l l e l the p r e - e x i l i c s t a t e , although i n a heightened sense. I t i s f n t e r e s t i n g t o note t h a t the par-

t i c u l a r b l e s s i n g s mentioned by Zechariah a r e n o t s o charact e r i s t i c of the p r l e s t l y l E z e k i e 1 f a n tradi t f o n s as the TritoI s a i a n i c a n d deuteronomistic: long l i f e , many c h i l d r e n and
493

p r o s p e r i t y i n t h e land ( c f . I s . 65:18-23).

The r e t u r n of the p e o p l e from the ends of the e a r t h and the renewal o f the covenant ( 8 : 7 - 8 ) a r e r e p e t i t i v e of the phraseology o f E r e k i e l (11:20, e t c . ) a n d I n d i c a t i v e o f the c e n t r a l r o l e the covenant played i n these prophets' t h i n k i n g . However, P.R. Ackroyd's contention t h a t the covenant o f v.8

was contrasted with a former covenant went beyond the ex494 p r e s s e d i n t e n t i o n o f the t e x t . Zecharlah i n s i s t e d t h a t the ' o l d e r ' covenant had been renewed; the whole sense o f Zecharfah 1-8 supported the view o f Yahweh's c o n t f n u f n g

r e l a t l o n s k l p with the p e o p l e ( i n s p i t e o f the p e o p l e ' s d i s ld. Weinfeld, op. c i t . , p.311. P . R . Ackroyd, s.7t * p.213.

493. 494,

-.

183

o b e d i e n c e w h i c h prompted t h e e x i l e , c f .

k12).

The c o n t e x t

o f t h e s e v e r s e s i n d i c a t e d t h e d u r a t i o n o f t h e covenant; t h e p h r a s e nptrl nam was d e s c r i p t i v e n o t o f t h e permanence b u t of t h e q u a l i t y o f t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p . The passage 8:9-15 p a r a l l e l e d p o r t i o n s o f t h e book o f Haggai, c o n t a i n i n g Z e c h a r i a h ' s most e x p l i c i t s t a t e m e n t s conc e r n i n g t h e r e b u i l d i n g o f t h e Temple. He u r g e d t h e p e o p l e

t o work a t t h e same t i m e t h a t he announced t h e dawn o f t h e e r a of blessing. The use o f t h e t e r m ' r e m n a n t '

(nmm)

stemmed f r o m I s a i a h ' s i d e n t i f y i n g a s u r v i v i n g segment o f t h e people a f t e r n a t i o n a l catastrophe. I n t h a t sense t h e 'rem-

n a n t ' t i t l e a c c o r d e d a c e r t a i n d i g n i t y t o t h e community as w e l l as acknowledged t h e r e a l i z a t f o n o f hope: t h e people

were t o r e c o g n i z e t h e i r s p i r i t u a l h e r i t a g e i n t h e w r i t i n g s of t h e former p r o p h e t s and t h e i r p l a c e i n God's p l a n . Yahweh

had t u r n e d t o them t o do good, n o t because o f t h e i r c o l l e c t i v e r e t u r n t o H i m (cp.

1 : 3 and t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n w h i c h

r e q u i r e d i n d i v i d u a l i s t i c r e s p o n s e ) b u t because He had g r a c i o u s l y chosen t o do so (l:l6). Z e c h a r i a h i n f e r r e d t h a t t h e f u t u r e change w h i c h t h e p e o p l e w o u l d e x p e r i e n c e was more than a s i m p l e r e c o v e r y of t h e i r way o f l i f e p r i o r t o t h e e x i l e , b u t l e s s t h a n t h e dreams for some k i n d o f a ' g o l d e n age'. P r o s p e r i t y was

promised, so t h a t t h e community w o u l d d w e l l on a h i g h e r p l a n e a f t e r t h e c o m p l e t i o n o f t h e Temple.

No m e n t i o n was made o f

t h e t o p o l o g i c a l changes w h i c h were f o u n d i n

Is. 2, Ezek.

184

40-48 and Zech. 14; Zechariah envisioned simple e x i s t e n c e 495 centered around the Temple and b l e s s e d by Yahweh.

Zechariah b r i e f l y mentioned some b a s i c e t h i c a l demands

within t h i s framework.

These demands were too c o n c i s e and

l i m f t e d to be a f u l l p i c t u r e o f the w i l l o f God f o r the community, nor were they the s o l e demands o f the covenant.

The

e t h i c a l emphasis o f p r e - e x i l i c prophecy was reproduced here

in c o n s i d e r a b l e diminution, b u t i t would be wrong t o l a b e l

t h i s simply a ' c a r r y - o v e r '
of prophetic thought.

Its dis-

j o i n t e d n e s s within the n a r r a t i v e l e n t i t some emphasis ( a t l e a s t within the thought o f the c o l l e c t o r ) ; t h e s e thoughts were important enough t o i n c l u d e , i n someone's eyes. Zecha-

riah's ' f a i l u r e ' t o mention the b a s i c o b l i g a t i o n s o f the

covenant must speak a g a i n s t P . R . Ackroyd's understanding of t h i s passage a s e x p r e s s i n g the 'contingent nature' o f the coming o f the f u t u r e age.
Many s c h o l a r s have i d e n t i f i e d 8:18-19 a s Z e c h a r i a h ' s 496 immedlate response t o the q u e s t i o n posed i n 7 : l - 3 . HOW-

e v e r , he could n o t have advocated the adoption o f t h e f e a s t s , f o r the change was y e t i n the f u t u r e . Rather he was a s s e r -

t i n g t h a t the matrix o f j o y and b l e s s i n g ( o f which the f e a s t s

were r e p r e s e n t a t i v e ) w o u l d draw the nations t o Jerusalem t o

worship a t the Temple, seeking the Jews t o a s s t s t them in
P.R. Ackroyd, o c i t . , p.217n.155. Cf, H.6. Mitche I , op, c f t . , p.215.

495.

496.

. -e

185
f i n d i n g Yahweh's b l e s s i n g (8:20-23).

This s t r o n g l y echoed

the sentiments o f I s . 61:6 and was w h o l l y a n t i p a t h e t i c t o the Zadokite s t r a t e g y o f r e s t r i c t i n g t h e priesthood and the o f f i c e s which mediated the d i v i n e b l e s s i n g t o the common people. Zech. 7:4-8:23 e x i s t s in a form o f the covenant renewal
the

form recognized elsewhere i n the O l d Testament ( e . g .

S i n a i e x p e r i e n c e , Exod. 3 4 , and the Maccabean r e v o l t , Dan. 9 ) .

The form's f e a t u r e s were: 1 ) an account o f the p a s t behavior
o f the p a r t i e s , i n c l u d i n g the v i o l a t i o n s o f the covenant

agreement ( a l s o c a l l e d the antecedent h i s t o r y ) ; 2 ) the new i n i t i a t i v e t o r e i n s t i t u t e the covenant; 3 ) t h e b l e s s i n g s which were s a i d t o accrue t o a f a i t h f u l adherence t o the

c o n d i t i o n s o f the covenant; 4 ) the c r u c i a l i n s t i t u t i o n o f

the covenant; and 5 ) the s e r i e s o f commandslstipulations o f 497 the covenant. This passage can be d i v i d e d a l o n g these

l i n e s as f o l l o w s :
20-23;

1 ) 7:4-14;

2 ) 8:1-3aa;

3 ) 8:3ab-7,10-15,

4 ) 8:8; and 5 ) 7:8-10, 8:9,16-17,19b.

The covenant form seems t o have enjoyed much use in the p o s t - e x i l i c community, with l a t e r occurrences a l s o f o u n d a t
11. Chron. 2 9 , Ezra 9 and Neh. 9.

These forms were f o u n d , dfstinctly

however, i n passages o f h i s t o r i c a l narratives-a d i f f e r e n t c o n t e x t than the p r o p h e t i c writings.

497. K O B a l t z e r , The Covenant Formulary, p.62; for the section on t h e renewal o f a covenant, c f . p p . 3 9 f f .

186

V.

Zechariah 1-8 (Conclusion) The message o f the prophet Zechariah was d i r e c t e d t o

the Jewish community o f h i s day and that message was d e e p l y i n f l u e n c e d by the prophets o f the e x i l e : Jeremiah ( t o a Scholars a r e

l e s s e r d e g r e e ) , Ezekiel a n d Deutero-Isaiah.

almost of a m i n d t h a t Zechariah saw himself in the mold of the p r o p h e t i c f i g u r e s o f the p a s t , r a t h e r than a s an innova.

tor of r e l i g i o u s t r a d i t i o n s ; t h e r e was l i t t l e i n these

chapters which was not foreshadowed in the w r i t i n g s o f the e a r l i e r prophets. In that Zechariah encouraged the r e b u i l -

d i n g o f the Temple a n d recognized the a u t h o r i t y o f J o s h u a

and Z e r u b b a b e l , he a f f i r m e d the o f f i c i a l theology o f the pre-exilic state.

498

Zechariah analyzed the causes o f the e x i l e ( c f . 1 9 - 6 ,

7:4-14)

with the c o n v i c t i o n t h a t i t occupied a s i g n i f i c a n t

p l a c e in the h i s t o r y o f I s r a e l , both as c o n t i n u i t y with the p a s t a n d as a water-shed event p r e p a r a t o r y t o a new a c t of God. According t o G . von R a d , Zechariah discounted the r e -

turn o f the e x i l e s and d e p r i v e d i t o f any d i g n i t y as a

s a v i n g event.
499

Von Rad's a n a l y s i s f a i l e d t o take i n t o

account that Zechariah was speaking t o a people who had a l ready returned t o the land and was speaking with the assump-

498. 499.

3. Bright, o c f t . , pp.353f. 6 . von Rad, Id-stament Theology I f , p . 2 8 6 .

. %

tion that Yahweh had led them. exiles (cf. 2:6-7)

True, the reference to the

i n Zechariah's message d i d not have the

same intensity o f Deutero-Isaiah, but it was a reminder that the former prophet's ministry had a pervasive effect u p o n the whole community (including Zechariah).
It seems more con-

sistent to view the paucity of references to the return as a result o f Zechariah's orientation to God's new beginning and of his position chronologically subsequent to it. For Zechariah, the restoration meant the arrival of the time o f blessing.

I n von Rad's phraseology, this meant

'the new eschatological act of Yahweh' had freed the Jews

a n d they were l i v i n g on the threshold of Deutero-Isaiah's
500

future age.
.

This 'new age' of Deutero-Isaiah, with its

visible signs (Is. 4 4 9 6 - 2 8 ) , was influential upon Zechariah's message.

T h e relationship o f . the Night-Visions to historical

reality is important to understand.

501

It appears that the

visions were comprehensible apart from the sources of the

i mag ery

and that the scenes were not particularly vital

502

to the thrusts of the visions;

invariably the interpreta-

tion supplied by the interpreting angel was all-important (whereas the images alone were capable of innumerable interpretations), without any substantial connection to the scene
500.

501. Visions as a 'combat-cycle'Tthout reference to the imagery. 502. W.A.M. Beuken, op. cit., p.237; D.R. Jones, op. ci t p.32.

6. von Rad, O J . ctt., pp.118,243ff. Cf. B. Halpern, art. cit., who analyred the Night-

188

itself.

One i s j u s t i f i e d i n looking upon the vision-scene f o r the key thought o f the v i s i o n .

a s 'window-dressing'

have f o u n d no s i g n i f i c a n c e in the d e t a i l s of the v i s i o n scenes, such a s the c o l o r s o f the horses in the f i r s t a n d l a s t v i s i o n s , and I b e l i e v e that no importance was attached

t o these d e t a i l s which modern s c h o l a r s h i p can d e t e c t in

t h e i r present form. The images,seem t o have been s e l e c t e d

t o complement themes a l r e a d y p r e s e n t in Z e c h a r i a h ' s mind.

There i s a q u e s t i o n on the c h r o n o l o g i c a l sequence t o the N i g h t - V i s i o n s .
503

While each scene d i d r e f e r t o the

g e n e r a l p e r i o d o f the r e s t o r a t i o n , some o f the v i s i o n s s l i p the r e s t r a i n t s o f time and space a n d a r e s e t i n the world above. While Zechariah has o b v i o u s l y subordinated chronology

and h i s t o r i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e t o t h e o l o g i c a l c o n v i c t i o n , t h e r e

does appear t o have been a l o g i c a l sequence o f t h o u g h t ( e s p e c i a l l y within the two sub-cycles,

1:8-3:lO

and 4 : l -

6:15) in the N i g h t - V i s i o n s .
At many p o i n t s Zechariah q u i e t l y circumvented the c u l t
and the priesthood t o draw a more ' s e c u l a r '

picture of He was f a r more

Yahweh's w i l l f o r the r e s t o r a t i o n community.

prophet t h a n p r i e s t ; he never couched h i s messages in the 504 form o f p r i e s t l y i n s t r u c t i o n a s d l d E z e k i e l . He w a s , of c o u r s e , aware o f the c e n t r a l i t y o f the Temple and the p l a c e of the p r i e s t h o o d , b u t he has n o t emphasized them n e a r l y a s
503. C f . L O G . R l g n e l l , c i t . , p . 1 3 4 , who argued d

O J .

9.

cit p.245, and W. Rudolph, ferent sides of this issue.

- O S

189 much as other p o s t - e x i l i c prophets ( o r as much as he could 505 have). There were no commands to uphold the p u r i t y o r s a n c t i t y of the c u l t . One cannot press Zechariah 1-8 i n t o a mold formed by the writings of other prophets; the uniqueness o f the prop h e t ' s message cannot be s a ' c r i f i c e d to general trends and statements about prophecy. common with T r i t o - I s a i a h Zechariah's thought h a s more i n

t h a n with H a g g a i , w h i l e h i s p r a g -

matic emphasis r e s t e d upon the Temple ( a g a i n s t which T r i t o -

I s a i a h r a i l e d , I s . 66:1-4).

He ministered during a p e r i o d

o f transition/preparation/expectation, a n e r a unique in i t s

formulative forces. The tension between the r e a l conditions o f l i f e and the i d e a l dimensions o f Yahweh's plan f o r I s r a e l i n h i s t o r y presented problems f o r i n t e r p r e t e r s . Zechariah spoke o f the w h i l e m a k i n g an exThe

beginning o f the b l e s s e d .era ( 8 : l l f f . ) ,

p l i c i t d i s t i n c t i o n between the present and f u t u r e time.

two p e r i o d were not regarded as a n t i t h e t i c a l b u t a s p a r t s of

a c o n t i n u i t y f e a t u r i n g a s e r i e s o f events wherein the f u t u r e promised would g r a d u a l l y supplant the p r e s e n t . The culmina-

t i n g event o f t h i s s e r i e s would i n v o l v e the g l o r i f i c a t i o n o f

Yahweh by the n a t i o n s .

I t was within t h i s context t h a t

and the

Zechariah spoke o f the 'day o f small t h i n g s ' ( 4 : l O )

504. W. Zimmerli, 'The S p e c i a l Form- and T r a d i t i o h i s t o r t c a l Character o f E z e k i e l ' s Prophecy', VT x v (1965), p.523. 505. 3 . Lindblom, op, c i t . , p.421,

190 begi-nning of the new e r a (8:ll). C l e a r l y Zechariah saw the fortunes o f the p e o p l e suddenly and i r r e v o c a b l y a l t e r e d by Yahweh's turning t o them
with compassion a n d mercy (l:l6).

This c e n t r a l theme i l l u -

minated everything e l s e , f o r Zechariah b e l i e v e d t h a t o n l y Yahweh's a c t i o n could b r i n g about the b l e s s e d c o n d i t i o n s which had been s o a n t i c i p a t e d . For h i m , those b l e s s i n g s

were t o be the f u l f i l l m e n t o f p a s t prophecies and the means where-by

U

the n a t i o n s w o u l d j o i n the Jews as God's p e o p l e

(2: 11).
G o v o n Rad, i n h i s e x p o s i t i o n on the r i s e o f eschatov

l o g y , d e c l a r e d t h a t the prophets o f I s r a e l d i d n o t p o s s e s s

t h a t sense o f time whereby they could d i f f e r e n t i a t e between events i n h i s t o r y and events a t t h e end o f h i s t o r y ( o r a t the end o f the a g e ) .
506

Von Rad a s s e r t e d t h a t the c h i e f

which swept away t h e b a s i s Zechariah,

reason f o r the r i s e o f e s c h a t o l o g i c a l t h o u g h t was the manif e s t a t i o n o f judgment in 587 B . C .

for confidence i n Yahweh's w i l l i n g n e s s t o a c t .

however, p u t s t r e s s on h i s c o n t i n u i t y with the former prophets and on the f a c t t h a t Yahweh's r e l a t i o n s h i p with the 507 p e o p l e was an unbroken one.

I have d i s c u s s e d POD. Hanson's contention t h a t the

a p o c a l y p t i c brand o f e s c h a t o l o g y emerged when the p r o p h e t i c

506. G o von Rad, op. c i t . , pp.112-125. 507. Zech. 1:12 c o u l d b e i n t e r p r e t e d a s r e v e a l f n g ang e l i c impatience with Yahweh t o d o what they know He must do.

191 task o f integrating 'vision' the 'visionary' (i.e. i n t o h i s t o r y was a b d i c a t e d b y 508 the prophet). H i s v i e w t u r n e d on

the r o l e o f h i s t o r y i n the prophets' p r e d i c t i v e assertions. B o t h E z e k i e l and Z e c h a r i a h a d d r e s s e d themselves t o h i s t o r i c a l a c t s o f Yahweh w i t h o u t r e g a r d f o r i d e n t i f y i n g a c t u a l human agents i n t h a t a c t i v i t y . E z e k i e l ' s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f such

e v e n t s was f a c i l i t a t e d b y t h e f a c t t h a t t h e a r m i e s o f B a b y l o n were c o n v e n i e n t l y c l o s e ,
by E z e k i e l ( c f .

if somewhat i n n a c u r a t e l y d e s c r i b e d
Zechariah, however, d i d n o t

Ezek. 8-11).

e n j o y t h e same l u x u r y , e x c e p t i n s o f a r a s t h e P e r s i a n s c o u l d have been r e g a r d e d a s a t y p e o f f u t u r e a g g r e s s o r s . The q u e s t i o n o f Z e c h a r i a h ' s r e l a t i o n s h i p t o t h e prophe. t i c and a p o c a l y p t i c movements i s , as I have d e m o n s t r a t e d , p l a g u e d by vagueness o f d e f i n i t i o n and i n c o m p l e t e n e s s o f detail. I n t h e v i e w o f A , Weiser, Zechariah's innovations l a y

in t h e a r e a o f h i s v i s i o n a r y a c t i v i t y ( w h i c h Z e c h a r i a h i n t e g r a t e d i n t o t h e o l d e r p r o p h e t i c t r a d i t i o n s and m o r a l demands - 509 and t h e c u r r e n t s a l v a t i o n c o n c e p t s o f h i s day); The J e w i s h r e l i g i o n as i t d e v e l o p e d t o o k t h e r o a d f r o m E z e k i e l b y way o f Z e c h a r i a h t o t h e a p o c a l y p t i c hope o f dudaism. W e i s e r a p p e a r e d t o pay no a t t e n t i o n t o t h e l i n e s o f conn e c t i o n i n o t h e r p r o p h e t i c s t r a n d s , as he t h e o r l z e d on t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e a p o c a l y p t i c movement.

I n t h e same way,

508. 509, pp.271f.

P O D . Hanson, op. c i t . , p.11. A . Weiser, I n t r o d u c t i o n t o t h e O l d Testament,

,e'.

192

H. Gese l a b e l l e d the Night-Visions a s the o l d e s t ' a p o c a l y p s e '

i n r e f e r e n c e t o t h e i r d e t a i l e d d e s c r i p t i o n s , mysterious symbolism and the appearance o f the i n t e r p r e t i n g a n g e l .
G.A.
510

S m i t h d i s c e r n e d what he d e s c r i b e d a s Z e c h a r i a h ' s

i n a b i l i t y t o p r o j e c t God's v i c t o r y i n h i s t o r i c a l terms a s

the p o i n t where Zechariah departed from the o l d e r prophets and preceded the l a t e r a p o c a l y p t i c w r i t e r s . For Zechariah,

t h e r e were no p o l i t i c a l means whereby the expected overthrow

o f the n a t i o n s could be accornplished. He d e c l a r e d t h a t the

'smiths and c h a r i o t s ' were not r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f h i s t o r i c a l

r e a l i t y b u t d i v i n e powers ready t o invade h i s t o r y .

511

It

was p r e c i s e l y t h i s k i n d o f judgment which S. Mowinckel r e j e c t e d in h i s a n a l y s i s o f Zechariah 1-8.

He argued t h a t the

message o f Zechariah had nothing t o do with events o f an end-time.

Within the r e s t o r a t i o n e r a , Zechariah a w a i t e d h i s -

t o r ' i c a l r e v o l u t i o n , wherein I s r a e l m i g h t remain unscathed t o r e a p the b e n e f i t s . The f i g u r e s o f the N i g h t - V i s i o n s were

those which worked behind and through natural a g e n c i e s ; their p l a c e in t h e N i g h t - V i s i o n s was d i c t a t e d by the prophet's 512 r e l i g i o u s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f the world.

C, Jeremias, i n h i s study o f the Night-Visions a s they

r e l a t e d t o the other v i s f o n texts o f the O l d Testament, concluded that Zechariah stood between prophecy and the apocaH. Gese, art. c f t . , p . 2 4 . G.A. Smith,'. c f t . , p.281. S . Mowinckel, op. c i t . , pp.12lf.

511.
512.

510.

193

l y p t i c movement. grounds:

He based t h i s conclusion on l i t e r a r y

1 ) t h e r e were prophetic c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s i n Zecha-

r I a h not f o u n d i n Daniel and 2 ) t h e r e were f e a t u r e s shared

by Zechariah and Daniel which were absent i n prophetic 513 w r i t i n g s p r i o r t o Zechariah. He r e j e c t e d H . Gese's a r g u -

ment on the grounds that Gese had not been sharp enough in d e f i n i n g h i s terms. 514 Gese.
W.

Rudolph supported Jeremias a g a i n s t

P O D . Hanson's work has been q u i t e h e l p f u l i n i d e n t i f y i n g

t h e dynamics Involved in p l a c i n g Zechariah 2-8 within the

p r o p h e t i c - a p o c a l y p t i c continuum.

He argued that Zechariah

r e a f f i r m e d the future-oriented/eschatological

element which

had been introduced by E z e k i e l .

Zechariah t i e d i t t o the

Temple r e b u i l d i n g p r o j e c t a n d t o the p o l i t i c a l program o f the 515 Jewish community's l e a d e r s . Zechariah s i d e d with t h i s l e a d e r s h i p i n such a way that h i s p r o p h e t i c o f f i c e gave sup-

port t o t h e i r d e s i g n s on t o t a l community c o n t r o l , a p o s i t i o n
which accorded l i t t l e sympathy t o the e s c h a t o l o g i c a l programs
o f o t h e r , l e s s p o w e r f u l , groups.

516

Hanson contrasted

Zechariah 1-8 with Deutero-Zechariah by s t a t i n g t h a t the f o r mer supported the communi ty l e a d e r s h i p a g a i n s t i t s opponents
and t h e l a t t e r embodied a movement o f i n c r e a s i n g h o s t i l i t y

toward e x i s t i n g community l e a d e r s and i n s t i t u t i o n s .

513, C . Jeremias, op. c i t . , pp.226-230. 514. W. Rudolph, O J . c r , p.134. 515. P O D . Hanson, o . T t . , p p . 2 4 6 f . 516. P . D . Hanson, 4 o o n f Z e c h a r i a h ' , XDBSup, ed. K O Crim, p.983.

194

I t was t h i s mental a t t i t u d e toward the p r e s e n t , r e presented by its s t r u c t u r e s , t h a t Hanson i d e n t i f i e d as the source o f the a p o c a l y p t i c m e n t a l i t y a n d used t o d i s c e r n the p a t h o f the development of a p o c a l y p t i c . The unfortunate

t h i n g was t h a t he d i d not c o n s i d e r the r o l e o f I s r a e l vis-a-

v i s the nations a s a necessary c o r o l l a r y t o h i s hypothesis;

the same mental a t t i t u d e may be discerned in other prophets f a v o r a b l e t o the theocracy ( c f . Haggai a n d J o e l ; Z e c h a r f a h ' s p o s i t i o n concerning the f a t e o f the nations was unique, b u t t h a t d i d n o t alter the f a c t t h a t he viewed them as enemies
o f God t o be overcome by H i m ) .

R.J.

Bauckham was c o r r e c t in s t a t i n g ( c o n t r a Hanson)

t h a t the d i s t i n c t i v e a s p e c t o f Zechariah 1-8 was the focus 517 o f ' a p o c a l y p t i c hopes' on the e a r l y p o s t - e x i l i c e r a . For

Bauckham, Zechariah was a prophet w h o r e l i e d u p o n h i s pred e c e s s o r s f o r the typology o f h i s constructions of the f u t u r e . When h i s t o r i c a l r e a l i t i e s proved i n c a p a b l e o f measuring up t o h i s hopes, some adjustments had t o be made ( b u t we have l i t t l e c l u e as t o what adjustments Zechariah made or when he made them).
K O Koch examined the a p o c a l y p t i c writings i n o r d e r t o

i s o l a t e c e r t a i n f o r m - c r i t i c a l elements unique t o the apocalyptic literature. He was not d e a f t o the k i n d o f argument

517.

R.3. Bauckham, art. c i t . , p.12.

195

t h a t Hanson used t o r e j e c t l i t e r a r y a n a l y s i s a s the b a s i s o f d e f i n i n g a p o c a l y p t i c , b u t he a s s e r t e d :

518

. . . t h e r e a r e f e a t u r e s of t h e t e x t whlch ...convey the impression that t h e r e r e a l l y was something l i k e an a p o c a l y p t i c t y p e o f writing. He d i s c e r n e d : d i s c o u r s e c y c l e s , remarks of s p i r i t u a l tur-

m o i l , p a r a e n e t i c d i s c o u r s e s / i n t r o d u c t o r y l e g e n d s , pseudomity, mythical images r i c h i n symbolism, composite l i t e r a r y 519 a s l i t e r a r y f e a t u r e s . A l s o , he found u r g e n t character,

e x p e c t a t i o n , cosmic c a t a s t r o p h e , d e t e r m i n i s m / h i s t o r i c a l p e r i o d i z a t i o n , a n g e l s and demons, s a l v a t i o n beyond c a t a s t r o p h e , t r a n s i t i o n o r d e r e d by G o d , a r o y a l m e d i a t o r , a f l n a l 520 state o f affairs, a s indicative o f a h i s t o r i c a l movement. S i n c e i t i s c l e a r that Z e c h a r i a h 1-8 d i d not c o n t a i n a l l t h e f e a t u r e s i d e n t i f i e d by Koch a n d o t h e r s s c h o l a r s , i t a p p e a r s t h a t t h o s e who view t h e s e c h a p t e r s a s r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f a n i n t e r m e d i a t e , l i t e r a r y s t a g e between prophecy and apocalyptic are correct. Concerning the c o n t i n u i t y based on

mental a t t i t u d e , Hanson w a s c o r r e c t i n l i m i t i n g t h e i n f l u e n c e o f Z e c h a r i a h on the l a t e r p r o p h e t i c movement a n d a p o c a l y p t i c 521 t o the a r e a s o f m o t i f s and the g e n r e o f a p o c a l y p s e ; Z e c h a r i a h 1-8 d i d n o t convey an i n t e n s i t y o f e x p r e s s i o n t h a t Hanson r e q u i r e d .

518.

519. 520. 521.

K O Koch, The R e d i s c o v e r y of A p o c a l y p t i c , p.24. I b i d . , pp.24-28. Ibid., pp.28-33. P . D , Hanson, art. c i t . , p.983.

196

M a k i n g a comprehensive judgment upon Z e c h a r i a h 1-8, however, i s not as e a s y a s i t may appear a t f i r s t r e a d i n g . There i s a b a l a n c e t o t h e composition which v a n i s h e s when t h e v a r i o u s messages a r e a n a l y z e d s e p a r a t e l y . found p l a c e d s i d e - b y - s i d e ;
high-flown

Extremes a r e

expectations.

c a u t i o u s statements combined with 522 HOG. M i t c h e l l summarized:

The most n o t i c e a b l e t h i n g about Zechar i a h ' s t e a c h i n g , a s a whole, i s i t s s i m p l i c i t y and s o b r t e t y : which i s e q u i v a l e n t t o s a y i n g t h a t the p r o p h e t , though n o t a s g r e a t a s some o f h i s p r e d e c e s s o r s , was w e l l adapted f o r the task t o which he b e l i e v e d h i m s e l f commissioned. It was a day o f small t h i n g s . In such circumstances some would have been provoked t o e x t r a v a g a n c e , a s i f i t were a v i r t u e t o l o o k f o r t h a t which t h e r e a r e no grounds f o r e x p e c t i n g . He looked f o r g r e a t e r a n d b e t t e r t h i n g s , b u t he d i d not a l l o w h i m s e l f o r h i s p e o p l e t o e x p e c t them t o come o v e r n i g h t , o r remain, e x c e p t on v e r y p r o s a i c c o n d t t i o n s , and i t was h i s s o b r i e t y t h a t f f t t e d h i m f o r l e a d e r s h i p d u r i n g the Restoration.
Z e c h a r i a h ' s moderatjon, within a m i l i e u which c o n t a i n e d c a l l s f o r e x t r a v a g a n t change a s w e l l a s adjustment t o t h e r e a l cond i t i o n s of l i f e , gave h i s message i t s uniqueness; i t a l s o tempered h i s c o n t r i b u t i o n t o the development o f the p r o p h e t i c movement. Excursus: The Transmission o f Z e c h a r i a h ' s Messages

Prior t o modern t i m e s , s c h o l a r s had not been tn a p o s l t i o n t o do much i n the way o f e d i t o r i a l , r e d a c t i o n a l o r

522.

i tchell HA. M

-. ct t

p p . 103f

197 textual-historical r e s e a r c h on Zechariah 1-8. The e d i t o r i a l

framework o f the book ( l : l , 1 : 7 , 7 : l - 3 )

was recognized a n d The iden-

was a t t r i b u t e d to someone o t h e r t h a n the prophet.

t i t y of t h i s e d i t o r was unknown, although he was presumed t o be some s o r t of f o l l o w e r of Zechariah. However, the e x i s t e n c e

and nature o f a Zecharian ' d i s c i p l e - g r o u p '

h a s a b s o l u t e l y no

support from a v a i l a b l e evidence. The work o f W.A.M. Beuken and O.H. Steck suggested t h a t

c e r t a i n s e c t i o n s o f the prophet's messages formed a t r a n s i t i o n a l s t a g e between the deuteronomistic teaching formulae

a n d the l a t e r L e v i t i c a l sermon-form.
523

This connection

threw a d d i t i o n a l l i g h t upon the arguments o f 0 . P l 6 g e r a n d

P O D . Hanson.

I t became c l e a r e r t h a t Zechariah 1-8 was con-

s t r u c t e d w i t h i n the t h e o c r a t i c c i r c l e s o f the o f f i c i a l p o l i t i c a l and r e l i g i o u s l e a d e r s h i p o f the p o s t - e x i l i c p e r i o d . I t h a s been noted t h a t the d a t i n g formulae in the b o o k s 524 of E z e k i e l , Haggai a n d Zechariah 1-8 a r e s i m i l a r . The conclusion based upon t h i s o b s e r v a t i o n was that a common en525 t i t y was r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h i s e d i t o r i a l a c t i v i t y . It would n o t be an unwarranted s t e p t o assume t h a t t h i s a c t i v i t y was centered a r o u n d the Temple ( t h e focus o f the r e l i g i o u s p o l i t i c a l l e a d e r s h i p o f the Jewish community), s i n c e a l l t h r e e prophets e x h i b i t e d c l o s e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n with the r e s t o -

523. W . A . M . Beuken, op. c ' i t . , pp.331-336; Op. c i t . , pp.80s137-144. 5 2 4 . C O Jeremias, c f t . , ppO42,91. 525. W . Zimmerll, zech-iel, v o l . 1 , p.23.

. ?i

O.H.

Steck,

198

r a t i o n o f t h e i n s t i t u t i o n s o f the p e o p l e in the l a n d ( i . e . t h e Temple a n d i t s p r i e s t h o o d ) . Z e c h a r i a h assumed a r o l e o f some importance i n t h e r e b u i l d i n g of t h e Temple.

T h i s a l o n e would have proved s u f f i -

c i e n t reason f o r t h e c i r c l e s within the Temple l e a d e r s h i p t o c o l l e c t h i s u t t e r a n c e s and t o p r e s e r v e them in w r i t t e n form ( i f o n l y a s a memorial o f h i s m i n i s t r y ) . There would have

been no impetus f o r t h e s e c i r c l e s t o hold t o Z e c h a r i a h ' s p e c u l i a r views r e g a r d i n g the community, the n a t i o n s and the f u t u r e ; he c o u l d be remembered, through t h e c o l l e c t i o n o f h i s messages, a s a p r o p h e t who motivated h i s f e l l o w Jews t o 526 complete a worthy p r o j e c t .

W.A.M.

Beuken has p o i n t e d o u t t h a t the p a s s a g e s Zech. b e a r a s i m i l a r i t y t o the L e v i t i c a l sermon-

1:Z-6 a n d 7:4-14

form found i n the C h r o n i c l e s , i n a way whfch o v e r s t a t e d t h e i n f l u e n c e o f L e v i t i c a l c i r c l e s on the Z e c h a r i a n m a t e r i a l . It

remains beyond doubt t h a t t h e r e was a connection between the two ( c f . Zech. 1:3-4
a n d I 1 Chron. 30:6-9;

a l s o the quote o f

Zech. 4 : l O b in I 1 Chron. 1 6 : 9 ) , b u t that argument does n o t l e a d t o the c o n c l u s i o n t h a t l a t e r L e v i t i c a l a u t h o r s were r e s p o n s i b l e f o r p a s s a g e s in Z e c h a r i a h 1-8. There i s no e v b

5 2 6 . T h e name o f Z e c h a r f a h , with that of H a g g a i , was mentioned by t h e a u t h o r o f Ezra in two p l a c e s ( k l , 6 : 1 4 ) . T h i s f a c t was r e m a r k a b l e o n l y in t h a t t h e messages o f the prophets were n o t reproduced; the prophets themselves and their m i n i s t r i e s , which were connected t o the Temple r e b u i l d i n g p r o j e c t , were remembered p r e c i s e l y because o f t h a t c o n n e c t i o n with the Temple. T h e i r messages, a s i t were, appeared t o be secondary ( i f c o n s i d e r e d a t a l l ) .

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dence c o n t r a i n d i c a t i n g the c o n c l u s i o n t h a t Zechariah 1-8 was i n c l u d e d i n a body o f m a t e r i a l from which sermon t e x t s were e x t r a c t e d and t h a t t h e sermon-form o f Z e c h a r i a h was i n c l u d e d among the p a t t e r n s upon which t h e L e v i t i c a l Temple s p e a k e r s constructed t h e i r homfletical s t y l e . These arguments r e s u l t i n t h e c o n c l u s i o n that, a l t h o u g h Z e c h a r i a h may have been i n f l u e n c e d by D e u t e r o - I s a i a h a n d had a r e a s o f sympathy with t h e T r i t o - I s a i a n i c a u t h o r s , he and h i s messages were c u t o f f f r o m t h i s l a t t e r c i r c l e because o f h i s r o l e vis-;-vis the Temple a n d h i s s u p p o r t of the o f f i c i a l The l a t e r p o s t - e x i l i c prophets d i d not

community l e a d e r s .

f o l l o w Z e c h a r i a h ' s example i n many a r e a s , c r e a t i n g a s t r o n g s e n s e o f d i s c o n t i n u i t y a f t e r Z e c h a r i a h a n d the c o l l e c t i o n o f h i s messages.

Z E C H A R I A H A N D THE L A T E R P R O P H E T I C M O V E M E N T ; ZECHARIAH 1-8 A N D

THE A P O C A L Y P T I C LITERATURE

I.

Introduction The a n a l y s i s o f t h e r o l e o f Z e c h a r i a h 1-8 i n the d e v e l o p -

ment o f a p o c a l y p t i c must take i n t o account a two-fold ence:

influ-

Z e c h a r i a h 1-8 s u r v i v e d a s a reflection o f Z e c h a r i a h ' s

m f n i s t r y and a l s o a s t h e r e c o r d o f t h a t m i n i s t r y . I t cont a i n e d t h o s e messages d e l i v e r e d by the prophet a n d p r e s e r v e d

by t h e p e o p l e o f h i s day (however t h i s p r o c e s s may have oc-

curred).

The t a s k s a s s i g n e d t o s c h o l a r s h i p a r e 1 ) coming t o

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terms with the meaning Zechariah intended t o convey i n h i s messages a n d 2 ) a c c u r a t e l y d e s c r i b i n g the i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s p l a c e d upon those messages by subsequent generations. Zechariah 1-8 r e f l e c t e d , t o some d e g r e e , Zechariah's thought a n d h i s i n t e r a c t i o n with the i n t e l l e c t u a l , s o c i a l and t h e o l o g i c a l currents within the community o f h i s day.
I n so

s t a t i n g t h i s , I am a l s o conscious t h a t an e d i t o r o r r e d a c t o r
h a d a hand i n s e l e c t i n g the m a t e r i a l and b r i n g i n g i t t o g e t h e r , b u t I have r e j e c t e d the notion t h a t a s u b s t a n t i a l p o r t i o n o f

i t proceeded from minds other t h a n Z e c h a r i a h ' s (although t h i s

argument i s a c t u a l l y secondary t o m y e s s e n t i a l l i n e of reasoning). In the l a r g e r context, i n Zechariah 1-8 was f o u n d the c r y s t a l l i z a t i o n o f one segment o f one strand o f the p r o p h e t i c movement. There was the acknowledgement o f debts to e a r l i e r

p r o p h e t i c w r i t i n g s a n d the p o t e n t i a l o f i n f l u e n c e upon the l a t e r s t a g e s o f the movement.

T h i s understanding was b u i l t

upon the evidence o f a development within the prophetic o f f i c e and a connectedness between the canonical representat i v e s o f the prophetic movement ( a n d between each prophet and his respective historical situation). 527 assumed by Zechariah was The prophetic h e r i t a g e p a r t i a l l y reflected i n t h e messages o f Zecharfah 1-8 (the c o l l e c t i o n o f h i s preserved messages). Only a p o r t i o n o f

527. T h i s i s n o t intended a s a formal construct b u t a s an i n d i c a t i o n o f Zechariah's awareness o f h i s p r e d e c e s s o r s .

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Zechariah's messages were passed on, probably by a L e v i t i c a l 528 c i r c l e attached t o the Temple. However, i t w o u l d be unw i s e t o s p e c u l a t e further t h a n t h i s by proposing, f o r example, a group of personal d i s c i p l e s ; no s u p p o r t i n g evidence e x i s t s . The p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t Zechariah's i n f l u e n c e had a prolonged e f f e c t i n the Jewish community requtred i n v e s t i g a t i o n . I t remains an open q u e s t i o n as t o i n what degree t h i s occur-

red, for i t i s c l e a r t h a t l a t e r generations gave credence t o

the prophetic t h e o l o g i c a l t r a d i t i o n and recognized the l e g i 529 timacy of the p r o p h e t i c o f f i c e . Such a reference to this p r o p h e t i c t r a d i t i o n was found in the w r i t i n g s o f Ben Sira with the sequence and content of h i s r e 530 marks d i c t a t e d by the p r o p h e t i c 'canon' o f h i s day. The passage in Ben S i r a ' s teaching ( c . 180 B . C . ) enabled (Ecclus. 48-49),

the i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f the second r o l e Zechariah 1-8 played i n the development o f l a t e r t h e o l o g i c a l thought ( a s a r e c o r d of

a prophet's a c t i v i t y ) :
'Minor Prophets'.

Ben Sira r e f e r r e d to the ' t w e l v e

prophets' ( 4 9 : 1 0 ) , an obvious a l l u s i o n o f the modern c a t e g o r y

Here the prophets were represented by w r i t i n g s attached t o t h e i r names, w r i t i n g s detached from h i s t o r i c a l s e t t i n g s and accorded an enhanced standing. Zechariah 1-8 was read a s

528. Cf. W,A.M. Beuken, Haggai-Sacharja 1-8. 529. 0 . P l o g e r , Theocracy and k s c h a t o l o pp. 42-46 530. I have used the term 'canon' q u i t e o s e l y , taking up the assumption t h a t Ben S i r a made an e a r l y r e f e r e n c e t o a c o l l e c t f o n o f p r o p h e t i c w r i t i n g s which informed our understanding o f the development o f the modern concept o f 'canon'.

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a small p o r t i o n of the Book o f the Twelve, perceived through

l a t e r belief-systems and i n t e r p r e t e d by the unique methods
of later g e n e r a t i o n s .

T h e o r e t i c a l l y , Zechariah 1-8 could

have had a continuing i n f l u e n c e upon the various s t a g e s o f Judaism s i m i l a r to Zechariah's i n f l u e n c e on the community of
520 B . C .

In r e a l i t y , however, t h i s d f d not happen.

There was l i t t l e evidence t o s u g g e s t t h a t Zechariah 1-8 was read by l a t e r generations a s an i n d i v i d u a l composition d e s e r v i n g a s p e c i a l hearing.
I t was regarded a s b u t one

part o f the prophetic Book of the Twelve.

Moreover, t h i s

comprehensive prophetic v o i c e was l a r g e l y fi1 tered through the i n d i v i d u a l ' s / g r o u p ' s preconceptions concerning S c r i p t u r e and the prophets' message ( e . g . Ben S i r a ' s p o r t r a i t o f a l l prophets a s proclaimers o f hope a n d comfort, 4 8 : 1 0 , a n d h i s d e s c r t p t i o n o f the prophets' hope f o r the end-time,
36:1-17).

531

I n s o f a r as i n d i v i d u a l s viewed the prophets a s

an homogeneous g r o u p and assumed them t o proclaim a common

message, they were not open t o r e c e i v e an accurate understanding o f the i n d i v t d u a l p r o p h e t i c message. In chapter two I reached the conclusion t h a t Zechariah was himself a s a f i g u r e standing by the concluding a c t of Yahweh's r e s t o r a t i o n , n o t a s a member o f a new generation o f

531. C f . B A . C h i l d s , I n t r o d u c t i o n t o the O l d Testament a s S c r i t u r e , pp.77-79. C h i l d s spoke o f the canonica e h i n d t v i d u a l compositions a s l a t e r g e n e r l t l o n s sought t o p l a c e the o r i g i n a l messages withln the message of the entjre canon. I have r e f e r r e d here t o the ' c o n d i t i o n e d r e c e p t i v i t y ' o f these l a t e r r e a d e r s .

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prophets.

He c o n s c i o u s l y a l i g n e d himself with the 'former

p r o p h e t s ' , p r e s e n t i n g the f u l f i l l m e n t o f t h e i r promises, s e e i n g himself as 1 4 v i n g a t the end o f t h e i r p r e d i c t e d e r a

a n d b r i n g i n g f o r t h no new message in the e x e r c i s i n g of h i s

office.

Zechariah 1-8 w a s made understandable by r e f e r e n c e s

t o the w r i t t e n messages of h i s predecessors; he cannot be

gauged by h i s s u c c e s s o r s .

There w a s , as we s h a l l s e e , l i t t l e

connecting Zechariah 1-8 to subsequent prophetic w r i t i n g s . Zechariah cannot be viewed a s an innovator. He d i d n o t

c o n t r i b u t e t o the development o f the p r o p h e t i c movement s i g n i f i c a n t l y in the manner o f a Jeremiah or a n E z e k i e l . He d i d

not r e c a s t the o l d e r t r a d i t i o n s o f I s r a e l t o bear new i n s i g h t s i n t o Yahweh's purposes a s had the e a r l i e r prophets. Rather,

he accepted a n d merged f e a t u r e s o f the e a r l i e r prophets a n d awaited the consummation o f t h e i r promises. He was supremely

a prophet o f an ' a l r e a d y - p r e d i c t e d '

restoration.

W e cannot e a s i l y i n t e r p r e t the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of Zecharfah 1-8 a s i n i t i a t o r y o f new trends in the p r o p h e t i c movement for t w o reasons. F i r s t , these c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s were

f o u n d i n e a r l i e r w r i t i n g s ( e s p e c i a l l y the e x i l f c prophets)
and r e c e n t s c h o l a r s h i p on Zechariah 1-8 has demonstrated a

g r e a t e r a f f i n i t y wi th the e a r l f e r prophetic w r i t i n g s than 532 with the l a t e r p r o p h e t i c and a p o c a l y p t i c works. Second, t h e c e n t u r i e s a f t e r Z e c h a r i a h ' s e r a y i e l d e d extremely l i t t l e

532. C f , C. Jeremias, D i e Nachtgesichte des S a c h a r j a , pp.107f.,226-230.

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d a t a with which t o b u i l d a conception o f . l a t e r p r o p h e t i c development. Zechariah. The p r o p h e t i c s t a g e was not revamped by

G o von Rad suggested t h a t the e x i l e had substan533

t i a l l y c l e a r e d that s t a g e .

While I do not e n t i r e l y a g r e e

with von Rad on t h i s p o i n t , I do recognize the s i g n i f i c a n c e

o f the message of hope o f the e x i l i c prophets and the im-

portance placed upon the e x i l i c prophets by l a t e r g e n e r a t i o n s

of Jews.
These e x i l i c prophets ( n o t the e a r l y p o s t - e x i l i c prop h e t s ) were strong i n f l u e n c e s upon l a t e r Judaism.
T h i s was

seen i n the interdependence between the e x i l i c prophets and the t h e o l o g i c a l streams which emerged from the e x i l e and which determined much in p o s t - e x i l i c Judaism. While Zechariah

belonged t o the p r o p h e t i c movement, Zechariah 1-8 achieved i t s f i n a l form under the a e g i s o f the p r i e s t l y - t h e o c r a t i c c i r c l e s .

His messages were n e i t h e r c r e a t o r nor s u s t a i n e r o f t h i s theol o g i c a l stream; they were c o n t r o . l l e d by i t . The evidence we have i n d i c a t e d that the prophets a f t e r Zechariah were l e s s commltted t o the use o f the immediate h i s t o r i c a l s e t t i n g a s the arena o f God's a c t i v i t y . The

march of i n t e r n a t i o n a l e v e n t s , which had so e f f e c t i v e l y served e a r l i e r prophets a s the context f o r t h e i r messages o f judgment and d e l i v e r a n c e , d i d n o t impinge s o immediately upon the Jews in the p o s t - e x i l i c p e r i o d (for they no longer con-

533.

6. von Rad, O l d Testament Theology 11, pp.270-272.

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s t i t u t e d an independent p o l i t i c a l n a t i o n ) .

The r e s t o r a t i o n

was viewed a s achieved o r , a l t e r n a t e l y , i t s hopes were postponed or f o r g o t t e n . However, r e s t o r a t i o n hopes were super-

ceded i n the minds of many Jews by the concept of Yahweh's Kingship manifested o v e r the whole world. This Kingship was

presented i n d e s c r i p t i o n s of e s c h a t o l o g i c a l events ( i n which l i t t l e energy was e x e r t e d t o connect the present t o t h a t f u t u r e ) o r was represented by s o l i t a r y h i s t o r i c a l instances o f d i v i n e power. Zechariah appeared as the l a s t prophet t o t h i n k as the p r e - e x i l i c a n d e x i l i c prophets h a d done, e n v i s i o n i n g events o c c u r r i n g imminently, caused by God, through which He would achieve H i s purposes f o r I s r a e l . t i o n s o f 520 B . C .
i n I s r a e l ' s past:

The i n t e r n a t i o n a l d i s r u p -

seemed t o echo the g r e a t moments of change the i n c u r s i o n s o f A s s y r i a a n d Babylon a n d

the l i b e r a t i o n from the l a t t e r by t h e P e r s i a n s . Z e c h a r i a h ' s N i g h t - V i s i o n s appeared t o b e l i e h i s i n t e r e s t

i n h i s t o r y a s Yahweh's medium f o r pursuing His w i l l .

They

seem t o g i v e evidence o f I ) d i r e c t heavenly i n t e r v e n t i o n and

2 ) the absence o f p o l i t i c a l a c t i v i t y i n any way r e l a t i n g to 534 the Jews. Taken a t f a c e v a l u e , t h i s impression would t i e

Zechariah t o h i s s u c c e s s o r s , who viewed Yahweh intervening

534. In chapter two, I showed t h a t Zechariah d i d not intend t o d e p i c t d i r e c t h i s t o r i c a l i n t e r v e n t i o n and t h a t he assumed the p o l i t i c a l f o r c e s 'were t h e r e ' ( i n terms o f the events o f t h e p a s t and ' w o u l d be t h e r e ' ( I n t h e f i n a l events of the r e s t o r a t i o n , i f necessary.

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for I s r a e l ' i n person' and not through h i s t o r k a l events.

C e r t a i n l y , the events through which Yahweh m i g h t have manif e s t e d Himself were not a s immediately a v a i l a b l e a s they had been p r i o r t o t h a t e r a . However, I have shown i t t o be i l l -

a d v i s e d t o i n t e r p r e t Zechariah 1-8 i n t h i s manner. In r e c e n t y e a r s , the accepted s c h o l a r l y view, which summarily c a t e g o r i z e d Zechariah 1-8 a s r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f a
s t a g e in the development o f prophecy toward a p o c a l y p t i c , has

come under a t t a c k .

0 , E i s s f e l d t , f o r example, s t a t e d that

the developmental p a t h of a p o c a l y p t i c was t o be t r a c e d from 535 Ezekiel through Zechariah. The reason f o r such an opinion i s clear: Zechariah 1-8 shared with the a p o c a l y p t i c l i t e r a These

ture more f e a t u r e s t h a n any o t h e r p r o p h e t i c book.

p e c u l i a r i t i e s were i n d i c a t i v e , t o many s c h o l a r s , o f a d e f i n i t e d e p a r t u r e from the standards o f the p r e - e x i l i c prophets and a p o s i t f v e step toward the q u a l i t i e s of t h e a p o c a l y p t i c

1i terature,
The c h a l l e n g e t o t h i s p o s i t t o n has been l e v e l l e d from two d i f f e r e n t d i r e c t i o n s , represented by the works o f S. MOwinckel and P.D. Hanson. Mowinckel argued t h a t Zecharlah 1-8

had t o be i n t e r p r e t e d i n l i g h t o f i t s predecessors and n o t 536 the p r o p h e t i c wrftings which came a f t e r , In e f f e c t , he s t a t e d t h a t the c r u c i a l ' p o l n t o f d e p a r t u r e ' toward apoca-

535. pp.433f. 536.

0 . E i S S f d d t , The O l d Testament: an I n t r o d u c t i o n ,
S. Mowinckel, He T h a t Cometh, pp.120-122.

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l y p t i c occurred i n the p r o p h e t i c movement a f t e r Zechariah, Hanson, n o t i n g t h a t Zechariah 1-8 d i d not r e f l e c t the a g g r t e v e d m e n t a l i t y he judged s o e s s e n t i a l i n the development
o f the a p o c a l y p t i c p e r s p e c t i v e ,

537

argued t h a t the develop-

mental path toward a p o c a l y p t i c bypassed Zechariah a n d i s t o be d i s c e r n e d elsewhere. I have accepted, i n essence, the arguments o f both Mowinckel and Nanson ( t h o u g h I would not e l i m i n a t e Zechariah from the developmental process a s completely a s Hanson appears t o ) . These arguments have placed s e r i o u s questions beThe

f o r e the t r a d i t i o n a l understanding o f Zechariah 1-8. e a r l i e r works o f 0 . P l 8 g e r a n d O.H.

Steck, together with Han-

son's work and the r e c e n t s u p p o r t i v e s c h o l a r s h i p , have

b r o u g h t f r e s h l i g h t t o the study of Zechariah's r o l e i n the

development o f a p o c a l y p t i c ; Hanson's works demand the invest i g a t i o n o f 1 ) the s o c i o l o g i c a l dynamics o f the p o s t - e x i l i c p e r i o d a n d 2 ) the nature of the multiple-strand prophetic movemen t o I have polnted out t h a t the l a t t e r part of the s i x t h century B . C . , the e r a o f Zechariah, f e a t u r e d the i n t e r a c t i o n

o f new concepts with o l d e r t r a d i t i o n s in a t o t a l l y new

situation.

I am not a s concerned with the r e s u l t a n t equi-

librium as much a s I am with the context o f Jewish thought

537, P O D , Hanson, The Dawn of Apocalyptic, pp.251f.; c f . the B i b l i o g r a p h y for Hanson's published works.

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i n t h i s period ( i . e .

the Jews' attempts to understand the

e x i l i c experience and t o p e r c e i v e the p a t h of Yahweh's favor). The return from e x i l e , which saw prophetic hopes dashed

on the rocky r e a l i t i e s o f hardship and disappointment, nevert h e l e s s d i d v a l i d a t e the f a i t h of many. Future generations were t o r e l a t e how Yahweh h a d r e v e a l e d Himself in the r e l e a s e from e x i l e a n d the r e s t o r a t i o n of the community i n J u d a h

(Ezra 1:103).

This u n d e r s t a n d h g was hammered o u t in the

e a r l y p o s t - e x i l i c y e a r s within the context o f community l i f e , I t may n o t have been the o v e r - r i d i n g i n t e r e s t o f every Jew; however, c e r t a i n p r o p h e t i c c i r c l e s a n d p o l i t i c a l groups,
.

which h a d vested i n t e r e s t s i n the events o f the r e s t o r a t i o n ,

d i d t h i n k on these m a t t e r s , each seeking t o demonstrate

Yahweh's involvement with the d e s t i n y o f the people a n d t o j u s t i f y i t s r o l e as the mediator o f God's presence t o the community, The f o l l o w i n g may be taken as a s i m p l i f i e d summary of the Jews' understanding o f p o s t - e x i l i c r e a l i t i e s (which i n cluded the i n h e r i t e d covenant with Yahweh, His 'absence' and

the i n h o s p i t a b l e c o n d i t i o n s i n the land, and His purpose i n

the f u t u r e ) :

a part o f the community assumed t h a t , c o n t r a r y

t o appearances, Yahweh was f a v o r a b l y i n c l i n e d toward the Jews. Some o f these groups b e l i e v e d i t only a matter o f time

b e f o r e t h e promises i n h e r e n t in the covenant would come t o 538 fruition, w h i l e o t h e r s proclaimed the n e c e s s i t y o f a fur-

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t h e r a c t o f Yahweh t o complete the r e s t o r a t i o n .
539

Another

segment of the people opposed t h i s assumption, t a k i n g the p o s i t i o n t h a t Yahweh remained unappeased and t h a t He r e q u i r e d Some b e l i e v e d t h a t 540 He demanded a properly-ordered Temple and c u l t u s ; others a s s e r t e d t h a t i n d i v i d u a l repentance and obedience t o Yahweh's 541 Torah were r e q u i r e d . These elements, extending throughout the p o s t - e x i l i c c e n t u r i e s , provided the matrix in which the i n c r e d i b l e d i v e r s i t y o f Judaism was t o f l o u r i s h .
As we have seen, the methodology a p p l i e d t o the in-

reform prior t o g r a n t i n g His b l e s s i n g s .

v e s t i g a t i o n of the r o l e o f Zechariah 1-8 in the development o f a p o c a l y p t i c i s c r i t i c a l , for a r e c o n s t r u c t i o n must b e judged on how i t addressed the p e r t i n e n t i s s u e s : 1 ) the

essential c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f apocalyptic, 2 ) i t s o r i g i n s and 542 formative i n f l u e n c e s a n d 3 ) i t s s o c i a l s e t t i n g . Zechari a h

1-8, though i t can be s t u d i e d according t o these c a t e g o r i e s ,

must be looked a t i n i t s r e l a t i o n s h i p t o o t h e r w r i t i n g s , in

538. Those who perceived the r e s t o r a t i o n as an a c t o f God were the adherents t o the t h e o c r a t i c i d e a l , those w h o a l s o tended t o eschew e s c h a t o l o g i c a l thought; c f . W . Eichrodt, Theology o f the Old Testament, v o l . 2 , p.456. 539. A f t e r the ' f a i l u r e ' o f r e s t o r a t i o n , the eschatolog i c a l groups looked t o Yahweh t o b r i n g about an ' i d e a l s t a t e ' . 540, T h i s p o s i t i o n would be occupied by the t h e o c r a t i c p r i e s t h o o d ; c f . P.R. Ackroyd, E x i l e and R e s t o r a t i o n , p p . 2 5 4 f . 541. The deuteronomistic movement a s s e r t e d t h i s view throughout the p o s t - e x i l i c p e r i o d ; c f , 3 . Bright, A H i s t o r y of I s r a e l , pp.432f. 542. DoE. Gowan, B r i d g e Between the Testaments, pp,446-45l0
I

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ways which take i n t o account the connectedness between prophecy a n d a p o c a l y p t i c .

I deemed i t a p p r o p r i a t e t o ask q u e s t i o n s which focused

on the c o n t i n u i t y and the nature o f p o s t - e x i l i c prophecy, and then t o compare the r e s u l t s with a survey o f the a p o c a l y p t l c movement.

I have made p r e l i m i n a r y statements about the pro-

p h e t i c t r a d i t i o n a n d i t s c o n t r i b u t i o n s t o the p o s t - e x i l i c p e r i o d , e v e r aware that v a s t a r e a s o f p o t e n t i a l i n v e s t i g a t f o n lacked s u b s t a n t i a l a c c e s s . The f a i n t e s t o f f l a m e s , were

i t a b l e t o throw l i g h t i n t o any one of these a r e a s , m i g h t w e l l overthrow the most cautlous and t e n t a t i v e o f reconstructions. I have looked a t the c o n t i n u i t y o f the d i f f e r e n t s t r a n d s
o f the p r o p h e t i c movement, assuming t h a t the connectedness o f

the p r o p h e t i c o f f i c e presaged l i n e s o f development i n t o the l a t e r centuries. This chapter w i l l note Zechariah's p l a c e i n

the p r o p h e t i c movement a n d h i s i n f l u e n c e on l a t e r w r i t e r s a s Judaism approached the e r a o f the a p o c a l y p t i s t s , as f a r as the evidence w i l l allow the i n v e s t i g a t i o n t o proceed.

I will

a l s o examine the questlon o f the i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of the prop h e t i c w r i t i n g s as t h i s process r e l a t e d t o Zechariah 1-8. intend to show the range a n d the nature o f Zechariah's twof o l d i n f l u e n c e on the development o f a p o c a l y p t i c a n d how i t was manifested i n t h e a p o c a l y p t i c l i t e r a t u r e of the second century B.C. and l a t e r .

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11.

Zechariah and t h e L a t e r P r o p h e t i c Movement In chapter one, I presumed a connection between prophecy

and a p o c a l y p t i c .

I showed that the a p o c a l y p t i c l i t e r a t u r e

manifested a development o f prophetic t r a d i t i o n s that emphasized the K i n g s h i p o f Yahweh. I observed t h a t within the

d i v i s i o n s o f the p r o p h e t i c movement, d i f f e r e n t emphases could

be made upon t h i s e s c h a t o l o g i c a l r e a l i t y .
few p l a c e s where i t could be observed. -

I pointed out a

Moreover, I demon-

s t r a t e d t h a t the i n d i v i d u a l prophetic t r a d i t i o n s ( m o t i f s ) l a t e r transcended the prophetic movements a n d were adopted by non-prophetic groups, w h i l e o r i g i n a l l y non-prophetlc themes were adopted by some prophets. The urge, found in

l a t e r prophecy, t o b r i d g e the g a p between the r e a l world and the i d e a l s t a t e of Yahweh's r u l e a l s o e x i s t e d i n c i r c l e s

a p a r t from the p r o p h e t i c movement.

I t i s important t o d i s t i n g u i s h , i n the d i s c u s s i o n o f c o n t i n u i t y , between the prophetic movement a n d the prophetic t r a d i t i o n a n d t o i n v e s t i g a t e how each impinged upon the apocalyptic c i r c l e s and literature. The p r o p h e t i c movement

may be d e f i n e d a s that a g g r e g a t e o f i n d i v i d u a l s who acted a s

(or were viewed as a c t i n g a s ) prophets, i n c l u d i n g the pre-

cursors and s u c c e s s o r s o f the canonical prophets.

The pro-

p h e t i c t r a d i t i o n was t h a t accumulated body of concepts promulgated, adopted and developed by these prophets and

tradi t i o n i s t s ( t h e successors to the w r i t t e n prophets whose

212 main a c t i v i t y was the i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h e p r o p h e t i c writings). Both the p r o p h e t f c movement and t h e p r o p h e t i c t r a d i t i o n were viewed b y segments o f the s c h o l a r l y community as having i n f l u e n c e upon the a p o c a l y p t i c l i t e r a t u r e . As the e a r l i e r ,

f u t u r e - o r i e n t e d faith o f I s r a e l c o n t r i b u t e d not a l i t t l e t o t h e c o n t e n t of c l a s s i c a l I s r a e l i t e prophecy, s o the prophets

a n d t h e i r t r a d i t i o n i s t s l e n t many concepts t o the common 543 m i l i e u of l a t e r Judaism. I t would be unwise t o c o n s i d e r

t h e p r o p h e t i c t r a d i t i o n apart from the o t h e r major s t r a n d s of pos t - e x i 7 i c Jewish re1 i g i o n ,

On t h e b a s i s o f m y i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f t h e p r o p h e t i c move-

ments I concluded t h a t c e r t a i n common f e a t u r e s and a t t i t u d e s e x h i b i t e d i n the e a r l y p o s t - e x i l i c w r i t i n g s c o u l d be u t i l i z e d

i n determining s i g n i f i c a n t c a t e g o r i e s .
t e l l i n g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s were:

I found t h a t t h e most

1 ) a t t i t u d e toward t h e func-

t i o n i n g c u l t , 2 ) p o s i t i o n w i t h i n the p o l i t i c a l s t r u c t u r e of t h e community a n d 3 ) the nature o f t h e e x p r e s s e d f u t u r e hope

a n d judgment.

The two c o n s t e l l a t i o n s o f thought formed by

t h e s e a t t i t u d e s a n d m o t i f s became s o u r c e s o f i n s p i r a t i o n f o r t h e l a t e r p r o p h e t i c f i g u r e s , who d i d n o t have t o contend

with the community d i v i s i o n o f the e a r l y p o s t - e x i l i c y e a r s .

As I s a i a h and Micah had u t i l i z e d themes a t t a c h e d t o t h e Jerusalem Temple and Amos and Hosea ( b o t h prophets t o t h e Nor~ ~~

543.

3 , Blenkinsopp, Prophecy and Canon, pp.128-138.

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thern Kingdom of I s r a e l ) had n o t , s o the p o s t - e x i l i c prophets and t r a d i t i o n i s t s c o u l d u t i l i z e concepts from the e a r -

l i e r , more r i g i d t h e o c r a t i c and c o n v e n t i c l e p e r s p e c t i v e s .

I Intend t o examine Z e c h a r i a h ' s r o l e i n the l a t e r prop h e t i c movement and t o i n v e s t i g a t e h i s p o s s i b l e c o n t r i b u t i o n s t o the p r o p h e t f c and a p o c a l y p t i c t r a d i t i o n s i n the f o l l o w i n g sections. In c h a p t e r two, I emphasized the f a c t o f Z e c h a r i a h ' s i n d e b t e d n e s s t o Jeremiah, E z e k i e l and D e u t e r o - I s a i a h i n the framing of h i s messages. The p a r a l l e l s between Zechariah 1-8

a n d the b o o k s o f t h e s e p r o p h e t s , taken wlth Z e c h a r i a h ' s

r e f e r n e c e s t o the ' f o r m e r p r o p h e t s ' , a l l o w the c o n c l u s i o n s

that Z e c h a r i a h f e l t h f m s e l f a part o f the movement which i n -

c l u d e d t h e s e prophets a n d the i n h e r i t o r o f the p r o p h e t i c t r a d i t i o n i n which they h a d p a r t i c i p a t e d . Their w r i t i n g s

determined h i s t h e o l o g i c a l l i m i t s , p r o v i d e d h i m with h i s thematic m o t i f s and l a r g e l y i n f l u e n c e d h i s l i t e r a r y s t y l e .

I n d e t e r m i n i n g Z e c h a r i a h ' s p l a c e among h i s p r o p h e t i c
c o n t e m p o r a r i e s , I chose a t t i t u d e toward t h e c u l t a n d p o l i t i c a l s t r u c t u r e s as most i n d i c a t i v e . Z e c h a r i a h chose t o

p l a c e h i s w e i g h t behind the l e a d e r s h i p o f the community i n s o f a r a s i t - p a r t i c f p a t e d i n the Temple r e b u i l d i n g p r o j e c t .

But

d i d he, a t t h e same time, r e j e c t t h e c u r r e n t a l t e r n a t e p o s i tions (e.g. ject?

t h a t o f t h e authors o f T r i t o - I s a i a h )

on t h i s sub-

As I have shown, T r i t o - I s a i a h a n d Zechariah e x h i b i t e d

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many common themes a n d shared i n s p i r a t i o n in the messages o f Deutero-Isaiah. However, they came down on o p p o s i t e s i d e s o f T r i t o - I s a i a h became i n c r e a s i n g l y c r i t i -

an important fence:

c a l of the community l e a d e r s a n d r e j e c t e d t h e i r e f f o r t s to r e b u i l d Y a h w e h l s Temple a s immoral; Zechariah supported both.

T h i s i s s u e i n e v i t a b l y c o l o r e d t h e i r views o f the f u t u r e , the

d e s t i n y of the community and Yahweh's r e l a t i o n s h i p t o the people. While I do not f i n d evidence t o support the view t h a t Zechariah r e j e c t e d T r i t o - I s a i a h a n d h i s views on many secon544 dary s u b j e c t s , Zechariah did a s s e r t the requirement o f the r e b u i l d i n g o f the Templ-e ( c p .

I s . 66:l and Zech. 8:9-11).

T h e r e f o r e , Zechariah may be l a b e l l e d a t h e o c r a t i c prophet a n d T r i t o - I s a i a h a r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f the a t t i t u d e o f the eschatol o g i c a l conventicle. Zechariah d i d not c o n d i t i o n Yahweh's Within

w i l l i n g n e s s t o b l e s s the Jews upon t h e i r behavior.

the context o f promised b l e s s i n g , he urged e t h i c a l a c t i o n s

a n d general moral improvement ( e . g .

7:9-10, 8:16-17;

cp. I s .

56:9-12, 57:1-10, 58:l-7, 59:l-8, e t c . ) .

ward communal w e l l - b e i n g .

He c a l l e d the

people not t o r e p e a t the f o l l i e s o f the p a s t and t o work toZechariah a s s e r t e d the blessedness Yahweh

o f the community i n i t s present form and c o n d i t i o n :

had determined to b l e s s the Jews ( 1 : 1 6 ) and there was n o t h i n g

544. Zechariah dSd not i d e n t i f y with the r e s t r i c t i o n s of the theocracy, t h e r e was no i n v e c t i v e a g a i n s t the conv e n t i c l e and he d i d n o t equate the 'branch' a b s o l u t e l y with the community leaders ( e i t h e r Zerubbabel or J o s h u a ) .

215

t o s t a y H i m from that course o f a c t i o n , not even the presence

o f wickedness w i t h i n the community ( c f . 5:1-11).

Those prophets considered Zechariah's successors i n the p r o p h e t i c movement were those who f o l l o w e d h i s l e a d i n supp o r t i n g a n d working within the theocracy. This d i d not mean

t h a t they were t o t a l l y s u p p o r t i v e o f i t s i n s t i t u t i o n s a n d i n s u b s e r v i e n c e t o i t ; the prophets were f r e e t o c r i t i c i z e as w e l l as t o commend. These prophets would hold t o the f o l 1 ) the b e n e f i t s o f the covenant

lowing e s s e n t i a l t e n e t s :

were ascendant t o the moral demands o f t h a t covenant, 2 ) the s a l v a t i o n / d e l i v e r a n c e o f Yahweh n a t u r a l l y included the whole community and 3 ) the punishment meted out t o the community

was b a s i c a l l y temporary.
On the basis o f t h e s e statements, I found that Zecha-

r i a h ' s s u c c e s s o r s in the p r o p h e t i c movement were the L e v i t i 545 cal prophets o f the C h r o n i c l e r a n d the c u l t i c prophets o f

whom Joel was r e p r e s e n t a t t v e .

546

P o s t - e x i l i c prophetic c i r -

c l e s represented by T r i t o - I s a i a h ,

Deutero-Isaiah a n d Malachi 547 have been excluded from t h f s movement. I t i s apparent t h a t the L e v i t i c a l prophets were suppor-

545. 60 von R a d , 'The L e v i t i c a l Sermon i n I and I1 C h r o n f c l e s ' , The Problem o f the Hexateuch and Other Essays, pp.267-280; CP. D . L . P e t e r s e n , l a t e I s r a e l I t e Prophecy, pp.55-96. 5 4 6 . E . S e l l i n - G . Fohrer, Introduction t o the Old Testament, pp.429f. 547. Although I have noted t h a t the c i r c l e s b e h i n d t h e s e works were o r t g i n a l l y sup o r t i v e o f the r e s t o r a t i o n and Temple c u l t , I have exp r o j e c t ( c f . Zech. 9 , I s , 60-62 eluded them because t h e i r support was t r a n s i t o r y .

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t i v e of the community i n s t i t u t i o n s , were c a s t a s a d v i s o r s t o kings ( e . g . a s Temple personnel ( e . g .

The L e v i t i c a l f i g u r e s I1 Chron, 2 5 : 7 - 8 )
and

I 1 Chron, 20:15-17)

as I s r a e l went

f o r t h t o war o r returned from B a t t l e .

The L e v i t i c a l sermon-

form was a s s o c i a t e d with the k i n g as he, God's appointed l e a d e r , addressed the people ( e . g . I Chron. 28:Z-10). In

l i k e manner, Joel perceived the Temple as the c e n t e r of the 548 community ( e . g . 1 : 9 , 1:13-16, 2 : 1 5 - 1 7 ) . Both o f these p r o p h e t i c f i g u r e s envisioned only tempo& r a r y t r o u b l e f o r the Jews ( L e , m i l i t a r y c r i s i s o r natural c a l a m i t y , such as J o e l ' s l o c u s t p l a g u e ) , who would s u r e l y be v i c t o r t o u s when God manifested His i m p l i c i t f a v o r toward them. This i s not t o say that Joel a n d the L e v i t i c a l prophets were w h o l l y s i m i l a r . them. There were stark d i f f e r e n c e s between

I am s u g g e s t i n g that they shared a common m i l i e u o f The L e v i t i c a l f i g u r e s ' messages were

the Temple a n d c u l t . non-eschatological

a n d d i d a c t i c ; J o e l employed the n > n ~ bl7

m o t i f i n a well-developed

form within an e s c h a t o l o g i c a l ( i . e .
I t i s h e l p f u l to r e i t e r a t e t h a t , b e l i e f s could

non-historical)

narrative.

within the Temple m i l i e u , non-eschatofogical

c o - e x i s t with -markedly e s c h a t o l o g i c a l ones. The L e v i t i c a l prophets were d e s c r i b e d as preacher-

548, Joel departed somewhat from the t h e o c r a t i c i d e a l by demanding s l n c e r i t y a s a necessary accompaniment t o the Temple rituals (2:12); such a thrust was not l a c k i n g i n the L e v i t i c a l sermons o f the C h r o n i c l e s e i t h e r .

217
teachers c l o s e l y i d e n t i f i e d with the d i d a c t i c e n t e r p r i s e o f Temple c i r c l es ( e x h o r t a t i o n s p r a c t i c a l appl i c a t i o n , d o c t r i n e
and i n s t r u c t i o n ) and would, i n t h i s r e g a r d , approach some o f 549 the a c t i v i t i e s o f s c r i b a l groups. While there i s a

q u e s t i o n a s t o how the L e v i t i c a l sermon-forms may be separated from the C h r o n i s t i c authors, they were c e r t a i n l y repres e n t a t i v e of a l a t e r p o s t - e x i l i c g r o u p which assumed a conn e c t i o n with the e a r l i e r segments o f the prophetic move550 ment. Joel represented the Temple l i t u r g i s t s which c a l l e d the p e o p l e t o a u t h e n t i c dependence upon God through His chosen 551 institutions. The b a c k g r o u n d o f the Temple's mythic t r a d i t i o n s provided h i m p i c t u r e s o f Yahweh's a c t s o f d e l i v e rance. Joel viewed the s u r v i v a l o f the l o c u s t plague as the a type o f H i s f i n a l d e l i v e -

r e s u l t o f God's work ( 2 : 1 8 f f . ) , rance ( 2 9 8 - 3 2 , 3:9-21).

While Joel a n d the L e v i t i c a l prophets may be considered s u c c e s s o r s t o Zechariah c h r o n o l o g i c a l l y , there was l i t t l e evidence s u g g e s t i n g the nature o f the connection between them a n d Zechariah. Evidence pointed toward a r e l a t i o n s h i p 1)

between Zechariah 1-8 and the L e v i t i c a l sermon-form:

Zech. 4 : l O b was quoted i n I 1 Chron. 16:9 a n d 2 ) there a r e form-critical s i m i l a r i t i e s between Zech. 1:Z-6, 7:4-14 and

549. 550. 551.

3 . Btenkinsopp, op. c i t . , pp.132-138. I b i d . , p.135. H.W. W o l f f , Joel a n d Amos, p p . l l f .

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8:1-23.and the l a t e r sermon-form.
552

W.A.M.

Beuken's theory

o f L e v i t i c a l reworking o f most o f t h i s Zecharian m a t e r i a l has

gained very l i t t l e s c h o l a r l y support, f o r he has o v e r s t a t e d h i s case. However, I do accept h i s premise of a connection

between Zechariah 1-8 and the c i r c l e s behind the L e v i t i c a l prophets. Zechariah 1-8 i s not t o be i n t e r p r e t e d i n l i g h t o f the theology of the C h r o n i c l e r ; there must be r e c o g n i t i o n o f a d i s t i n c t i o n between Z e c h a r i a h ' s f u t u r e o r i e n t a t i o n and the more p r a c t i c a l and non-future o r i e n t e d concern i n the Levit i c a l prophets. There was a sense i n the C h r o n i c l e s , perhaps

echoed in the L e v i t i c a l sermons, that the r e s t o r e d community was e t e r n a l , a tendency n o t e x p l i c i t l y s t a t e d i n Zechariah

1-8.

Zechariah d i d not m a n i f e s t l i t u r g i c a l or d i d a c t i c

c h a r a c t e r ~ s t ~ c s .However, looking a t Zechariah a s a prototype o f the L e v i t i c a l prophets y i e l d e d the f o l l o w i n g :

1) the

manner i n which Zechariah stood a s a spokesman f o r Yahweh a t

a c r i t i c a l j u n c t u r e o f I s r a e l ' s h i s t o r y was s i m i l a r t o t h e
l a t e r d e s c r i p t i o n s o f L e v i t i c a l prophetic a c t i v i t y and 2 ) the i n d i v i d u a l messages o f Zechariah approximated, i n a very genera7 way, the L e v t t f c a ? sermon-form ( c f . Zech. 8:l-8, doct r i n e ; 8:9a, e x h o r t a t i o n ; 8:9b, a p p l i c a t i o n
553

).

The p o i n t o f connection between Zechariah and the later Beuken, ap. c i t

173.

552.
553.

W.A.M.

-.

pp.84-102,138-135,156-

G o von Rad, a r t . c l t . , p.271.

219
L e v i t i c a l prophets appears t o have been the l a t e r i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of Z e c h a r i a h ' s m i n i s t r y and message. Subsequent

g e n e r a t i o n s could have honored h i m as a f a i t h f u l prophet who helped the nation and i t s l e a d e r s through a d i f f i c u l t p e r i o d

of time,
favorable:

Their a p p r a i s a l of h i m w o u l d have i n e v i t a b l y been

1 ) he had been instrumental i n the r e b u i l d i n g o f

the Temple, 2 ) he h a d been f a i t h f u l to Yahweh and the commun i t y and 3 ) he had been r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f v a l u e s cherished

by the l a t e r community, In p r e c i s e l y t h i s way the L e v i t i c a l f i g u r e s stood out among t h e i r p o s t - e x i l i c contemporaries: 1 ) standing firm

f o r Yahweh and 2 ) p o i n t i n g the way through h i s t o r i c a l c r i s e s , Zechariah can, t h e r e f o r e , be seen as i n f l u e n t i a l i n the development o f the p r o p h e t i c a c t i v l t y r e f l e c t e d in the Levit i c a l prophets o f the C h r o n i c l e r , a l b e i t i n d i r e c t l y . His

m i n i s t r y may have been a prototype f a c i l i t a t i n g the development o f t h i s l a t e r phase o f prophetic a c t i v i t y .

A connection between Zechariah a n d Joel was more d i f f i -

c u l t t o i n v e s t i g a t e because there was l i t t l e t o work with beyond the l i t e r a r y w o r k s a s s o c i a t e d wlth them, The evidence

was c i r c u m s t a n t i a l r e g a r d i n g a more e x t e n s i v e p o s t - e x i l i c p r o p h e t i c movement (with Joel i t s s o l e s u r v i v i n g representative). However, some evidence does e x i s t :
1 ) the c i r c u l a -

t i o n o f c e r t a i n kinds o f psalmic material r e q u i r e d a prophet i c - s t y l e e x p r e s s i o n ( c f . P s . 9 5 ) i n the p o s t - e x i f i c Temple

220

cult;

554

2 ) the mythic d e s c r i p t i o n s employed in T r i t o - I s a i a h ,

Deutero-Zechariah a n d Malachi i n d i c a t e d t h a t such concepts were i n use a n d r e l e v a n t a f t e r the e x i l e . They were means

whereby authors could make statements about Yahweh a n d His purpose f o r , t h e community and the n a t i o n s ; a n d 3 ) w h i l e the
figure o f Jonah may have been a lampoon of ( p r e - e x i l i c ? )

prophecy, i t n e v e r t h e l e s s d i d s u b s t a n t i a t e the claim t h a t t h e r e e x i s t e d a p o s t - e x i l l c notion about prophecy which t h e

a u t h o r used.

There were, however, no s p e c i f i c f f g u r e s which

would prove the e x i s t e n c e o f o t h e r prophets whose message a n d rnfnistry p a r a l l e l e d those o f J o e l .

I f we assume t h a t there were o t h e r prophets l i k e Joel

in the p o s t - e x f l i c p e r i o d attached to the t h e o c r a t i c c i r c l e s

around the derusalem Temple, there can be a t e n t a t i v e fleshing-out o f their role.
To a d e g r e e , a burden was placed

upon the theocracy ( a n d c u l t ) t o express the community's r e l a t i o n s h i p t o the n a t i o n s :

1 ) t o e x p l a i n the supremacy o f

f o r e i g n nations a n d the r e l a t i v e weakness o f t h e Jews a n d

2 ) t o g i v e witness t o the u n i v e r s a l Kingship o f Yahweh ( a s

p a s t generations had done w i t h i n t h e i r 1 irni ted p o l It i c a l awareness). The Psalms provided m u l t i p l e examples t o i l l u s -

86:9, 96:10-13.

t r a t e this activity: 555

9:20, 22:27-28, 4 7 : 3 ,

6 7 : 4 , 72, 8 2 8 ,

5 5 4 . G.W. Anderson, 'Psalms', PCB ( r e v . e d . ) , ed. M O B l a c k , p . 4 3 4 , s t a t e d t h a t the c i r c u l a t i o n o f m a t e r i a l such a s P s . 9 5 and 96 r e q u i r e d someone w t t h i n the cu7t t o express i t . I s u g g e s t t h a t J o e l would have some connection with the c u l t personnel who d f d t h i s .

221 The f u r t h e r Zechariah a n d Joel a r e compared, the g r e a t e r the d i f f i c u l t y in p l a c i n g them i n the same prophetic category. While they shared the common ground o f the c u l t

m i l i e u , Joel was uniformly a Temple l i t u r g i s t ( e i t h e r by

b a c k g r o u n d o r p r e d i l e c t i o n ) a n d Zechariah was h a l f l i t e r a r y

v i s i o n a r y , h a l f a prophet with a p u b l i c m i n i s t r y .

Both

shared a common i n s p i r a t i o n i n the prophet E z e k i e l ; however, J o e l picked u p the language a n d motif o f Ezek. 3 8 - 3 9 , while

Zechariah f o l l o w e d E z e k l e l ' s use o f the c r y p t i c elements of symbolism and v i s i o n ( c f . E z e k . 1-3,8-11,17). The major conclusions I have drawn concerning the poss i b i l i t y o f c o n t i n u i t y between Zechariah, Joel a n d the L e v i t i c a l prophets are.:
1 ) a l l t h r e e shared the same concern

f o r the community, i t s i n s t i t u t i o n s a n d i t s l e a d e r s ( i . e .
that they be f a i t h f u l t o Yahweh a s an e x p r e s s i o n o f t h e i r

awareness that Yahweh was I s r a e l ' s King).

The prophets a l l

m i n i s t e r e d within the c o r e o f the theocracy a n d d i d not separ a t e themselves from i t in t h e i r demands f o r community righteousness.
The s a l v a t i o n they envisioned was bestowed

upon the community as a whole, with l t t t l e r e g a r d f o r the

p u r i f i c a t i o n o f t h a t community; 2 ) t h e r e was no evidence of

a d i r e c t , s u b s t a n t i a l r e l a t i o n s h i p between any two o f these

ci t pp. 285-293 , s t a t e d 5 5 5 . E. S e l l i n - G . Fohrer, -=, were p o s t - e x i l i c and t h a t a h i g h precentage o f these salms c u l t f c ( d e r i v e d f r o m c u l t i c usage).

222

prophets/prophetic group.

They were d i s t i n c t r e g a r d f n g

l a n g u a g e , l i t e r a r y s t y l e and f o r m o f ministry; and 3 ) Zechariah stood as a figure apart.

There was no i n d i c a t i o n

t h a t he i n s p i r e d o t h e r s t o come a f t e r h i m and t o assume h i s k i n d of m i n i s t r y .

T h i s e v i d e n c e must l e a d t o the c o n c l u s i o n

t h a t i t w o u l d b e i l l - a d v i s e d t o p o s t u l a t e an i m m e d i a t e o r o n g o i n g c o n t r i b u t i o n t o the p r o p h e t i c movement by Z e c h a r i a h t h r o u g h h i s ministry.

1 1 1 .

Z e c h a r i a h and the ' P r o p h e t i c W o r l d - V i e w '

O.H.

Steck, i n his d e f i n i t i o n of a ' t h e o l o g i c a l stream 1 ) an

o f t r a d i t i o n , s t a t e d t h a t s u c h a movement r e q u i r e d :

o n g o i n g g r o u p with a r e g u l a r meeting p l a c e , 2 ) an e x t e n s i v e i n t e l l e c t u a l c a p a c i t y combined w i t h a v i a b l e and comprehens i v e c o n c e p t o f e x i s t e n c e and 3 ) an e x t e n d e d p e r i o d o f time f o r r e f l e c t i o n , d i s c u s s i o n and i n s t r u c t i o n .

556

This state-

ment r a i s e d t h e q u e s t i o n i m p o r t a n t f o r the s t u d y o f the p r o -

p h e t i c movement and t r a d i t i o n :

Was there a true p r o p h e t i c

theological stream o f t r a d i t i o n ?

I t h a s b e e n n o t e d t h a t 016 Testament s c h o l a r s h i p has

b e e n u n a b l e t o p r o d u c e a s a t i s f a c t o r y d e f i n i t i o n o f the term ' p r o p h e t ' o r an a c c e p t a b l e demonstration o f those f a c t o r s w h i c h l i n k e d the d i v e r s e p r o p h e t i c f i g u r e s . Steck allowed

55C. O.H. S t e c k , ' T h e o l o g i c a l S t r e a m s o f T r a d i t i o n ' , T r a d i t i o n and T h e o l o g y .fn the O l d T e s t a m e n t , ed. D . A . K n i g h t , pp.194-196.

223

t h a t the p r o p h e t i c ' t h e o l o g i c a l stream' o r i g i n a t e d not i n t h e p r o d u c t i o n b u t the r e c e p t i o n of the messages o f the prophets.

557

I t was a f t e r the prophets h a d spoken, when pro-

p h e t i c tradi t i o n i s t s began t o r e p e a t the p r o p h e t i c messages and t o e l a b o r a t e on them through e x p o s i t i o n a n d i n s t r u c t i o n , t h a t t h e v a r i o u s elements of S t e c k ' s d e f i n i t i o n began t o come i n t o f o c u s . However, t h i s a l s o happened a f t e r t h e

w r i t i n g s of s e v e r a l prophets h a d become a s s o c i a t e d with n o n p r o p h e t i c t h e o l o g i c a l streams ( c f . Jeremiah a n d the d e u t e r o n o m i s t i c stream and E z e k i e l a n d the p r i e s t l y - t h e o c r a t i c t r a d i t i o n ) , d u r i n g the e r a when t h e f o r c e o f the p r o p h e t i c movement began t o be a f f e c t e d by e x t e r n a l , p o l i t i c a l p r e s s u r e and began t o dissipate.

The dimensions o f t h i s l i n e o f i n v e s t i g a t i o n can be r e c o g n i z e d as t h e f o l l o w i n g :

I) t h e n a t u r e of the 'on-going
In

g r o u p ' a n d the l o c a t i o n of the ' r e g u l a r meeting p l a c e ' . t h e c a s e o f t h e p r o p h e t i c movement, these s u b j e c t s remain

u n e x p l o r e d due t o l a c k o f e v i d e n c e ; a n d 2 ) the i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f a n ' e x t e n s i v e i n t e l l e c t u a l c a p a c i t y ' a n d a ' v i a b l e and comprehensive concept o f e x i s t e n c e ' within the p r o p h e t i c movement.
G . Von Rad argued that the Jews were not c a p a b l e o f a

w o r l d - v i e w s i n c e , f o r them, e x i s t e n c e was not ' b e i n g '

s o much

a s i t was ' e v e n t ' , ( i . e .

they d i d n o t n a t u r a l l y c o n c e i v e o f a

557.

Ibid

' pp.20lf

224

framework i n t o which events c o u l d be p l a c e d i n o r d e r t o g i v e them s i g n i f i c a n c e ) . There were no Hebrew words f o r the He s t a t e d t h a t the Jews developed a

Greek co8mos a n d t i m e .

l i n e a r concept o f e v e n t - h i s t o r y which f i t t e d w e l l the p r o p h e t s ' a b i l i t y t o s p e a k t o change as i t occurred i n the 558 The p r o p h e t i c l i t e r a t u r e o f the O l d Testament s o c i e ty

gave l i t t l e i n d i c a t i o n o f a p o s s i b l e ' p r o p h e t i c w o r l d - v i e w '

( a n a r t i f i c i a l s y n t h e s i s o f the p r o p h e t i c m a t e r i a l would n o t

y i e l d r e s u l t s o f any v a l u e ) ; i t y i e l d e d f a r more e v i d e n c e t o s u p p o r t the view that the i n d i v i d u a l prophets a p p r o p r i a t e d c u r r e n t n o t i o n s and concepts a s v e h i c l e s f o r t h e i r t h o u g h t s . In t h i s t h e prophets were dependent upon t h e i r s o c i o l o g i c a l s e t t i n g ; t h e i r use o f the a v a i l a b l e concepts i n d i c a t e d t h e i r independence.
I t a p p e a r s t h a t , g i v e n the l t m i t a t i o n s p l a c e d upon them
by the circumstances o f t h e i r m i n i s t r i e s , the prophets e f -

f e c t i v e l y c r i t i c i z e d t h e i r s o c i e t y ' s short-comings,

but

c a l l e d that s o c i e t y b a c k t o i t s own i d e a l s a n d not toward a

new form o f community.
T h e s e I d e a l s were t h o s e o f I s r a e l ' s

covenant f a i t h .
3 . M u i l e n b e r g , i n d i s c u s s i n g t h e n a t u r e o f the f a i t h o f

t h e p r o p h e t s , gave p l a c e t o the covenants made by Yahweh 559 with Moses and David. These covenants contained elements

558. G o von Rad, Old Testament Theology 1 1 , pp.99-112. 5 5 9 . 3 . M u i l e n b e r g , ' O l d 7estament Prophecy', PCB ( r e v . e d . ) , e d . M . B l a c k , p.482.

225

which c o u l d o n l y be h e l d in t e n s i o n :

560

t h e Mosaic Covenant

promised Yahweh's b l e s s i n g upon I s r a e l , c o n d i t i o n e d upon her o b e d i e n c e t o His Torah. The D a v i d i c Covenant promised, u n -

c o n d i t i o n a l l y , the s u r v i v a l o f the D a v i d i c dynasty f o r a l l time. Each prophet u t i l i z e d f e a t u r e s o f t h e s e covenants t o

s u b s t a n t i a t e the proclamation o f Yahweh's w i l l f o r a p a r t i cular situation. I t i s n e c e s s a r y t o r e c o g n i z e that t h e concept of a covenant would not be e x t e n s i v e enough t o q u a l i f y a s a w o r l d view. I t was a n ' e v e n t ' , around which o t h e r l i f e e x p e r i T h e mu1 t i p l e covenants o f I s r a e l ' s

ences c o u l d be o r d e r e d .

561

p a s t enabled h e r t o comprehend her r e l a t i o n s h i p with Yahweh, b u t n o t her e x i s t e n c e p e r s e . Although t h e o u t l o o k o f an

i n d i v i d u a l p r o p h e t was a p a r t i a l r e f l e c t i o n and r e o r i e n t a t i o n o f the s o c i e t y ' s c u r r e n t i d e a s , the e a r l i e r covenants were o n l y echoed i n the p r o p h e t i c w r i t i n g s . I t i s d i f f i c u l t t o g i v e credence t o t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f

a w o r l d - v i e w ( i n a f u l l y - d e v e l o p e d form) i n t h e e a r l y p o s t e x i l i c prophets f o r s e v e r a l r e a s o n s :
1 ) any attempt t o con-

s t r u c t a common o u t l o o k based upon the p r o p h e t i c l i t e r a t u r e c o u l d o n l y produce an a r t i f i c i a l s y n t h e s i s , a unity a c h i e v e d

a t t h e expense o f the p r o p h e t s ' i n d i v i d u a l i t y ; 2 ) a r e l a t e d

m a t t e r i n v o l v e d the concepts a n d m o t i f s a c c e p t e d by t h e i n -

560.

561.

3 . Brfght, o c l t . , pp.221-223. G. v a n Rad, I d T s t a m e n t Theology I , p.152.

. -6

226
d i v i d u a l prophets i n t h e development o f t h e i r messages.

The

d i f f e r e n t m i l i e u s of t h e northern kingdom a n d the southern Jerusalem Temple c u l t framed, t o some d e g r e e , the thought o f the prophets through t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e spheres o f i n f l u e n c e ;
3 ) the l i t e r a r y a n d i d e a t i o n a l connectedness o f the p r o p h e t i c

w r i t i n g s was s u b o r d i n a t e d t o the importance o f the i n d i v l d u a l p r o p h e t ' s immediate message ( b u t l e s s t r u e i n the p o s t - e x i l i c p e r i o d ) t o the community. The l i t e r a r y connectedness i s then

r e c o g n i z e d a s r e s t i n g upon the f o u n d a t i o n o f the v a r i o u s t h e o l o g i c a l streams o f t r a d i t i o n ; 4 ) I s r a e l d i d n o t a s p i r e t o

a comprehensive w o r l d - v i e w until she was s u b j e c t e d t o the

H e l l e n i s t i c i n v a s i o n which s t a r t e d i n the f o u r t h c e n t u r y
B.C.
562

The s e n s e o f

'mystery' i n e x i s t e n c e h a d been accep( C f B

t e d by e a r l i e r g e n e r a t i o n s
*

the u n c e r t a i n t y o f 'know-

l e d g e ' v i s - h i s the a c t i v e n a t u r e o f Yahweh which many o f t h e prophets h a d embraced). The r o l e o f Z e c h a r i a h i n the p e r p e t u a t i o n o f t h e prop h e t i c movement was p r o f o u n d l y i n f l u n c e d by the h i s t o r i c a l s i t u a t i o n i n which he l i v e d a n d by the p r o p h e t i c ' h e r i t a g e ' assumed by h i m . The e x i l e h a d occasioned a r e v i t a l i z a t i o n The 'prophets o f doom' had been

o f the p r o p h e t i c movement.

e x o n e r a t e d ; b u t they h a d a l s o g i v e n l e g i t i m a t i o n t o t h e ' p r o p h e t s o f s a l v a t i o n ' through t h e i r p r e d i c t i o n s ' o f t h e r e -

5 6 2 . C f . G . von R a d , Wisdom i n I s r a e l , pp.13-14,73, 113,198-199.

227

s t o r a t i o n o f the community, The t h r e e major prophets o f the e x i l e were a s s o c i a t e d , through t h e i r c o l l e c t e d messages, with independent t h e o l o gical traditions. The w r i t i n g s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h Jeremiah

had been c a s t i n the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c form o f the deuteronomistic traditionists, E z e k i e l and h i s d i s c i p l e s h a d prophe-

t i c a l l y a c t i v a t e d the Jerusalem p r i e s t l y t r a d i t i o n s . D e u t e r o - I s a i a h had adapted the u n i v e r s a l elements o f t h e c u l t t r a d i t i o n o f imminent s a l v a t i o n t o the r e l e a s e f r o m e x i l e . Z e c h a r i a h ' s u t j l i t a t i o n o f each o f these p r o p h e t i c works i n the c o n s t r u c t i o n of h i s messages was i n d i c a t i v e o f a p r o c e s s
o f c o n s o l i d a t i o n w i t h i n the p r o p h e t i c movement.
563

The s t a t e -

ment t h a t Z e c h a r i a h 1-13 may be taken as r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f much o f J u d a i s m

was not too wide of the mark.

That i t

r e p r e s e n t e d a n attempt t o summarize the t h e o l o g y o f t h e prop h e t i c movement appears as an a t t r a c t i v e way t o i n t e r p r e t the p r o p h e t ' s messages. P r i o r t o Z e c h a r i a h ' s e r a , s c r i b a l i s m h a d been s u p p l e menting a n d i n c r e a s i n g l y s u p p l a n t i n g prophetfsm a s a f o r c e in the community, g e n e r a l i z i n g the d i s t i n c t i v e themes o f the e a r l i e r p r o p h e t i c w r i t i n g s a n d adopting the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c f e a t u r e s o f t h e p r o p h e t i c o f f i c e f o r i t s own use. The p o s i -

t i o n o f M a l a c h i , f o r example, c o u l d be i n t e r p r e t e d a s ' p r o -

563,

W O E o Barnes, Haggai and Z e c h a r i a h , p . x x i i i .

228

phecy w i t h i n t h e l a w ' .

564

Ben Sira appeared as t h e culmina-

t i o n of the merging o f the prophetic o f f i c e i n t o t h e f i g u r e

o f the s c r i b e ; many forms once a s s o c i a t e d w i t h the prophets

appeared i n h i s w r i t i n g s a n d he reduced the hope of t h e p r o 565 phets t o a s i n g l e scene o f God's redemption (36:l-17). The c o a l e s c e n c e of divergent t r a d i t i o n s i n w r i t t e n form was i l l u s t r a t i v e o f c e r t a i n periods o f l a t e r p o s t - e x i l i c J u d a 566 ism. The a u t h o r i t y o f the written word increased i n J u d a ism, b u t t h a t a u t h o r i t y d i d n o t n e c e s s a r i l y e x e r c i s e a b s o l u t e sway over Jewish t h o u g h t . Greece
I t remained open t o the encroach-

ments o f e x t e r n a l influences such as those from P e r s i a a n d

Zechariah's understanding o f his e r a was wholly d e t e r mined by h i s apprehension o f the messages o f the 'former .prophets' ( 1 : 4 , 7:7,12). The covenant r e l a t i o n s h i p between Yahweh and I s r a e l d i d n o t appear w i t h the same v i t a l i t y as
i n t h e s e p r e d e c e s s o r s ; there were o n l y echoes ( c f . Zech. 8 : 8 b

as a r e f r a i n borrowed from E z e k i e l ) which lacked i n t e n s i t y , while conveying a completely s i n c e r e message. Zechariah 1-13 represented Yahweh a s the transcendent God
o f t h e whole w o r l d ( 1 : 1 3 , 4 : 1 - 1 4 ) ,

moreso t h a n elsewhere i n

t h e O l d Testament.
G.A.

Zechariah pictured H i m as independent o f

S m i t h , The Book of the Twelve Prophets, v o l . 2 , p p . 3 4 8 - 3 7 2 , used t h i s phrase as the t i t l e o f t h e chapter on Malachi; c f . also, A . Lods, The Prophets a n d t h e R i s e o f Judaism, p . 2 7 9 . 5 6 5 . 3 . Hengel, Hellenism a n d Judaism, v o l . 1 , p p . 1 3 4 136 J O G .

564.

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I s r a e l , f r e e l y choosing t o i n v o l v e Himself i n the continued e x i s t e n c e o f H i s people (l:l6). Zechariah asserted Yahweh's tntentfon t o p u n i s h sin.
He spoke o f punishment o f past s i n s ( 1 : 6 , 7:12), as well a s

the present condition o f the community (5:l-4) a n d the pers o n i f i c a t i o n o f e v i l which h a d made I s r a e l unclean ( k 5 - 1 1 ) . Yahweh w a s viewed by Zechariah, however, as a God o f s a l v a t i o n ( I A 6 - 1 7 , 2:4-5,10-13). H e was seen as f a f t h f u l
The s a l -

t o perform His promises o f the past (8:l-8,15).

v a t i o n o f which Zechariah spoke was imminent, a d i r e c t r e s u l t

o f Yahweh's decision t o release t h e Jews from e x i l e , a n d i t

was t o be t h e f i n a l a c t o f restoration (8:11-13).

I t would

b e s t o w prosperity, s e c u r i t y a n d happiness u p o n t h e people

(8:4-5)

and, subsequently, u p o n the nations (2:11, 8:20-23).

I s r a e l ' s l o n g history o f disobedience t o Yahweh's T o r a h

h a d resulted i n t h e destruction o f Jerusalem, t h e p a r a d i g m

o f Yahweh's j u d g m e n t o f I s r a e l ' s rebelliousness (7:ll-14).

Zechariah foresaw, however, the time when t h e people w o u l d experience the blessedness o f Yahweh, which w o u l d include the rebuflding o f Jerusalem a n d the v i l l a g e s of J u d a h ( 1 : 1 6 - 1 7 ) ,
a n d w o u l d conduct themselves naturally as b e f i t t i n g t h e i r

s p e c i a l standing (3:lo). Yahweh h a d appointed h u m a n agencies i n t h e p a s t t h r o u g h

566. C f . c i t . , pp.209f.;

Steck, W c h S c k der Propheten, pp.205f.

O.H.

POD. Hanson,

. c i t . , p.273; O.H. Steck, art. s r a r u n d das gewaltsame F

230

which I s r a e l was guided:

prophet, p r i e s t a n d k i n g . Zecha-

r i a h , a s a prophet, saw himself as a r e c i p i e n t of the word

o f Yahweh a n d t h e prophets g e n e r a l l y as t h e communicators o f

t h a t word to I s r a e l (1:5-6, 7:7,12).

The prophet was, o f H e

t h e t h r e e o f f i c e s , l e a s t t i e d t o the s t r u c t u r e s o f s o c i e t y
( a l t h o u g h t h i s b o n d varied from prophet t o prophet).

c a l l e d t h e people from s i n ( 1 : Z - 6 ) a n d d i r e c t e d them t o Yati-

weh a n d His Torah ( k 3 , 7 : 1 2 ) .

well-being o f t h e people ( 3 : 9 ) .

The p r i e s t was given responThe k i n g w a s r a t h e r v a g u e l y

s i b i l i t y for the Temple o f Yahweh ( 3 : 7 ) arid f o r the s p i r i t u a l represented by Zerubbabel ( 4 : G - 7 ) a n d by the figure o f t h e

'branch'

( 3 : E , 6:12).

Zerubbabel's role i n t h e f u t u r e o f

t h e community was n o t w e l l - d e f i n e d , t h e only s p e c i f i c func-

t i o n given h i m was t o b u i l d the Temple; t h e 'branch' was

i d e n t i f i e d a s t h e one t o r u l e over t h e p e o p l e o f Yahweh ( c f .
6 3 2 , 4:C,9).

I t was through t h e prophets, according t o Zechariah,

t h a t Yahweh s p o k e t o His people.

He referrcu s p e c i f i c a l l y

t o Yahweh's s p i r i t , H i s words a n d T o r a h (1:2-6, 7 : 8 - 1 2 ) .

The w o r d s a n d T o r a h o f Yahweh appeared a s t h e content o f the

prophetic message, w h i l e the s p i r i t (7:12) was an a c t i v e f o r c e i n t h e prophet who d e l i v e r e d t h e message. Acceptance

o f t h i s message induced repentance i n the people ( 1 : 2 - 4 )

or,

i f i t were r e j e c t e d , would incur j u d g m e n t (7:11-14).

(1:9,13-14),

Zecha-

r i a h mentioned angels as the mediators of t h e divine message

a s i t was e n t r u s t e d t o himself.

I f the f i g u r e s

231
o f the v i s i o n s a r e t o be i n t e r p r e t e d as a n g e l s , they a l s o

were viewed as carrying Yahweh's message a n d performing His purposes i n the world (2:1,9; 6:l-8).
The e x i l i c prophets h a d been concerned w i t h the arena

o f h i s t o r y as i t h a d impinged u p o n I s r a e l a n d the manner i n

which Yahweh w o u l d a c t t o achieve His o b j e c t i v e s w i t h i n t h i s

continuum.

Zechariah followed them in t h i s pursuit.

After

Zechariah's e r a , however, t h e r e appeared a tendency t o move

away from an emphasis u p o n Yahweh's

a c t i v i t y w i t h i n the im-

mediate h i s t o r i c a l - p o l i t i c a l continuum toward a g r e a t e r cons i d e r a t i o n o f the Kingship o f Yahweh over I s r a e l a n d the nations. The continuum o f h i s t o r y was, indeed, t o be t h e
g r o u n d i n which t h i s f u t u r e i d e a l s t a t e e x i s t e d , b u t the c o -

hesiveness o f t h a t continuum d i d n o t r e t a i n t h e same l e v e l

o f s i g n i f i c a n c e as formerly.

J o e l , for example, spoke o f the Such

coming i n t e r v e n t i o n o f Yahweh, b u t he was n o t b o u n d t o n o r

l i m i t e d by the s t r u c t u r e s o f the continuum o f h i s t o r y .

d e s c r i p t i o n s were c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f p o s t - e x i l i c prophecy,
b u t t h e y a r e a l s o f o u n d i n passages which may be dated e a r 567 l i e r , such as Ezek. 38-39 a n d Is. 2 : 2 - 5 .

There appears t o have been a break regarding the p r o phets' commitment t o t h e h i s t o r i c a l continuum a t a p o i n t i n the h i s t o r y o f the prophetic movement. This break was n o t

5 6 7 . There has been, however, no consensus on t h e date o f t h e compost t i o n o f t h e s e passages,

232

e v i d e n t i n Z e c h a r i a h 1-8.

On t h e c o n t r a r y , Z e c h a r i a h was

q u i t e committed t o the h i s t o r i c a l continuum and t o the p o l i t i c a l - s o c i o l o g i c a l s t r u c t u r e s ' c o n t i n u i n g e x i s t e n c e in t h e i r known forms. The L e v i t i c a l prophets o f the C h r o n i c l e r a n d t h e prophet Joel handled the c o n t i n u i t y between p r e s e n t and f u t u r e
i n d i f f e r e n t ways.

They chose t o emphasize d i f f e r e n t i d e a l s J o e l d e s c r i b e d the mani-

of the f a i t h of the community:

f e s t e d , a b s o l u t e f u t u r e K i n g s h i p o f Yahweh; the L e v i t i c a l prophets used p a s t e v e n t s , when t h a t Kingship was r e v e a l e d ,

a s paradigms of e t h i c a l and s p i r i t u a l b e h a v i o r .
figures.

We cannot

affirm a p o s i t i v e i n f l u e n c e o f Zechariah upon t h e s e l a t e r

We a r e l e f t with the s u g g e s t i o n t h a t the c r u c i a l p o i n t s

o f development w i t h i n the p r o p h e t i c movement o c c u r r e d a f t e r

t h e e r a o f Z e c h a r i a h , t h e s e p o i n t s o c c u r r e d c o n c u r r e n t with Z e c h a r i a h ' s m i n i s t r y b u t i n d i f f e r e n t s t r a n d s o f the prophet i c movement or they o c c u r r e d p r i o r t o Z e c h a r i a h a n d he d i d n o t f o l l o w u p on the ' i n n o v a t i o n s ' :

t h a t Z e c h a r i a h d i d not

v l t a l l y p a r t i c i p a t e in the development o f t h e p r o p h e t i c movement a s i t moved toward the e r a o f t h e a p o c a l y p t i s t s . A l s o , an examination o f the e v i d e n c e f a i l e d t o prove the existence o f a prophetic 'world-view' per se.

O n the con-

t r a r y , t h e r e seemed t o be l i t t l e development o f a Jewish world-view p r i o r t o the incursion o f H e l l e n i s t i c i n f l u e n c e d u r i n g and a f t e r the f o u r t h century B.C.
A l t h o u g h t h e r e was

233

an attempt a t c o n s o l i d a t i o n of t h e messages o f the e a r l i e r prophets i n Zechariah 1-8, i t would be improper t o l a b e l t h e r e s u l t o f such a c t i v i t y a r e f l e c t i o n o f a ' w o r l d - v i e w ' . Based upon the evidence a v a i l a b l e , i t appears t h a t Z e c h a r i a h ' s ministry made l i t t l e c o n t i n u i n g d i f f e r e n c e i n the p r o p h e t i c movement i n t h e e a r l y p o s t - e x i l i c p e r i o d . The

n e x t s e c t i o n , ' Z e c h a r i a h 1-8 a n d the I n t e r p r e t a t i o n of Script u r e i n the A p o c a l y p t i c L i t e r a t u r e ' , w i l l examine the i n f l u e n c e o f Zechariah 1-8 on l a t e r thought. F S r s t , however,

i t w i l l be h e l p f u l t o understand how some f e a t u r e s o f Zecha-

r i a h 1-8,

which r e c u r i n the a p o c a l y p t i c l i t e r a t u r e , were These f e a t u r e s were

u t i l i z e d beyond the p r o p h e t i c movement.

i d e a s w h i c h l e n t themselves t o development w i t h i n Jewish l i t e r a t u r e o f the p o s t - e x i l i c p e r i o d . I have s e l e c t e d t h r e e

1) the personi-

m o t i f s u t i l i z e d by the a p o c a l y p t i c w r i t e r s :

f i c a t i o n o f e v i l , 2 ) the s i g n i f i c a n c e o f the r o y a l a n d p r i e s t l y f i g u r e s o f the community a n d 3 ) the emphasis p l a c e d upon c e l e s t i a l beings as m e d i a t o r s between Yahweh a n d H i s creation.

568

1 ) the personification of e v i l The t h r e e r e f e r e n c e s t o a ' p e r s o n i f i e d ' e v i l b e i n g i n t h e O l d Testament e s t a b l i s h e d t h e f i r s t i n d i c a t i o n o f t h e

568. These themes were n e i t h e r c r i t i c a l t o an unders t a n d i n g o f the a p o c a l y p t i c l i t e r a t u r e nor c e n t r a l i n t h e p r o p h e t i c w r i t i n g s . The path o f development, which was r e f l e c t e d o n l y a t p o i n t s by t h e a v a i l a b l e e v i d e n c e , i s beyond the present capacity o f s c h o l a r s h ~ p .

234

l a t e r Jewish conception o f Satan.

569

R.S.

K l u g e r d e a l t with

t h i s c o n c e p t within a framework o f an emerging e n t i t y r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h o s e i n d i v i d u a l s and e v e n t s w h i c h a p p e a r e d t o op570 p o s e God: S a t a n a s one o f t h e ' s o n s o f God' ( J o b bZ), who a f f l i c t s God's f a i t h f u l o n e ; S a t a n a s an o p p o n e n t o f the ' a n g e l o f G o d ' ( Z e c h . 3 : l - 2 ) ; and S a t a n a s an i n d e p e n d e n t demon ( I C h r o n . 21:l).

In t h e m s e l v e s , t h e s e r e f e r e n c e s were

r a t h e r i n c o n s e q u e n t i a l , a s they w e r e r e l a t e d t o the m o t i f o f Yahweh's d i v f n e c o u n c i l , most g r a p h i c a l l y d e s c r i b e d in t h e

Jab passage.
The Hebrew i n e a c h r e f e r e n c e u s e d the w o r d ' a c -

c u s e r ' (low) w i t h o u t the a r t i c l e .

Any s e n s e o f ' o r g a n i z e d '

o p p o s i t i o n t o Yahweh or i n d e p e n d e n t a c t i v i t y was a b s e n t ; the ' a c c u s e r ' c a r r i e d o u t c e r t a i n f u n c t i o n s a s one o f Yahweh's rnfnions

T h e o b s c u r i t y o f r e l i g i o u s d e v e l o p m e n t i n the c e n t u r i e s b e t w e e n Z e c h a r i a h ' s e r a and the a p p e a r a n c e o f the a p o c a l y p t i c

1 i t e r a t u r e means t h a t s c h o l a r s h i p p o s s e s s e s 11t t l e e v i d e n c e
r e g a r d i n g how the i n d i v i d u a l c o n c e p t s c h a n g e d .
A striking

f a c t i s t h a t the a p o c a l y p t i c l l t e r a t u r e p r e s e n t e d many d i f -

ferent p i c t u r e s o f an e v i l b e i n g .
the s e c o n d c e n t u r y B . C .

571

The S a t a n - c o n c e p t o f

presented several, apparently well-

d e v e l o p e d p i c t u r e s o f t h a t b e i n g and was the s o u r c e of the

E . L a n g t o n , E s s e n t i a l s o f Demonoloqy_; T . H . G a s t e r , 'Satan' IDB, v o l . 4 , p p . 2 2 4 - 2 2 8 ; W . F o e r s t e r and K O S c h a f e r dick, 2 Q o C T ( I I V S ~ ' T D N T , VOI V i i , Pp.151-164. 5 7 0 . R . S . Kluger, S a t a n i n the O l d T e s t a m e n t . 571. T.H. G a s t e r , a r t . c i t . , pp.224-228.
569.

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v a r i a t i o n s on the theme o f p e r s o n i f i e d e v i l .

The names

attached t o the Satan-figure a r e i n d i c a t i v e o f t h i s v a r i e t y : S a t a n , B e l i a l / B e l i a r , Mastema, G a d r i e l , Sammael, Asmodeus, Beet zebul

.
Jews,

The Satan-concept developed p a r i k a s s u with o t h e r subj e c t s o f i n t e r e s t w i t h i n the d i f f e r e n t Jewish groups.

f a c e d with the problem o f e v i l i n t h e w o r l d a n d d i r e c t e d a g a i n s t them a s a community of f a i t h , sought t o e x p l a i n the nature o f that e v i l and i t s source. Aware o f the incongu-

i t i e s of e v i l i n a w o r l d God made ' g o o d ' and o f the oppress i o n of God's own p e o p l e , Jewish t h i n k e r s sought ways t o r e c o n c i l e e x p e r i e n c e and o b s e r v a t i o n with t h e i r b e l i e f s r e g a r d i n g t h e i r God a n d H i s ways. The opening c h a p t e r s o f Genesis [e.g. the temptation of
5) and

Adam and E v e ( c h . 3 ) , the t r a n s l a t i o n of Enoch ( c h .

t h e i n t e r c o u r s e between the 'sons of God' and the d a u g h t e r s

o f men (ch. 6 1 p r o v i d e d the means whereby the more s p e c u l a -

t i v e Jews found p o i n t s o f a c c e s s from the mundane w o r l d t o t h e s u p e r n a t u r a l realm.

Within the framework o f t r a d i t i o n a l

Judaism, t h e s e i n d i v i d u a l s were not p r o h i b i t e d from d o i n g a g r e a t deal o f f a n t a s i z i n g about t h e realm of God. Jewish a u t h o r s who employed the concept of S a t a n d i d s o
w i t h i n a framework o f a m o d i f i e d dualism.

572

The s o v e r e i g n t y

o f God was n e v e r q u e s t i o n e d .

The r e b e l l i o u s a n g e l s may have

5 7 2 . C f . 3.6. Gammie, ' S p a t i a l and E t h i c a l Dualism I n t h e A p o c a l y p t i c L i t e r a t u r e ' , JELs 93 ( 1 9 7 4 ) , p . 3 5 7 ,

: :

..

236

been given a l e a d e r a n d they may b a t t l e with those a n g e l s l o y a l to Yahweh ( c f . Dan. 10:13,20), b u t no i n d i c a t i o n was given that the f o r c e s of e v i l would u l t i m a t e l y p r e v a l t . p o p u l a r s t o r i e s l i k e t h a t o f the book o f T o b i t , the happy outcome o f the s t o r y was p r e d i c t a b l e ; the S a t a n f i g u r e and the angel o f God were named as much for convenience i n the t e l l i n g o f the s t o r y t h a n as a mark o f dependence upon p a s t tradition. The conclusion t o these remarks must i n c l u d e the f a c t t h a t Zechariah presented an innocent, undeveloped form o f the S a t a n concept. I t cannot be determined whether Zechariah In

drew h i s image o f the ' a c c u s e r ' from popular b e l i e f o r some o t h e r source; the ' a c c u s e r ' played an e n t i r e l y p a s s i v e r o l e

i n the vision-scene o f Zech. 3 : 1 - 1 0 .

Zechariah's descrip-

t i o n d i d not compare with the f u l l e r development seen in the a p o c a l y p t i c l i t e r a t u r e ( o r in the non-apocalyptic works o f the same e r a ) ; these authors d i d draw upon popular b e l i e f s
and .foreign concepts.

I t would be presumptuous t o say t h a t

these l a t e r authors b u i l t upon the l e g i t i m a t i o n provided by the t h r e e S c r i p t u r e r e f e r e n c e s mentioned above; these v e r s e s cannot account f o r the v a r i e t y o f d e s c r i p t i o n contained i n the l a t e r w r i t i n g s .
2 ) the s i g n i f i c a n c e o f the royal a n d p r i e s t l y f i g u r e s

Within the h i s t o r i c a l s i t u a t i o n o f the r e s t o r a t i o n community, the r o l e s o f the royal scion a n d the head o f the

237

p r i e s t l y o r d e r s were i n a s t a t e o f t r a n s i t i o n .

Zechariah

c e r t a i n l y gave l e g i t i m a t i o n t o Zerubbabel a n d Joshua as the c u r r e n t l e a d e r s of the community. Joshua, the h i g h p r i e s t ,

was accorded a g r e a t e r s t a t u r e t h a n h i s p r e - e x i l i c predecess o r s ( t h i s may have been a r e f l e c t i o n o f the p r e s t i g e gained

d u r i n g the e x i l e when, in the absence o f the kingship,

p r i e s t l y l e a d e r s h i p moved to the f o r e ) .

Zerubbabel, a des-

cendant o f D a v i d , was a c i v i l r u l e r appointed by the P e r s i a n s . I t appears t h a t , i n Zechariah's e y e s , he measured u p n e i t h e r t o the s t a t u r e nor the promise o f e a r l i e r kings o f J u d a h ( y e t he may have been viewed a s a type o f o r a 'connection' t o the 'branch', which would come t o r u l e ) .

Z e r u b b a b e l , in p a r t i c u l a r , has been d e c l a r e d by some s c h o l a r s t o be r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f a s t a g e i n the growth o f the Messiah b e l i e f ' i n l a t e r J u d a i s m . The Messianic con-

s c i o u s n e s s o f the Jews ( t h e expectation o f a God-sent d e l i v e r e r who would r o u t t h e i r enemies) gained p a r t i c u l a r s t r e n g t h d u r i n g the e r a o f the apoca-lyptic l i t e r a t u r e ' s popul a r i t y ; i t included a number o f f i g u r e s , p r i m a r i l y patterned
on the r o y a l person, which gave form and substance t o the

n a t i o n a l i s t i c Jewish f u t u r e hope. The d o c t r i n e o f the Messiah was not found uniformly throughout the a p o c a l y p t i c l i t e r a t u r e , being absent from s e v e r a l major works,
573

and was present i n non-apocalyptic

5 7 3 . C f . P O V i e l h a u e r , ' I n t r o d u c t i o n : Apocalypses and R e l a t e d S u b j e c t s ' , New Testament Apocrypha, v o l . 2 , ed. R. Mct. Wilson ( o r i g . German e d . , E Hennecke), p . 5 9 4 .

238

w r i t i n g s o f the same p e r i o d .

The Messiah f i g u r e was not

d e s c r i b e d c o n s i s t e n t l y ; t h i s personage took s e v e r a l d i f f e r e n t forms.

S. Mowinckel surveyed the expectations o f and the be-

l i e f s concerning the Messiah f i g u r e i n Jewish l i t e r a t u r e .

574

He p o s i t e d a gradual growth o f the b e l i e f i n a Messiah from the e x p e c t a t i o n o f an i d e a l k i n g (which was i t s e l f embedded

i n the s o i l o f the s a c r a l kingship o f ancient Near Eastern

myth). He made a g r e a t d i v i s i o n between the h i s t o r i c a l e r a

of the Old Testament S c r i p t u r e s (except D a n i e l ) and the

second century B.C. literature. Z e c h a r i a h ' s d e s c r i p t i o n s o f the royal and p r i e s t l y f i g u r e s , when placed in h i s t o r i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e with the Messianic f i g u r e s o f the a p o c a l y p t i c l i t e r a t u r e , appear t o have been p i v o t a l . One may not be permitted to speak o f an

f o r Z e c h a r i a h ' s d e s c r i p t i o n s were 575 characteristically restrained; b u t one may see in Zechar i a h 1-8 the s c r i p t u r a l
I

'eschatological aura',

j u s t i f i c a t i o n ' f o r the development

of the Messiah b e l i e f a n d f o r the j u x t a p o s i t i o n o f two ' m e s s i a n i c ' f i g u r e s i n the l a t e r c e n t u r i e s . The d i f f i c u l t y

o f d i s c e r n i n g a l i n e o f c o n t i n u i t y from the s i x t h century t o 576 the second century B . C . was w e l l - d e f i n e d by F . Hesse:

I t i s very d i f f i c u l t t o r e c o n s t r u c t a h i s t o r y o f the Messianic movement i n I s r a e l

574. 575. 576. TDNT, v o l .

Cp. i b i d . , p.119. F. Hesse i n W. Grundmann e t a l , 'xp;o i x , p.509.

S . Mowinckel, He That Cometh.

et al',

239
and p o s t - e x i l i c Judaism...There undoubtedly must have been such a movement. I t may be concluded from the f a c t t h a t Messianism emerges i n t o the c l e a r l i g h t of h i s t o r y i n l a t e r cent u r i e s . . . a s a movement with hundreds o f y e a r s of h i s t o r y behind i t . B u t many questions remain: What was the course o f i t s h i s t o r y ? D i d a Josiah h e l p t o promote Messianism i n the p r e - e x i l i c p e r i o d ? I s Nehemiah t o be understood i n the l i g h t o f the movement a f t e r the e x i l e ? Does the movement a f f e c t a l l Jews o r i s i t r e s t r i c t e d t o a few? Does i t stand i n o p p o s i t i o n t o o t h e r trends o r was i t a b l e t o transcend them? D i d i t f i n d i t s adherents i n every age o r was i t more o r l e s s extinguished a t times? To these questions no assured answers can as y e t be given.

The r o o t s o f the Messianic b e l i e f were deeply i n t e r woven i n the e a r l i e s t s t r a t a o f the Old Testament: i d e o l o g y o f the d i v i n e k i n g and the royal Psalms. the Over the

c e n t u r i e s , t h i s c o n s t e l l a t i o n o f b e l i e f s was l i f t e d from the c u l t and was g r a d u a l l y transformed a n d r e c a s t in an eschatol o g i c a l frame.

577

This was accomplished throughout the

pos t-exi 15 c p e r i o d .
I f Mowinckel was c o r r e c t , the ' e q u a l i t y ' granted t o the

h i g h p r i e s t by Zechariah a n d the p o s t - e x i l i c community d i d

not remain a t e n e t o f popular b e l i e f .

578

The high p r i e s t

was i n c r e a s i n g l y regarded as the l e a d e r o f the community;

U
L

577. S . Mowinckel, Psalmenstudien 1 1 , pp.297-311; I . E n g n e l l , 'The Messiah in the Old T estament', C r i t i c a l Essi - Old . on t-h e Testament,- p.221; H . Ringgren, The Messil O l d T estament, p.38; A . Bentzen, King and h e s s i a k . - . d 0 . i'he statement assumes t h a t the r u l e 01 t n e pc1s te x i l k cornmunfty was a dyarchy ( r u l e by t w o co-equal p e r s o n s ) , noted by such s c h o l a r s a s 6. von Rad, O l d Testament Theology Such an assumption does not enjoy u n i v e r s a l 11, p.287. acceptance.

240

b u t , u n t i l the establishment o f the Qurnran group, the impor-

tance given t o a ' f u t u r e k i n g ' was n o t shared with a ' f u t u r e priest'.

579

Within the main body o f Judaism, the ' L e v i t i c a l

Messiah' appears t o have been only the r e f l e c t i o n of hopes a s s o c i a t e d with the Hasmonean dynasty. In h i s d i s c u s s i o n o f the v a r i e t y of Messianic b e l i e f s

in the a p o c a l y p t i c l i t e r a t u r e , Mowinckel argued t h a t these

d i v e r g e n t conceptions developed from one c e n t r a l i d e a : the e x p e c t a t i o n o f an i d e a l son o f D a v i d .
580

The v a r i e t y o f

M e s s i a n i c f i g u r e s was a t t r i b u t e d to the p e c u l i a r circumstances of the second and f i r s t c e n t u r i e s B.C.

581

The d i f -

f e r e n t f i g u r e s , the v a r i o u s ways they were adapted t o the a u t h o r s ' programs f o r the f u t u r e and the l a c k o f mentfon o f

a Messiah i n much o f the l i t e r a t u r e g i v e s the impression o f

the k i n d o f i n d i v i d u a l i s t i c s p e c u l a t i o n rampant i n much o f the apocalyptic l i t e r a t u r e .
3 ) the emphasis o f c e l e s t i a l beings

The d e s c r i p t i o n s o f c e l e s t i a l b e i n g s , o f t e n c a l l e d

+-L
t

5 7 9 . Cf. M O Barker, 'The Two Figures i n Z e c h a r i a h ' , He 3 x v i i i (1977), pp.38-46; 3 . L i v e r , 'The Doctrine o f the W O Messiahs i n S e c t a r i a n L i t e r a t u r e i n the Time o f the Second Commonwealth', HThR l i i (1959), pp.149-185; A . J . B . H i g g i n s , ' P r i e s t and M e s s i a h ' V T i f i (1953), pp.321-326; F . S . North, 'Aaron's R i s e i n br=tige'-, ZAW I x v i (1954), pp.191-199. 580. Cf. H . H . Rowley, 'The S u f f e r i n g Servant and the D a v i d i c Messiah', The Servant o f the L o r d and Other Essays on the O l d Testament, pp.63-93, and the l i t e r a t u r e t h e r e cited. 581. S . Mowinckel, op. c i t . , pp.286-289.

241
a n g e l s ( c f . Gen. 19:1), a r e found t h r o u g h o u t the Old Testament; r e f e r e n c e s t o them were made in the Pentateuch and the h i s t o r i o g r a p h i c works, the wisdom l i t e r a t u r e and the pro582 phetic writings. References t o the a n g e l s were minimal

i n the p r e - e x i l i c p e r i o d , s i n c e there was a strong impetus

t o a s s e r t Yahweh as the s o l e supernatural b e i n g . However,

popular b e l f e f s were n o t e a s i l y c o n t r o l l e d . Leading c i r c l e s 583 but that belfef s e v e r e l y discounted a b e l i e f i n a n g e l s ,

d i d f i n d r e p r e s e n t a t i o n in the Old Testament record ( c f . 1 Kings 22:19-23).

D u r i n g the e x i l e and l a t e r , the concept o f a n g e l s became an i n c r e a s i n g l y important appendage t o the b e l i e f system o f Judaism. The u t i l i z a t i o n o f a n g e l i c f i g u r e s has

been t r a c e d i n the p r o p h e t i c movement through Ezekiel a n d Zechariah although, a s noted above, the o t h e r l i t e r a r y groupings o f the O l d Testament were not l a c k i n g r e f e r e n c e s to angels. Amon-g the reasons f o r the i n c r e a s e d use o f an1 ) the emphasis upon the transcendent

g e l i c f i g u r e s were:

nature o f Yahweh, which r e q u i r e d the e x i s t e n c e o f mediators between H i m a n d His c r e a t i o n , a n d 2 ) the i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f the source o f e v i l , which h a d traced r e s p o n s i b i l i t y for e v i l t o the supernatural realm, could n o t be l a i d t o Yahweh's ac584 count.

582. G . E . Wright, The Old Testament A g a i n s t I t s E n v i ronment, p p . 3 0 - 3 4 , a n d the l i t e r a t u r e t h e r e c i t e d . 5 8 3 . W . E i c h r o d t , Theology o f the O l d Testament, v o l . 1 1 , p.198. 584. DoS. R u s s e l l , The Method and Message o f Jewish Apocalyptic, pp.237f.

242

G. von Rad c a u t i o n e d a g a i n s t the c o n s t r u c t i o n of an

a n g e l o l o g y of t h e e a r l i e r y e a r s o f t h e p o s t - e x i l i c p e r i o d because he c o u l d d i s c e r n no systematic u s a g e o f t h e angel concept i n t h e s u r v i v i n g works. He d e c l a r e d t h a t t h e deve-

lopment o f a n g e l o l o g y was n o t uniform a t any time and t h a t the c e l e s t i a l b e i n g s o f Zechariah 1-8 were unique and b o r e 585 a s t r o n g l y i n d i v i d u a l i s t i c imprint. A l s o , the s u b j e c t o f angel s p e c u l a t i o n was suppressed by t h e l a t e r Sadducees
a n d by H e l l e n i s t i c r a t i o n a l i s m , w h i l e R a b b i n i c J u d a i s m , many

a p o c a l y p t i c w r i t e r s a n d the Essenes f e l t f r e e t o i n c o r p o r a t e

a n angel motif in t h e i r compositions.

The f a c t o f d e v e l o p -

ment i s unquestioned a n d von Rad w i s e l y ruled out the poss i b i l i t y o f tracing i t accurately. I t i s d i f f i c u l t t o see

t h e c o n n e c t i o n , i f i t i s a d i r e c t one, between t h e c e l e s t i a l f i g u r e s o f Z e c h a r i a h 1-8 a n d the v a r i e t y o f a n g e l s mentioned later: ' s p i r i t s of phenomena' ( I Enoch), h e a v e n l y b o d i e s

a n d weather a n g e l s ( J u b i l e e s ) , a n g e l s o f t h e n a t i o n s and t h e

t h e h i e r a r c h y o f a n g e l s ( T o b i t ) , t h e angel 586 armies a n d t h e a r c h a n g e l s (I Enoch). These b r i e f statements concerning t h r e e f e a t u r e s which Z e c h a r i a h 1-8 shared with the a p o c a l y p t i c l i t e r a t u r e ( a n d

seasons ( l Q H ) ,

'/ g t g X o 4 585. G . von Rad i n W . Grundmann e t a l , I a et a l l , TDNT, v o l . i , pp.76-80. '586. T.H. G a s t e r , ' A n g e l ' 8 -I D B , v o l . 1 , p.32.

243
o t h e r , non-apocalyptic t r a d i t i o n s ) b r i n g one i n e s c a p a b l e fact to light: the l a c k o f i n f o r m a t i o n concerning t h e l a t e r

s t a g e s of t h e p o s t - e x i l i c p e r i o d makes any i n v e s t i g a t i o n teeuous a n d c e r t a i n t y v i r t u a l l y i m p o s s i b l e . The development

of the v a r i o u s m o t i f s in a composition cannot be t r a c e d exc e p t in t h e b r o a d e s t terms p o s s i b l e . A l s o , s i n c e many of t h e concepts a r e found o u t s i d e t h e p r o p h e t i c l i t e r a t u r e and t h e a p o c a l y p t i c w r i t i n g s , one cannot connect Z e c h a r i a h 1-8 t o t h e a p o c a l y p t i c c i r c l e s s o l e l y on the b a s f s of u t i l i z a t i o n o f t h e same themes.

IV.

Z e c h a r i a h 1-8 and the I n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f S c r i p t u r e i n the A p o c a l y p t i c L i t e r a t u r e T h i s s e c t i o n was w r i t t e n with the assumption t h a t t h e r e

was d i r e c t i n f l u e n c e of Z e c h a r i a h 1-8 on the t h e o l o g i c a l m i l i e u and/or the w r i t e r s of l a t e r g e n e r a t i o n s of t h e Jewish people. The a u t h o r i t y of S c r i p t u r e i n t h i s e r a n a t u r a l l y

s u r p a s s e d any personal i n f l u e n c e Z e c h a r i a h himself may have 587 T h i s S c r i p t u r e formed the accepted f o u n d a t i o n exercised. upon which t h e a p o c a l y p t i c w r i t e r s b u i l t t h e i r d e s c r i p t i o n s of heaven a n d the f u t u r e . The body of p r o p h e t i c w r i t i n g s ,

c o n s i d e r e d s a c r e d by the mainstream o f t h e Jewish community, 588 had achieved a c e r t a i n content and s t r u c t u r e . T h i s canon i n c l u d e d Z e c h a r i a h 1-8.

587. Z e c h a r i a h ' s ' p e r s o n a l i n f l u e n c e m i g h t have been made known through a group o f d i s c i p l e s ( i f he had o n e ) . 588. C f . G.W. Anderson, 'Canonical and Non-Canonical', The Cambridge H i s t o r y of the B i b l e , v o l . 1 , pp.113-159.
.

..

244 Ben Sira, writing in the e a r l y p a r t of the second century B . C . ,

r e f l e c t e d the consensus o f the contents o f the he mentioned I s a i a h , Jeremiah, E z e k i e l and

p r o p h e t i c canon:

the Twelve i n t h e i r modern c a n o n i c a l sequence ( 4 8 : 2 2 , 49:6-10). T h i s f a c t has l e d modern s c h o l a r s t o a c c e p t with-

o u t s e r i o u s q u e s t i o n t h e view t h a t the p r o p h e t i c canon was c l o s e d p r i o r t o t h i s time. This f a c t a l s o 'determined the The

a p o c a l y p t i c w r i t e r s ' view o f the p r o p h e t i c w r i t i n g s . arguments o f S.Z.

Leiman and 3 . Blenkinsopp, f o r examples,

r e g a r d i n g e a r l y o r l a t e c l o s u r e o f the p r o p h e t i c canon were concerned with the years' p r i o r t o the composition o f Ben S i r a ' s teachings.

589

The a p o c a l y p t i c w r i t e r s , w h i l e they may

have h e l d d i f f e r i n g views on the c a n o n i c a l s t a n d i n g o f any g i v e n contemporary w r i t i n g , l i k e l y accepted the o l d e r books

( a t l e a s t the Books o f Moses a n d the p r o p h e t i c w o r k s ) as i n -

spired and d i v i n e l y s e t apart.

3 . B l e n k i n s o p p , i n d e s c r i b i n g the development o f t h e

p r o p h e t i c canon which emerged i n the l a t e r c e n t u r i e s , made r e f e r e n c e t o a reworking o f the p r o p h e t i c books i n the s i x t h 590 E . C . G.M. Tucker, i n v e s t i g a t i n g the s u p e r s c r l p century t i o n s o f the v a r i o u s p r o p h e t i c books, concluded t h a t t h e r e
h a d been a mid-sixth century d e u t e r o n o m i s t i c r e d a c t l o n o f 591 these w r i t i n g s . Blenkinsopp understood t h e s e a c t i v i t i e s

589. S . Z . Leiman, The C a n o n i z a t i o n of the Hebrew S c r i p t u r e s , pp.27-29; 3 . Blenkinsopp, op. c i t . , pp.96-123. 590. 3 . Blenkinsopp, 1)p. c i t . , p.102. 591. G.M. Tucker, ' P r o p h e n S u p e r s c r i p t i o n s and t h e Growth o f the Canon', Canon and A u t h o r i t y , ed. G.W. Coats a n d B . O . Long, p . 6 9 .

245

a s i n d i c a t o r s of a p o p u l a r conception o f prophecy a s a p a s t phenomenon a n d o f a p r i m i t i v e s e n s e o f canon. He s u g g e s t e d

t h a t the many r e f e r e n c e s t o t h e 'former p r o p h e t s ' and the f r e q u e n t a l l u s i o n s t o e a r l i e r p r o p h e t i c w r i t i n g s by t h e e a r l y p o s t - e x i l i c prophets comprised a f i r s t ' r e c y c l i n g ' o f 592 c i t a t i o n s o f an e a r l y canon within the p r o p h e t i c movement. I cannot g i v e s u p p o r t t o the statements o f 0 . P l d g e r and t h o s e who s u p p o r t h i s views t h a t the e s c h a t o l o g i c a l conv e n t i c l e s , which s e p a r a t e d from the theocracy i n the e a r l y p o s t - e x i l i c p e r i o d , were the d i r e c t f o r e b e a r e r s o f t h e apoc a l y p t l c a u t h o r s o f the second century B.C. The c o n s o l i d a Zech.

t i o n of the w r i t i n g s of t h e s e c o n v e n t i c l e s ( I s . 56-66,

9-14,

M a l a c h i ) with the accepted p r o p h e t i c w r i t i n g s ( i . e .

t h o s e a c c e p t e d by the t h e o c r a c y ) r e q u i r e d the c e s s a t i o n o f h o s t i l i t i e s between the groups a n d that p r i o r t o the time o f 593 Ben S i r a . P . D . Hanson acknowledged such a p e r i o d , p o i n t i n g t o t h e r e l a x i n g o f t e n s i o n s d u r i n g the e r a o f the 594 C h ron i c 1er-. Such a j o i n i n g o f l i t e r a t u r e d i d o c c u r : the
wrl t i n g s o f the T r i t o - I s a i a n i c groups were n a t u r a l l y ap-

pended t o the I s a i a n i c c o r p u s , w h i l e the o t h e r c o n v e n t i c l e

5 9 2 . 3 . Blenkinsopp, c i t . , p.102. 593. Ben S i r a r e f e r r e d t o t h e ' t w e l v e p r o p h e t s ' , o f which Malachi was a s s u r e d l y one. The a u t h o r o f Malachi had been a c o n v e n t i c l e f i g u r e . T h e r e f o r e we can conclude t h a t t h e c o n v e n t i c l e p r o p h e t i c works h a d been appended t o t h e o t h e r c a n o n i c a l works e a r l y enough f o r the t i t l e ' t h e t w e l v e p r o p h e t s ' t o g a i n acceptance and c u r r e n c y . 594. P.D. Hanson, O J . c j t . , pp.269-279.

x.

246

w r i t i n g s were p l a c e d at t h e end o f t h e book o f the s m a l l e r p r o p h e t i c books.

595

I t was t h i s body o f S c r i p t u r e which was i n h e r i t e d by the Jewish communities o f the second century B . C .
I t co-

e x i s t e d with a p l e t h o r a o f d i f f e r e n t kinds o f l i t e r a t u r e , each of which had drawn i n s p l r a t i o n a n d form from t h i s Scripture.

L E . Gowan has grouped these writings, c a l l e d the

apocryphal and p s e u d e p i g r a p h i c a l b o o k s , within the f o l l o w i n g 596 categories: R e v i s i o n a n d Completion o f S c r i p t u r e The B i b l e R e w r f t t e n and Expanded Edifying Stories Testaments Apocalyptic Post-Btblfcal History Wisdom Psalms a n d P r a y e r s The i n t e r p r e t a t i o n a n d reworking o f S c r i p t u r e i n t h e a p o c a l y p t i c l i t e r a t u r e has been analyzed by s c h o l a r s such a s

1. Hartman and D. P a t t e .

597

P a t t e ' s work was o f s p e c i a l

i n t e r e s t s i n c e h i s primary t o p i c was hermeneutics, t h e interp r e t a t i o n o f S c r i p t u r e in c l a s s i c a l and s e c t a r i a n Judaism o f t h i s period.

M y immediate f o c u s w i l l be upon p o r t i o n s o f the apoca-

lyptic literature.

I mean to a n a l y z e t h e s e w r i t i n g s a c c o r d i n g

t o t h e two l i n e s o f t e n s i o n which P a t t e r e c o g n i z e d within

3 . Blenkinsopp, c i t * p.108. 339f DoE. Gowan, B r i dIge g e Between the Testaments, pp. pp.339f. iphecy I n t e r p r e t e d , and D . P L . Hartman, Prophecy Pa at t e , E a r l y Jewish Hermeneutic i n P a l e s t i n e .
595. 596. 597.

s. -. --

247
thfs literature: 1 ) t h e t e n s i o n between t h e a u t h o r i t y o f
598

S c r i p t u r e and t h e t r a d i t i o n s of t h e w o r s h i p p i n g community
599

and 2 ) t h e t e n s i o n between t h e p a t h o f c u r r e n t h i s t o r y a n d
the p a t t e r n s u g g e s t e d i n S c r i p t u r e .

The c o n g r e g a t i o n , a s t h e embodiment o f a l l t h a t S c r i p t u r e t a u g h t r e g a r d i n g t h i s l i f e a s p l e a s i n g t o God, a c t u a l l y came

t o a p l a c e where i t r e l e g a t e d S c r i p t u r e t o a secondary p o s i 600 t i o n a n d became in i t s e l f a s e p a r a t e l o c u s o f r e v e l a t i o n .

The a u t h o r i t y o f S c r i p t u r e was s e t a s i d e , i n much t h e same
way t h a t t h e P h a r i s e e s o f J e s u s ' day denied by t h e i r l i v e s

the w e i g h t y m a t t e r s o f Torah (Matt. 2 3 : 2 3 - 2 4 ) . The a p o c a l y p t i c w r i t e r s a l s o were keen t o d i s c o v e r t h e path o f h i s t o r y from t h e i r day t o the f u t u r e , t h e u n f o l d i n g o f God's d e s t i n y f o r the community. P a t t e p o i n t e d o u t how

some a p o c a l y p t i s t s j o i n e d contemporary h i s t o r i c a l e v e n t s t o 601 the broad e s c h a t o l o g i c a l p a t t e r n d e r i v e d from S c r i p t u r e . There was a d r a m a t i c c o n j o i n i n g o f p a s t and p r e s e n t i n the a p o c a l y p t i c l i t e r a t u r e which e n a b l e d i t s a u t h o r s t o e x p l o r e t h e f u t u r e a n d the s u p e r n a t u r a l realm. The Qumran commentary

on Habakkuk was a v i v i d example o f how a group c o u l d r e a d i t s

.c i t . , p . 2 0 6 . 598. D. P a t t e , E 599. I b i d . , p p . 8 5 f . P a t t e s u g g e s t e d that t h e p a t t e r n f o r t h e ' e n a m e s ' , which was i t s e l f deduced from S c r i p t u r e r e f e r e n c e s , was t h e means by which coming events c o u l d be p r e d i c t e d by the a p o c a l y p t i c w r i t e r s . 6 0 0 . D. P a t t e , l o c . c S t . 601. Ibid 9 pp.VT-lT5.

248

e x i s t e n c e back i n t o the words o f S c r i p t u r e . The examples I have s e l e c t e d from the a p o c a l y p t i c literature are:

D a n . 8-12,

I Enoch 6-36,

I Enoch 85-90,

the

b o o k o f J u b i l e e s , Testamentum L e v i (from the Testaments of

the Twelve P a t r i a r c h s ) a n d the War o f the Sons o f L i g h t A g a i n s t the Sons of Darkness (1QM). They a r e n o t , perhaps,

a s r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f the a p o c a l y p t i c l i t e r a t u r e a s they m i g h t
be.

Most were, however, i d e n t i f i e d as examples o f the genre.

They were f a i r l y e a r l y w r i t i n g s , with c l e a r l i n k s t o a community o f f a i t h a n d t o the e a r l i e r canonical t r a d i t i o n s . They e x h i b i t e d , on the whole, a higher l e v e l of c r e a t i v i t y 602 t h a n that found i n the l a t e r a p o c a l y p t i c writings.
One o f the unfortunate problems o f t h i s study i s the

l a c k o f an expressed d o c t r i n e o f S c r i p t u r e .

There was no
603

s t a r t i n g p o i n t f o r the study o f the use and i n t e r p r e t a t i o n

o f S c r i p t u r e in the a p o c a l y p t i c l i t e r a t u r e .

What I am

attempting t o d o i s t o demonstrate the r o l e o f S c r i p t u r e i n the community o f f a i t h a n d the use o f S c r i p t u r e in t h a t community's coming t o terms with the p r e s s u r e caused by the
t

events o f contemporary h i s t o r y . passages, identifying:

I intend t o examine these

1 ) the u t i l f z a t i o n of c u r r e n t e v e n t s ,

2 ) the employment o f group t r a d l t i o n s a n d 3 ) the d i r e c t use

o f Scripture.

These concepts, in t e n s i o n , played d i f f e r e n t

602. D. P a t t e , o c i t . , pp.197-199. A n author's c r e a t i v i t y must be ba a n c e d w i t h h i s employment o f t h e tradit i o n s o f the community. 603. I b i d , p.141.
0

. f

249

r o l e s in t h e s t r u c t u r e o f t h e p a s s a g e s which made u p t h e a p o c a l y p t i c works. 1. D a n i e l 8-12

D a n i e l 8-12 was g e n e r a l l y r e g a r d e d a s the l a s t p o r t i o n 604 of t h e book of Daniel t o be composed. The e d i f y i n g s t o r i e s o f D a n . 1-6 and the v i s i o n o f ch. 7 were b e l i e v e d t o stem from s o u r c e s of an e a r l i e r d a y , brought t o g e t h e r around 605 167-163 B . C . , the p e r i o d i n which ch. 8-12 were w r i t t e n .
606 poi n t s :

A n a n a l y s i s of Dan. 8-12 r e v e a l e d t h e f o l l o w i n g

1 ) t h e h i s t o r i c a l r e v i e w ( v a t i c i n i u m ex e v e n t u ) 607 was u t i l i z e d a s the backbone o f the d i f f e r e n t s e c t i o n s .

Dan. 8 was an independent unit comprised o f v i s i o n - s c e n e a n d

interpretation.

I t d e s c r i b e d the t r a n s f e r o f empire power

the i n c r e a s e o f S e l e u c i d

from P e r s i a t o Greece ( 8 : 3 - 7 ) , power (8:9-10) (8:11-14).

a n d the s u p p r e s s i o n o f the Jewish r e l i g i o n

The i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h e scene d e c l a r e d t h a t t h e

e v i l s p e r p e t r a t e d by the S e l e u c i d s would come t o an end ( c f . 8:25). The d e t a i l s o f the v i s i o n - s c e n e and i n t e r p r e t a t i o n

were e m b e l l i s h e d through the use o f a d i a l o g u e between the

I
t

6060 Cf. R . J . C l i f f o r d , ' H i s t o r y and Myth i n Daniel 10-12', BASOR 120 (1975), p p . 2 3 - 2 6 ; 3.6. Gamrnie, 'The C l a s s i f f c a t i o n , S t a g e s o f Growth, a n d Changing I n t e n t i o n s i n t h e Book o f D a n i e l ' , JBL 9 5 (1976), pp.191-204; E . Osswald, 'Zur Problem d e r v a t i c i a ex e v e n t u ' , ZAW l x x v (1963), pp.27-44. 607. 0 . E i s s f e l d t , O J . c i t . , p.527.

604. 605. p.232.

W.

0. E i s s f e l d t , o
Zimmerli,

. c i t . , pp.520f. 03 Testament Theology

i n Outline,

250 s e e r and t h e a n g e l . Dan. 9 a l s o p r e s e n t e d a unity of c o n s t r u c t i o n (9:4-20

was g e n e r a l l y acknowledged t o h a v e been a d e u t e r o n o m i s t i c 608 p r a y e r added by the a u t h o r o r an e d i t o r ). The c h a p t e r

c o n t e n t s r e l a t e d a ' d i s c o v e r y ' made by Daniel in h i s study

of t h e book of Jeremiah ( 9 : 1 - 2 ) ,
4-20)

h i s p e t i t i o n t o God ( 9 : 3 ,

and t h e r e s p o n s e o f God in the form o f a n a n g e l i c v i s i with a message r e g a r d i n g f u t u r e e v e n t s .

t a t i o n (9:21-27),

P e r i o d s o f 'weeks o f y e a r s ' r e p l a c e d t h e animal symbolism o f ch. 8 a s the means o f r e p r e s e n t i n g t h e h i s t o r i c a l p e r i o d s i n volved. The purpose o f t h i s c h a p t e r was t h e same a s t h a t o f t o show t h a t God intended ' t o make an end

the p r e c e d i n g one: to evil' ( 9 9 4 ) .

Dan. 10-12 was the most e m b e l l i s h e d v i s i o n o f t h e book

o f Daniel, r e s t a t i n g i n considerable d e t a i l the general i n t e n t o f ch.
E)

and 9.

T h i s s e c t i o n opened with a d e s c r i p t i o n

of D a n i e l ' s p r e p a r a t i o n s , a d e s c r l p t i o n o f t h e angel and D a n i e l ' s r e a c t i o n t o the v i s i t a t i o n (1O:l-9) a n d an i n t r o d u c t i o n (1O:lO-21). Persian (11:l-2) The h i s t o r i c a l r e v i e w i n c l u d e d t h e r u l e r s and t h e continu-

and Greek (11:3-4)

ous h o s t i l i t i e s between the P t o l e m i e s and t h e S e l e u c i d s (11:5-16). The S e l e u c i d line-Antiochus

I 1 1 (11:15-19),
climaxed

S e l e u c u s I V (11:20) a n d Antiochus I V (ll:21-39)--was

by a c o n f r o n t a t i o n between the l a t t e r and t h e a n t i - H e l l e n f s t , i c

CO8. 0 . E i s s f e l d t , op. c i t . , p.529; 3 . 3 . C o l l i n s , T h e A p o c a l y p t i c V i s i o n s of t h e B o o k o f Danfel, p.20.

251
Jews ( 1 1 : 3 0 - 3 3 ) .

This was t o t r i g g e r t h e a u t h o r ' s s p e c u l a -

t i o n a s t o how the p e r s e c u t i o n would end a n d how the t y r a n t would be c u t o f f

(11:40-45, 12:l).
They were r e c o r d e d because t h e a u t h o r

The persons a n d e v e n t s o f h i s t o r y formed the matrix f o r these f i v e chapters.

b e l i e v e d them t o p o i n t t o the c r i s i s o f the current day and, more i m p o r t a n t l y , through t h a t day t o the imminent time when the i n t e n t i o n s o f God were t o be accomplished. times o f t h e r e v o l t o f 167-163 B . C . The momentous

in t h e h i s t o r y of t h e

Jews a t t r a c t e d the f u l l a t t e n t i o n o f the a u t h o r ; he was concerned mainly with d e s c r i b i n g the end o f the t r o u b l e i n which t h e Jewish community f o u n d i t s e l f .
2 ) t h e b e l i e f s a n d t r a d i t i o n s o f the Jewish community were

s u b o r d i n a t e d t o the a b o v e - s t a t e d purpose of t h e a u t h o r . i s n o t t o i n f e r t h e i r i n s i g n i f i c a n c e i n h i s eyes.

This

On the

c o n t r a r y , he h e l d t o t h e i r v a l u e ; they were the c a u s e o f t h e r e v o l t a g a i n s t Antiochus IV. However, they formed o n l y a t h e r e were r e -

p a r t of t h e background t o t h e s e c h a p t e r s :

f e r e n c e s t o the Temple, the p r i e s t h o o d , the Jewish r e l i g i o n (the 'covenant') a n d the ' w i s e '

(the Jewish t e a c h e r s o f

11:30-33).

The a u t h o r h e l d t o a p e c u l i a r b e l i e f i n the r e -

s u r r e c t i o n (122-3), i n that i t s e r v e d a s a means f o r punish-

it i

ment o f t h e wicked and f o r r e w a r d i n g the r i g h t e o u s . t h e framework o f t h e s e c h a p t e r s , e s p e c i a l l y ch. 9-10,

Within

prayer

and r e p e n t a n c e , s a c r i f f c e and f a s t i n g , a n d the importance o f S c c i p t u r c were acknowledged.

More s t r e s s was n o t p l a c e d

252

upon t h e s e s u b j e c t s because they were n o t c e n t r a l t o t h e a u t h o r ' s message.

On a more a b s t r a c t l e v e l , i t i s p o s s i b l e t o d i s c e r n i n
t h e s e c h a p t e r s t h a t the a u t h o r h a d g i v e n i m p l i c i t a s s e n t t o

a b e l i e f i n God's K i n g s h i p , His superintendence o f t h e f l o w

of h i s t o r y a n d His d e t e r m i n a t i o n t o recompense t h o s e who d o e v i l , e s p e c i a l l y those who a c t a g a i n s t His f a i t h f u l p e o p l e . The p o i n t s rn-ust be made t h a t the author d i d n o t mention t h e s e d o c t r i n e s e x p l i c i t l y and that they e x i s t e d o n l y a s background t o h i s writing t a s k .
He was p r e s e n t i n g h i s view o f t h e c u l -

mination o f a wicked w o r l d ' s o p p r e s s i o n o f God's p e o p l e i n o r d e r t o r e a d y h i s p e o p l e f o r the overthrow o f t h e wicked powers of t h e w o r l d i n t h e i r day.

3 ) t h e use o f S c r i p t u r e , i n l i g h t o f t h e g r e a t w e i g h t g i v e n

t o h i s t o r i c a l l y - r e l a t e d a f f a i r s i n Dan. 8-12, t o be minimal.

would appear

The r e f e r e n c e s to p r o p h e t i c a n d o t h e r

w r i t i n g s , which were r e c o r d e d i n v a r i o u s s t u d i e s and cornment a r i e s , a r e u s u a l l y l i t t l e more t h a n a l l u s i o n s , p h r a s e s or word-usage more o r l e s s common t o the language comprehension
o f Jews o f the second century B.C.
609

There was no c o n s c i o u s

attempt on the p a r t o f the a u t h o r t o u t i l i z e S c r i p t u r e . T h i s i s not t o s u g g e s t that S c r i p t u r e was t o t a l l y exc l u d e d from t h e a u t h o r ' s mental p r o c e s s e s ; i t was an Impor-

6 0 9 . G.W.E. N i c k e l b u r g , R e s u r r e c t i o n , I m m o r t a l i t y , and E t e r n a l L i f e i n I n t e r - t e s t a m e n t a l J udaism, pp.19-22.

253
t a n t s o u r c e o f t h e Jews' b e l t e f .

A n a u t h o r ' s b e l i e f s were
Thus

molded by t h e b e l i e f s and t r a d i t i o n s which h a d developed

from the body o f b e l i e f s informed by S c r i p t u r e .

S c r i p t u r e p l a y e d a r o l e , a l b e i t an i n d i r e c t one, i n the f o r mation o f an a u t h o r ' s p e r s p e c t i v e on any g i v e n s i t u a t i o n . The r e f e r e n c e t o Jeremiah i n Dan. 9 t 2 was an i n d f c a t i o n

of the a u t h o r ' s use of S c r i p t u r e .

the seventy-year-exile a p p l y i t t o h i s own e r a .

The a u t h o r i n t e r p r e t e d

promise o f t h e prophet in o r d e r t o The promise o f God f o r d e l i v e r a n c e

through Jeremiah was accepted as r e c u r r i n g l y t r u e by t h e author.

Through a mental p r o c e s s commonly d i s c e r n e d i n the

a p o c a l y p t i c w r i t i n g s ( i n which t h e e a r l f e r promise was detached from i t s o r i g i n a l s e t t i n g a n d was r e t n t e r p r e t e d a s

a p p l y i n g t o the e r a o f the a u t h o r ) , t h e a u t h o r chose t o a l l y

t h a t promise t o t h e g r e a t e r promise o f f i n a l d e l i v e r a n c e
(9:24),

which was t o occur s h o r t l y .

This b e l i e f i n d e l i v e -

r a n c e was s t r o n g , and S c r i p t u r e was used t o s u p p o r t i t . S c r i p t u r e can be demonstrated t o be t h e o r i g i n of many

o f t h e a p o c a l y p t i c g r o u p s ' b e l i e f s and t r a d i t i o n s .

However,

i t cannot be i d e n t i f i e d a s the primary s o u r c e - i n f l u e n c e . Too many m o t f f s in t h e s e c h a p t e r s were much more d e v e l o p e d than t h e i r S c r i p t u r a l c o u n t e r p a r t s ( c f . t h e r e s u r r e c t i o n b e l i e f ) and o t h e r s appear t o have been brought i n from external sources.

The community's b e l f e f s a n d tradf t i o n s h a d

t h e upper hand i n i t s t e n s i o n with the o r i g i n a l t e a c h i n g s of S c r i p t u r e a s they impacted the c u r r e n t ctrcumstance.

254 The use o f S c r i p t u r e can be seen a s having been minimal

i n D a n . 8-12.

Even moreso would be any dependence upon t h a t

p o r t i o n of Scripture, Z e c h a r i a h 1-8:

1 ) the v i s i o n s of D a n .
The former

8-12 were n o t a s c r y p t i c a s t h o s e o f Z e c h a r i a h .

were o b v i o u s h i s t o r i c a l s u r v e y s a n d t h e l a t t e r are s e t p i e c e s meant t o i l l u s t r a t e c e r t a i n s p e c i f i c t r u t h s a b o u t God's purposes f o r the r e s t o r a t i o n communfty; 2 ) t h e work done by C O Jeremias comparing t h e v i s i o n s o f E z e k i e l , Zechar i a h and Daniel i n d i c a t e d a c l o s e r connection between E r e k i e l
a n d D a n i e l i n many a r e a s .

There were many s p e c i f i c f e a t u r e s

610

which Z e c h a r i a h 1-8 d i d not s h a r e with D a n i e l ;

and 3 ) t h e

d i s t i n c t i v e ' h o r n ' r e f e r e n c e ( D a n . 8 : 3 ) d i d not o r i g i n a t e

i n Zech. 1:13-21; they were p a r t o f t h e 'whole-animal'

sym-

b o l i s m used by the author o f D a n . 80

2.

I Enoch 6-36 I Enoch 6-36 was a major s e c t i o n o f t h e f i r s t segment

o f a composite work d e s c r i b i n g the e x p l o i t s o f t h e a n t i d e l u v i a n p a t r i a r c h Enoch. t h e second c e n t u r y B . C . ,

I t was d a t e d t o the f i r s t h a l f o f
which means that i t was composed

s l i g h t l y b e f o r e o r a f t e r the f i n a l p o r t i o n s o f the book of Daniel. These c h a p t e r s made up one unique p a r t o f t h e

Enoch t r a d i t i o n , w h i c h embodied a g r e a t v a r i e t y a n d b r e a d t h unmatched i n the a p o c a l y p t i c l i t e r a t u r e .

pp. 107f.

610.

C . Jeremias, D i e N a c h t g e s i c h t e d e s S a c h a r j a ,

255

A n a n a l y s i s o f I Enoch 8-36 r e g a r d i n g i t s use o f h i s t o r y , the b e l i e f s and t r a d i t i o n s o f the a u t h o r ' s community

a n d the use of S c r i p t u r e r e v e a l e d the f o l l o w i n g :

1 ) the

framework of h i s t o r y , which played a major r o l e i n D a n . 8-12,

was e n t i r e l y omitted.

Enoch was d e s c r l b e d a s a n h i s t o r i c a l

person, b u t h i s e a r t h l y l i f e was minimized, used merely a s a s t a r t i n g p o i n t for the author's imaginative d e s c r i p t i o n o f Enoch's journey through the heavens into the presence of God
a n d o f h i s i t i n e r a r y through the cosmos.

I t i s apparent,

t h e r e f o r e , that the author o f t h i s p o r t i o n o f I Enoch d i d not vCew h i s t o r y o r contemporary events a s h a v i n g the same c r i t i c a l importance (compare t b e r o l e o f h i s t o r y in the book of D a n i e l ) a s the p r e s e n t r e a l i t y of the heavenly realm.
2 ) the b e l i e f s a n d traditions o f the community played a much

l a r g e r a n d more s p e c i a l i z e d r o l e i n I Enoch 6-36 t h a n they

d i d in D a n . 8-12.

T h i s s e c t i o n h a s been commonly d i v i d e d
The former d e s c r i b e d the orga-

i n t o ch. 6-16 a n d ch. 1 7 - 3 6 .

n i z a t i o n o f r e b e l l i o u s a n g e l s , t h e i r f a l l through corrupting the human r a c e a n d the pronouncement o f judgment upon them. The l a t t e r p o r t i o n included a n a r r a t i v e o f Enoch's journeys t o the far reaches o f the e a r t h , h e l l a n d the heavens. I t i s d i f f i c u l t t o say anything d e f i n i t i v e l y a b o u t the b e l l e f s o f the authors o f these c h a p t e r s . T h e i r statements

about the heavenly realm were q u i t e d i s t i n c t i v e , with l i t t l e c o n t i n u i t y with e a r l i e r writings a n d l i t t l e e v i d e n t p a r a l l e -

256 l i s m with contemporary l i t e r a t u r e . There was e v i d e n c e of a

heavy dependence upon non-Jewish i d e a s by t h e a u t h o r s , s o t h a t t n s i g h t s i n t o t h e i r S i t z im Leben have been d i f f i c u l t 611 t o work i n t o a meaningful whole. The l a c k o f d o c t r i n a l c o n s i s t e n c y within the range of the a p o c a l y p t i c 1 i t e r a t u r e makes i t d i f f i c u l t t o understand the d i s t i n c t i v e l i f e - s t y l e and b e l i e f - s y s t e m o f t h e Enoch t r a d e n t s i n p a r t i c u l a r .

3 ) t h e use o f S c r i p t u r e w a s , a s i n Dan. 8-12, m i n i m a l .

It

may be argued that the use of the m o t i f s such a s a n g e l s and t h e heavenly realm a n d the u s e o f Enoch as the c e n t r a l f i g u r e o f t h e n a r r a t i v e were f i r s t found i n S c r i p t u r e and
t h a t S c r i p t u r e informed the author in h i s p r e s e n t a t i o n .

There i s , however, g r e a t e r j u s t i f i c a t i o n i n l o o k i n g a t t h e s e i d e a s a s borrowed from the p o p u l a r m i l i e u . S c r i p t u r e stood

behind much t h e symbolic u n i v e r s e f r o m which t h e s e concepts were taken; however, S c r i p t u r e was n o t used a s a d i r e c t i n f l u e n c e in t h e framing o f t h e s e p a s s a g e s .
3.

I Enoch 85-90 I Enoch 85-90 was p a t t e r n e d a f t e r t h e h i s t o r i c a l r e v i e w

u t i l i z e d i n D a n . 10-12 and was d a t e d t o within a few y e a r s o f t h e appearance o f t h e book of D a n i e l .

612

An analysis of
1) the h i s t o r i -

I Enoch 85-90 r e v e a l e d the f o l l o w i n g p o i n t s :

611.
0. Eissfeldt, O J . I b i d , p.619.

612.

c i t . , p.620.

257

c a l review of I Enoch 85-90,'though

i t could be compared

with Dan. 10-12 a n d much could be made o f the observed simi-

l a r i t i e s , d i d not s e r v e the same purpose a s the Daniel p a s sage. The author of D a n . 10-12 was concerned to a s s u r e h i s

r e a d e r s that the s i t u a t i o n ' t h r o u g h which they were p a s s i n g was temporary; they were t o be d e l i v e r e d from the e v i l be-

s e t t i n g them ( D a n .

11:45, 121). The author of t h i s Enoch

These men h a d

passage f o l l o w e d a course which had been s e t by the authors of I Enoch 6-36

( a n d those b e f o r e h i m ) .

searched f o r the source o f e v i l , the nature o f i t s outworking

i n oppression of the Jewish people a n d the form o f God's

strategy f o r i t s f i n a l destruction. The a u t h o r ' s i n t e r e s t

i n e v i l ( i n I Enoch 8 5 - 9 0 )

can be seen i n 1 ) the use o f c o l o r

symbolism to d i s t i n g u i s h between the good and the e v i l , 2 ) the d e s c r i p t i o n o f a n d the r e l a t i o n s h i p between the f a l l of the a n g e l s and the f a l l o f m a n k i n d , 3 ) the d e s c r i p t i o n o f the punishment o f f a l s e Jews, f a l l e n a n g e l s and the opporessors of the Jews a t the time o f God's triumph, which fncluded the rewarding o f those w h o h a d been f a i t h f u l t o H i m , a n d 4 ) the n a r r a t i v e r e g a r d i n g the r o l e o f the seventy a n g e l i c 'sheph e r d s ' in the d u f f e r i n g o f the Jews. I t may be seen t h a t , when the Jews began t o s u f f e r a t the hand o f Antiochus IV a n d the H e l l e n i z e d Jewish l e a d e r s , the author o f I Enoch 85-90 r e f l e c t e d upon the c o n f l i c t between good a n d e v i l ' within h i s community a n d , within h i m s e l f ,

t o o k the s t e p which r e l a t e d the h o s t i l i t i e s t o the enmity

258

which had e x i s t e d s i n c e e a r l i e s t time.

The s u f f e r i n g s enwere viewed

countered by t h e Jews of the second century B . C .

by t h i s a u t h o r a s y e t another c h a p t e r (perhaps t h e l a s t one)

i n the age-long

s a g a of the s t r u g g l e o f g o o d a g a i n s t e v i l .

The contemporary h i s t o r i c a l e v e n t s of which the a u t h o r

of I Enoch 85-90 t r e a t e d were c e n t r a l t o h i s purpose and were

an i n t e g r a l p a r t o f t h e h i s t o r i c a l r e v i e w s t r e t c h i n g back t o

a n e a r l i e r time.

In t h i s , t h e a u t h o r c l e a r l y moved beyond
the h i s t o r i c a l

t h e example s e t by the author o f Dan. 8-12;

r e v i e w was adapted t o the a n t i d e l u v i a n s e t t i n g o f the a u t h o r ' s h e r o , w h i l e o m i t t i n g the i n t r i c a t e d e t a i l - w o r k found

i n Dan. 10-12.

The c u r r e n t events were g i v e n s i g n i f i c a n c e

because of t h e i r r e l a t i o n s h i p t o the a u t h o r ' s c i r c l e ' s i n t e r e s t in t h e f o r c e o f e v i l i n t h e w o r l d a n d God's f i n a l victory over i t .

2 ) the a u t h o r o f I Enoch 85-90 was q u i t e s i m i l a r t o the

a u t h o r o f Dan. 8-12 i n h i s c a s u a l r e f e r e n c e s t o t h e b e l i e f s
and t r a d i t i o n s o f the community.

The author d i d have a

g r e a t commitment t o t h e Judaism o f h i s day; i t would be e r roneous t o s u g g e s t t h a t h i s r e l i g i o u s h e r i t a g e d i d not h a v e a tremendous i n f l u e n c e upon h i m . However, h i s purpose f o r

writing d i d n o t c a l l f o r emphasizing t h e s e b e l i e f s ; they

were secondary t o h i s d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e triumph o f God o v e r evil. Hence, whether t h i s a u t h o r was a member o f an e a r l y

s e c t a r i a n group o r a mainline J e w i s h party w o u l d be more

259

d i f f i c u l t t o a d d r e s s in terms o f t h e b e l i e f s d i s c e r n e d i n t h i s p o r t i o n of t h e Enoch l i t e r a t u r e .
I t i s c l e a r t h a t the

a u t h o r p o s s e s s e d a s o l i d f o u n d a t i o n o f p i e t y a n d b e l i e f and t h a t he s u b o r d i n a t e d t h e s e v a l u e s t o a n o t h e r , more r e l e v a n t , purpose. To e x p e c t some o t h e r format, within the circums t a n c e s o f the Maccabean r e v o l t , would have been an i n v i t a t i o n t o d i s t o r t the a u t h o r ' s background and i n t e r e s t s .

3 ) t h e a u t h o r of I Enoch 85-90 u t i l i z e d S c r i p t u r e a s the

starting point f o r his speculations. The g e n e a l o g i c a l frame-

work and h i s t o r i c a l r e v i e w o f t h e work were based upon t h e b i b l i c a l record. The l a n g u a g e o f I Enoch 85-90 was s i m i l a r

t o that o f S c r i p t u r e , which produced an o c c a s i o n a l a l l u s i o n . Such S c r i p t u r e usage would be i n d i r e c t a n d of l i t t l e s i g n i f i c a n c e t o t h e composition. The use o f S c r i p t u r e , a s a

f o r c e which informed t h e a u t h o r ' s purpose i n writing, was m i s s i n g h e r e ; that f o r c e came from a d i f f e r e n t d i r e c t i o n , i.e.
4.

t h e t r a d i t i o n w i t h i n which t h e a u t h o r l i v e d a n d w r o t e . The Book o f J u b i l e e s The Book o f J u b i l e e s was e s s e n t i a l l y a r e w r i t i n g of the

i n i t i a l p o r t i o n o f S c r i p t u r e (Gen. 1 t o E X . lZ), in which t h e message o f i n d i v i d u a l p a s s a g e s were reworked t o conform t o a l a t e r standard o f piety. The a u t h o r was i n t e n t , a s he r e -

h e a r s e d the h i s t o r i e s o f the p a t r i a r c h s , t o purge t h e i r c h a r a c t e r s o f t h e e v i l s noted i n S c r i p t u r e . These f o r e -

b e a r e r s o f t h e Jewish r e l i g i o n were p o r t r a y e d a s o b s e r v i n g

260
t h e d i c t a t e s o f Torah in t h e i r l i v e s from a n e a r l y a g e . T h i s k i n d of p o r t r a y a l s e r v e d a dual purpose: showing the

e t e r n a l v a l i d ' i t y o f Torah a s w e l l as the supremacy o f the a n c i e n t Jewish way o f l i f e in t h e f a c e o f H e l l e n i s t i c inf l uence.

613

T h i s book has not been u n i v e r s a l l y h e l d t o be

614

p a r t of t h e a p o c a l y p t i c l i t e r a t u r e ; i t s m a r g i n a l n a t u r e must
be kept i n m i n d :

1 ) t h e h i s t o r i c a l r e v i e w , which p l a y e d

a n important r o l e i n Dan. 8-12 a n d I Enoch 85-90 a n d l e n t

g r e a t s i g n i f i c a n c e t o e v e n t s c u r r e n t in t h e a u t h o r s ' day,
d i d n o t e n j o y t h e same prominence i n J u b i l e e s .

The book be-

gan with such a r e v i e w , p a s s i n g q u i c k l y through t h e major phases of I s r a e l ' s h i s t o r y t o the p o s t - e x i l i c p e r i o d ( p e r haps with a n a l l u s i o n t o the post-Maccabean e r a ) .
In J u b ,

2 3 , a d i v e r g e n t k i n d o f h i s t o r i c a l r e v i e w r e l a t e d the de-

c l i n i n g l i f e s p a n o f mankind t o the i n c r e a s e o f s i n ,

This

t r e n d , a c c o r d i n g t o t h e author o f that s e c t i o n , had been r e v e r s e d i n h i s day due t o a renewed d e t e r m i n a t i o n t o study

Torah,
Contemporary events c r e a t e d 1 i t t l e moment for the a u t h o r of Jubilees. God's purposes were b e i n g c a r r i e d o u t a s they The a u t h o r , however, h a d

had been e s t a b l i s h e d long b e f o r e ,

613. Cf, 0 , E i s s f e l d t , op. c f t . , pp.606-608; S , Z e i t l i n , 'The Book o f J u b i l e e s , i t s C h a r a c t e r and i t s S i g n i f i c a n c e ' , J Q R x x x (1939-40), pp.1-31. 614, As with many of t h e a p o c a l y p t i c writings, t h e Book o f J u b i l e e s c o n t a i n e d a p o r t i o n (23:18-31), w h i c h was much more a p o c a l y p t i c than the rest o f the m a t e r t a l .

261

o t h e r m a t t e r s which occupied h i s a t t e n t i o n .

S i n c e the h i s -

t o r i c a l r e v i e w had been employed by o t h e r w r i t e r s t o g i v e meaning t o t h e i r p r e s e n t day (by j o i n i n g i t t o a history which had c l e a r d i r e c t i o n and an i n e v i t a b l e g o a l ) , t h e l a c k of such i n t e r e s t by t h e a u t h o r of J u b i l e e s p o i n t e d t o o t h e r interests.

For the most part, immediate h i s t o r y i n c l u d e d no

c r i t i c a l e v e n t s f o r the accomplishment o f God's p l a n s , i n t h e eyes o f t h e author.

2 ) t h e a u t h o r o f J u b i l e e s was much more concerned about

demonstrating t h e a u t h o r i t y o f Torah a n d the supremacy o f t h e Jewish r e l i g i o n a n d h i s v e r s i o n o f t h e fafth of I s r a e l . The c e n t r a l . f i g u r e s o f the e a r l y c h a p t e r s o f G e n e s i s (Adam, Enoch, Noah, Abraham a n d J a c o b ) , as w e l l as t h e a n g e l s o f heaven, were viewed a s having e x t r a o r d i n a r y concern f o r Torah. The c a l e n d a r f o l l o w e d by the a u t h o r has been shown
615

t o have been a t v a r i a n c e with o t h e r modes o f c a l e n d r a t i o n a v a i l a b l e t o t h e Jewish community, and i t may be assumed

t h a t some k i n d o f c o n f r o n t a t i o n on t h i s m a t t e r may have occurred.

3 ) s i n c e J u b i l e e s was acknowledged a s a r e w r i t i n g o f S c r i p t u r e , i t would be an e a s y m a t t e r t o s e e how S c r i p t u r e had been u s e d , i n the broad s e n s e , by the a u t h o r .

He had s t e e p e d

615.

0 . E f s s f e l d t , op. c l t . , p.607.

262

himself in the w r i t i n g s held sacred by h i s people, f o r t h e r e were r e f e r e n c e s a n d a l l u s i o n s t o the S c r i p t u r e i n abundance.

A study of these r e f e r e n c e s d i d n o t d i s c l o s e a c o n s i s t e n t 616 r e a l t i o n s h i p between h i s t o r y a n d the S c r i p t u r e . They were 617 used i n the a n t h o l o g i c a l s t y l e , within the framework o f

the b i b l i c a l s t o r y , wherever the author chose t o i n c l u d e them. I t appears t h a t the author o f J u b i l e e s bent S c r i p t u r e t o support h i s own i d e a s . He transformed the p a t r i a r c h s

i n t o paragons of p i e t y a n d the sacred s t o r y o f I s r a e l i n t o

an advertizement f o r obedience to T o r a h .

T h f s 'distortion'

was caused by h i s o v e r r i d i n g concern t h a t h i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n

of the i n h e r i t e d t r a d i t i o n s o f h i s people be adopted by the e n t i r e community. The h i s t o r i c a l tension o f D a n . 8-12 and

I Enoch 8 5 - 9 0 ,

which focused on c u r r e n t events as stepping-

stones t o God's f u t u r e , was r e p l a c e d i n J u b i l e e s by a tens i o n r e g a r d i n g the Jews' b e l i e f s a n d p r a c t i c e s , i . e . the pro-

per o r d e r i n g o f the community t o achieve the f u l n e s s o f G o d ' s

p l a n f o r His people.
5.

Testamentum Levi The Testamentum Levi was one o f the twelve r e c o r d s o f

616. W.S. McCullough, The H i s t o r y and L i t e r a t u r e o f P a l e s t i n i a n Jews, pp.188-190: ' p r e s e n t s t r a d i t i o n a l J ewish i d e a s a n d p r a c t i c e s , b u t a l s o r e p r e s e n t s p a t r i a r c h s a s observers o f the L a w ' . 617. C f . D . P a t t e , a. c i t . , p.184.

263

t h e ' l a s t words' o f the sons o f Jacob i n c l u d e d in t h e comp o s i t i o n t h e Testaments o f the Twelve P a t r i a r c h s . Testa-

mentum L e v i was the most e l a b o r a t e and s t r u c t u r a l l y complex, owing t o the s t a t u r e accorded L e v i and h i s p r i e s t l y descend a n t s i n the second c e n t u r y B . C .

I t can be c o n s i d e r e d a s

having much m a t e r i a l which d e a l t with h i s t o r i c a l c o n c e r n s , t h e b e l i e f s a n d t r a d l t i o n s o f the community a n d the import a n c e o f S c r i p t u r e f o r the a u t h o r s and t h e i r c i r c l e . The

a n a l y s i s o f Testamentum L e v i i n t h e s e a r e a s produced t h e following results: 1 ) the a u t h o r of Testamentum L e v i p l a c e d

l i t t l e importance upon the events of contemporary h i s t o r y . H i s r e f e r e n c e s t o contemporary h i s t o r i c a l f i g u r e s and e v e n t s were q u i t e vague. He was concerned about the b e h a v i o r o f

the p r i e s t h o o d ( c h , 17), connecting h i s day t o t e v i ' s by means o f a n h i s t o r i c a l r e v i e w , a sequence o f seven j u b i l e e s o f i n c r e a s i n g s o r r o w a n d wickedness. Except f o r t h i s , t h e

a u t h o r was c o n t e n t t o e m b e l l i s h the r e p u t a t i o n o f L e v i , working within the framework o f t h e r e c o r d o f S c r i p t u r e .

2 ) the b e l i e f s o f the community were g i v e n much more s p a c e ,

i n keeping with the i n t e n t i o n s o f the author.

Testamentum

L e v i (and the o t h e r testaments) was w r i t t e n t o s u p p o r t a n d t o e x a l t t h e p o s i t i o n o f the L e v i t i c a l f a m i l y within t h e Jewish community. L e v i was r e g a r d e d a s an example o f p i e t y from

h i s e a r l i e s t days and, a s such, was d e s e r v i n g o f h i s e l e c t i o n

by God f o r s p e c i a l knawledge and s e r v i c e .

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T h i s a s s e r t i o n o f L e v i ' s p o s i t i o n r e v e a l e d t h e markedly d i f f e r e n t purposes of writing o f t h i s a u t h o r and o t h e r w r i t e r s , such a s t h o s e o f Dan. 8-12 and I Enoch 85-90. l a t t e r a u t h o r s sought t o comfort a n d t o r e a s s u r e t h e i r countrymen that the r e i g n o f e v i l under which they l i v e d
w o u l d be s h o r t - l i v e d .

These

The author o f Testamentum L e v i l l v e d

under no such enmity; h i s purpose in writing d i d not f o c u s on oppression. He t a u g h t about such matters a s t h e day o f j u d g -

ment ( k l ) , the ranks of a n g e l s ( 3 : 3 - 8 ) , t h e p r i e s t h o o d (8:1-19), tithes (9:4) and Torah (9:6-14). L e v i was deswhich r e -

c r i b e d d e l i v e r i n g a wisdom-Torah speech (13:1-9),

c o g n i z e d the need f o r p r o p e r e d u c a t i o n , r i g h t e o u s l t v i n g and r e l i a n c e upon wisdom. The author advocated s t r o n g l y the t r a d i t i o n a l v a l u e s and i n s t i t u t i o n s o f t h e community, s e e i n g i n them t h e means t o s u r v i v a l in l i f e . The o r d e r l i n e s s he c h e r i s h e d was

t h r e a t e n e d , f o r example, by the wickedness of t h e ruling p r i e s t s , b u t he e n v i s i o n e d a new day when God would remove
that problem by r a i s i n g u p a new p r l e s t who would r u l e f o r -

e v e r and make an end t o s i n a n d e v i l within t h e community (18:1-14).

3 ) t h e a u t h o r o f Testamentum L e v i used Scripture f o r the 618 The b i b l i c a l account o f J a c o b ' s framework o f h i s message.

618, 0. E i s s f e l d t , o c i t . , p.632; c f . W.S. l o u g h , 0 ~ tit., . pp.193-1 5 .

. 8-

McCul-

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sons (Gen. 29-50)

d i d not accord honor t o L e v i , but i t d i d

p r o v i d e the b a r e s t r u c t u r e he u t i l i z e d t o g i v e Levi p r i d e of place. The b i b l i c a l promises r e g a r d i n g the t r i b e o f Judah

were g e n e r a l l y upheld within the context o f Judah's subj e c t i o n of the a u t h o r i t y o f Levi a s the one chosen by God t o determine the community's l i f e o f f a i t h . Beyond t h i s s e l f - s e r v i n g
d i d not g o .

use of S c r i p t u r e , the author 619

The v i s i o n o f L e v i ' s i n v e s t i t u r e (ch. 8 ) may

have been patterned on the a n c i e n t s a c r a l k i n g s h i p r i t u a l ,

b u t i t would be more l i k e l y that the author was f o l l o w i n g the

r i t u a l i n c u r r e n t use. (which was i t s e l f r e l a t e d t o passages such a s Lev. 8 : l - 1 3 ) . The language o f the author was remini-

s c e n t of the vocabulary a n d phraseology o f S c r i p t u r e , b u t

t h a t admits o f nothing more than conscious i m i t a t i o n o f the

b i b l i c a l p a t t e r n o r the i n a d v e r t e n t use o f f a m i l i a r r e l i g i o u s terminology.

6 0

The War o f the Sons o f L i g h t A g a i n s t the Sons o f Darkness

T h i s s c r o l l o f the Qumran s e c t a r i e s was concerned with

the e s c h a t o l o g i c a l war i n w h i c h the f o r c e s o f the community would j o i n with the armies o f heaven t o d e f e a t the f o r c e s o f evil.
T h i s work was d ' i f f e r e n t from others produced by the

community ( a n d the l a r g e r spectrum o f Jewish w r i t i n g s ) in

619. H . L . Jansen, 'The Consecration in the E i g h t h Chapt e r o f Testamentum L e v i : the S a c r a l K i n g s h i p ' , Numen Sup i v (1959)s p p . 3 5 6 - 3 6 5 .

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t h a t i t a t t r f b u t e d the f i n a l v i c t o r y t o the cooperation of 620 men with God. The apparent w a r l i k e nature o f the community 621 was b o u n d t o i t s e s c h a t o l o g i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e , r e v e a l i ng once a g a i n the r a d i c a l d i f f e r e n c e s within r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s of 622 the a p o c a l y p t i c 1 i t e r a t u r e . The d e s i g n a t i o n o f the
f i g h t i n g p a r t i e s i n d i c a t e d that t h i s war was t o have been of 623 a r e l i g i o u s nature. In t h i s v e i n , much o f the m a t e r i a l

was of a l i t u r g i c a l nature.
t e n t s r e v e a l e d the f o l l o w i n g :

A n a n a l y s i s o f the s c r o l l ' s con1 ) the a u t h o r ' s concern f o r

h i s t o r y h a d t o be deduced from h i s statements r a t h e r t h a n r e a d e x p l i c i t l y i n r e f e r e n c e s t o events a n d persons. The

circumstances of h i s w r i t i n g , h i s i d e n t i t y ( a pseudonym was not used) and the use t o which the s c r o l l would be p u t were not recorded. The author wrote a s i f he were rehashing w e l l T h i s accor-

known d o c t r i n e i n s t e a d o f immediate r e v e l a t i o n .

ded with the b e l i e f t h a t the author i d e n t i f i e d h i s community 624 as the d e p o s i t o r y o f e s c h a t o l o g i c a l r e v e l a t i o n s . The Qumran community f e l t i t s e l f t o have been an i n t e g r a l part o f the sacred h i s t o r y o f God's people, the remnant
620. 0 . E i s s f e l d t , op. c f t . , ~ ~ 6 5 3 . 621. A . Dupont-Sommer, The Essene W r i t i n g s from Qumran, p.165. 622. Cf. the p a c i f i s m o f the author o f Dan. 8-12 and the noted ' c o n t r a d i c t i o n ' o f a p o c a l y p t i c authors d e s p a i r i n g o f human e f f o r t i n h i s t o r y , then t a k i n g up arms a g a i n s t the e v i l s i n h i s t o r y ; the a p o c a l y p t i s t s were not c o n s i s t e n t a t t h l s point. 623. H . Ringgren, The F a i t h o f Qumran, p.19. 624. D. P a t t e , O J . c i t . , p.284.

267
o f God's f a i t h f u l ones a n d the s u b s t i t u t e f o r the Jerusalem 625 Temp1 e . They had separated themselves from w h a t they con-

s i d e r e d the corrupted form o f the f a i t h o f I s r a e l a n d , a s a r e s u l t , they were c u t o f f from i n t e r a c t i o n with the events of h i s t o r y a s they impinged upon the Jews. They i n t e r p r e t e d

S c r i p t u r e i n l i g h t o f t h e i r own e x i s t e n c e , reasoning t h a t the

mighty a c t s o f God in the p a s t were promises f o r them i n t h e i r

involvement in the l a s t days.

626

T h u s , because the Qumranis be1 ieved t h e i r community t o

have been ' e s c h a t o l o g i c a l ' , they had prepared f o r the f i n a l c o n f l i c t in ways which r e f l e c t e d b i b l i c a l campaigns ( e . g . 627 Josh. 6 ) and Roman military s t r a t e g y . However, because they were not engaged in actual w a r f a r e , the s c r o l l was detached from i t s contemporary m i l i e u , This was not s u r p r i s i n g

c o n s f d e r i n g the r e l a t i o n s h i p between Qumran and Jerusalem.

As a r e s u l t , the Qumran community h a d a strong sense o f h i s -

t o r y both p a s t a n d f u t u r e , which were informed by S c r i p t u r e a n d t h e i r t r a d i t i o n s b a s e d upon i t . The p r e s e n t remained the

connecting l i n k for the community, which saw i t s e l f as the necessary b r i d g e between the promises o f God a n d t h e i r f u l fillrnent i n history.
2 ) the l i t u r g i c a l nature o f t h i s composition r e f l e c t e d the

625. 626. 627.

D. P a t t e , o

-.

TFIT

Ibid.,

. cit., p.2 &

pp.PSife

pp.212f.

268

n a t u r e of the community.

S i n c e t h e community viewed i t s e l f

a s e s c h a t o l o g i c a l , i t s l i f e a n d d i s c i p l i n e tended t o have been i d e a l i s t i c . The r o l e o f t h e p r i e s t was c e n t r a l , a l o n g

w i t h t h e r e g i m e n t a t i o n s r e g a r d i n g prayer, a l t a r s e r v i c e a n d

purity.

628

The m i l i t a r y banners c a r r i e d symbolic and r e l i -

g i o u s mottoes; the s t r u g g l e was t o have been the f o r c e s of good a g a i n s t the f o r c e s o f e v i l , God's a n g e l s a g a i n s t f a l l e n a n g e l s and God's community a g a i n s t the f o r c e s o f e v i l from outside it.

629

A . Dupont-Sommer was o f the o p i n i o n that t h i s s c r o l l was

one o f t h e most v a l u e d works in the Qumran l i b r a r y a n d t h a t

i t c o n t a i n e d s i g n i f i c a n t statements r e g a r d i n g the community's
630

b e l i e f s and p i e t y .

The r a n g e o f I n t e r e s t s o f the a u t h o r

d i d n o t , however, produce a markedly d i f f e r e n t p i c t u r e than

o t h e r works from Qumran.

3 ) t h e use o f S c r i p t u r e by the a u t h o r o f t h i s work has been 631 r e v e a l i n g t h e u s e of what P a t t e examined by D . P a t t e ,

c a l l e d t h e a n t h o l o g i c a l s t y l e o f S c r i p t u r e usage.

This

s t y l e i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d by a s e r i e s o f S c r i p t u r e q u o t a t i o n s p l a c e d t o g e t h e r ; i t a l t e r n a t e d throughout t h e work: (cf. 1:l-7, 9:17-14:15, 15:7-12)

with weak ( c f .

intense 2:15-

1:8-15,

9: 16).

628, 0 . E i s s f e l d t , op. c i t . , p.653. 6 2 9 . A . Dupont-Sommer, op. c i t . , p.165. 630. I b i d . , pp.167f. 631. n a t t e , E .c i t . , pp.281-287; W.S. McCullough, 9p. C f t . , p.219.

269

The motif of the holy war, which adapted e a s i l y t o the

theme of the f i n a l b a t t l e , was found in s e v e r a l p l a c e s in Scripture (cf.

Ex. 1 4 , J u d g . 5 and 7 ) .

The author o f the

W a r S c r o l l embellished h i s s u b j e c t s o thoroughly through the

use of l i t u r g i c a l material t h a t no S c r i p t u r e t e x t could be d i s c e r n e d a s the b a s i s f o r any passage.

The eschatological

war was a n accepted b e l i e f a t Qumran and i t was open t o the

s p e c u l a t i v e treatment in the same way that the nature of e v i l was handled i n I Enoch 6-36. This b r i e f examination o f the use o f S c r i p t u r e and the importance placed upon contemporary h i s t o r y ( o r D a l t e r n a t e l y , the Jewish sacred h i s t o r y ) a n d the t r a d i t i o n s o f the commun i t y b r i n g s two t e n t a t i v e conclusions forward for c l o s e r investigation: 1 ) the a p o c a l y p t i c authors' d i r e c t use o f

S c r i p t u r e was minimal a n d S c r i p t u r e was u t i l i z e d a s support

for the i n d i v i d u a l a u t h o r ' s main purpose (which was e i t h e r

the f l o w o f God's plan f o r d e l i v e r a n c e o r h i s concern f o r the form o f the community) a n d 2 ) many o f the p a r t i e s a n d groups o f Judaism (with Qumran w r i t i n g s e x h i b i t i n g a s l i g h t d i v e r g e n c e ) t r e a t e d S c r i p t u r e i n much the same way, namely a s secondary m a t e r i a l s u b j e c t t o the b e l i e f s a n d t r a d i t i o n s o f the communi ty.

DoS. R u s s e l l has c h a r a c t e r i z e d the e n t i r e Jewish commun i t y a s ' t h e people o f b i b l i c a l e x e g e s i s ' a n d the a p o c a l y p t i c 632 However, t h i s s t a t e w r i t e r s a s 'students o f prophecy'.

632..

DoS. R u s s e l l , op. c i t

-.

pp.178,181.

270

ment must be r e e v a l u a t e d i n l i g h t o f s c h o l a r l y r e s u l t s i n
such a r e a s as e x e g e s i s a n d hermeneutics.
G . Vermes, for

example, noted that ' a p p l i e d ' e x e g e s i s ( a s d i s t h c t from ' p u r e ' e x e g e s i s ) was a s t e p removed from d i r e c t use of Scripture. He s t a t e d that the p o i n t o f departure for the i n d i v i d u a l author was no l o n g e r Torah ( o r the p r o p h e t i c

w r i t i n g s ) , a s i t h a d been, b u t i t became the b e l i e f s and customs which the author wished t o connect with S c r i p t u r e . p r a c t i c e accompanied the r i s e o f the r e l i g i o u s p a r t i e s in This

J u d a i s m a n d was most a c t i v e i n the e r a o f controversy between

t h e s e groups.
633

The a p o c a l y p t i c w r i t i n g s analyzed above placed a h i g h s i g n i f i c a n c e upon 'the sacred h i s t o r y o f the Jews. When

c r i t i c a l events occurred, there appears to have been a strong tendency t o r e l a t e them a n d t o g i v e them s t a t u s within the sacred history. The a u t h o r s o f Dan. 10-12 and I Enoch 85-90 To the author o f the War

were examples o f t h i s p r a c t i c e .

S c r o l l , the p a s t h i s t o r y o f God's mighty a c t s foreshadowed

H i s deeds i n the f i n a l d e l i v e r a n c e .

T h i s concern with con-

temporary events was r e l a t e d t o the community's be1 i e f s r e g a r d i n g God, His world and His promises. Such s a l v a t i o n was a n t i c i p a t e d by the v a s t m a j o r i t y o f the Jews in the second

633. G . Vermes, ' B i b l e and Midrash', The Cambridge History o f the B i b l e , v o l . 1 , pp.221-225.

271
century B.C.,
i f Ben S i r a may be 'thought o f a s the most conand the a p o c a l y p t i s t s a s

s e r v a t i v e of t h i n k e r s ( c f . 36:6-16) harboring the more l i b e r a l .

The nature o f the Jewish f u t u r e hope d u r i n g t h i s p e r i o d was anything b u t c o n s i s t e n t . While i t always centered upon

the m a n i f e s t a t i o n o f the K i n g s h i p o f I s r a e l ' s God, the d i f f e r e n c e s were remarkable ( c f . the e a r t h l y and heavenly k i n g doms, i t s p a r t i c u l a r i s t i c and u n i v e r s a l i s t i c nature, i t s r u l e by the Son o f D a v i d and the Son o f Man, i t s i n t r o d u c t i o n through c a t a s t r o p h e a n d gradual growth and i t s development by s t a g e s and t o t a l m a n i f e s t a t i o n ) .
634

The community's other b e l i e f s a n d t r a d i t i o n s a l s o r e c e i v e d a major emphasis w i t h i n the a p o c a l y p t i c writings ( a l -

t h o u g h the s t r e s s was o f t e n minimized by a concentration upon

the events o f h i s t o r y ) because the a u t h o r s ' b e l i e f s were those o f t h e i r f o r e f a t h e r s and because they b e l i e v e d t h e i r i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f that f a i t h was a n accurate r e f l e c t i o n o f
God'.s w i l l f o r the community.

The a p o c a l y p t i c w r i t i n g s were

no d i f f e r e n t t h a n the non-apocalyptic works i n d e s c r i b i n g the supremacy o f Torah a n d the Jews o v e r t h e i r enemies. The i n s t i t u t i o n s o f the Jewish community took c e n t e r s t a g e t n works l i k e Testamentum L e v i , for example. The

author o f J u b i l e e s pressed h i s claim t h a t h i s c a l e n d a r was

t o have been a u t h o r i t a t i v e for a l l Jews.

The War S c r o l l

634.

Cf. DoS. R u s s e l l

, op.

c i t . , pp.285-303.

272
presented the p i c t u r e of the p e o p l e o f God as a worshiping community. These images, taken t o g e t h e r with the apocalypt i c l i t e r a t u r e ' s v a r i e t y o f d e s c r i p t i o n s of the a n g e l i c h o s t
a n d S a t a n a n d h i s minions, were p d i n t s o f emphasis within the

traditions of the i n d i v i d u a l groups.

Excluding the Qumran l i t e r a t u r e , much o f the a p o c a l y p t i c l i t e r a t u r e was w r i t t e n i n response t o s i t u a t i o n s concerning o p p r e s s i o n a n d controversy.

Insofar as S c r i p t u r e could

SUP-

p o r t the aims o f the p a r t i e s involved i n the d i s p u t e o r s u p ported the e x i s t e n c e o f the people ( o r g r o u p ) , i t was deemed useful. S c r i p t u r e was b u t one f o r c e , a l b e i t a n enduring one, The advent o f

among many which m o l d e d the Jewish community.

Hellenism, along with the i n p u t o f f o r e i g n i d e a s , c o n s t i t u ted another f o r c e . The defence generated by the Jewish

groups, which p e r f o r c e became r i g i d i n i t s ways of t h i n k i n g and l i f e - s t y l e , became another,

A developing world-view was

f o r c e d t o come t o terms with i n f i l t r a t i o n , c o n f r o n t a t i o n and persecution.

I t was here, in i t s d i f f e r e n t forms o f ex-

p r e s s i o n , t h a t apocalypticism a r o s e a n d f l o u r i s h e d , using the raw m a t e r i a l o f community e x p e c t a t i o n i n a l l i t s v a r i e t y

and v i tal i ty.
I t i s important t o r e c o g n i z e j u s t how unsystematic were

the teachings o f the a p o c a l y p t i c writers ( c o n t r a r y t o the

judgment o f s c h o l a r s l i k e D o S . R u s s e l l
635
. ~ _

).

There was l t t t l e

c i t . , p . 9 7 , spoke o f the apoca635. D , S . R u s s e l l , l y p t i s t s ' e f f o r t s t o ' r a t o n a m e a n d systematize' the pred i c t i v e s i d e o f prophecy.

F.

273
consistency in the d e s c r i p t i o n s o f the e s s e n t i a l c o n f l i c t i n which the group was engaged, the means by which d e l i v e r a n c e

was t o have been achieved o r the form o f the envisfoned

f u t u r e hope. B e l i e f s a r o s e i n d i f f e r e n t c i r c l e s i n response The community's g r o w i n g h e r i t a g e o f t o d i f f e r i n g stiinul i ,

b e l i e f s and t r a d i t i o n s , w h i c h h a d e a r l i e r c o n s t i t u t e d the m i l i e u from which the S c r i p t u r e was produced, was a l s o the source o f the i d e a s c u r r e n t i n the Jewish community o f t h a t era. S c r l p t u r e was, i n f a c t , secondary t o the e s t a b l i s h e d 636 body o f b e l i e f s o f the Jews, as i t h a d a l s o been i n t e g r a l

t o the development o f the r e l i g i o u s h e r i t a g e of the Jews,

W h a t , then, can be s a i d in summary concerning the i n f l u -

ence of Zechariah 1-8 upon the a p o c a l y p t i c l i t e r a t u r e ?

First,

t h e r e was the r e c o g n i t i o n t h a t the i n f l u e n c e o f Zechariah the prophet d i d ' n o t extend far beyond h i s l i f e t i m e because of the community's veneration o f the w r i t i n g s o f the e x i l i c p r o phets, the unique s i t u a t i o n o f the r e s t o r a t i o n p e r i o d a n d the nature o f the community's r e s t o r a t i o n hopes and the p o l i t i c a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n s which d i v i d e d the p r o p h e t i c movement and turned i t a g a i n s t i t s e l f . Second, i t appears that the f i n a l form o f Zechariah 1-8 was locked i n t o the t h e o c r a t i c c i r c l e s around the Jerusalem

6 3 6 . D, P a t t e , O J . c i t , , pp.276f., made t h i s statement r e g a r d i n g the use o f S c r i p t u r e a t Qumran, T h i s judgment can be extended t o the o t h e r Jewish g r o u p s and p a r t i e s a s well.

274
Temple, was l a t e r considered as only a p a r t o f the l a r g e r body of p r o p h e t i c writings known as the book o f ' t h e Twelve'
a n d t h a t p r o p h e t i c w r i t i n g s g e n e r a l l y were i n t e r p r e t e d rather

l o o s e l y depending upon the i n d i v l d u a l ' s s p e c i f i c b e l i e f s and predisposi tion, T h i r d , a l l o f S c r i p t u r e was subordinated by the apocal y p t i c authors a t the time o f w r i t i n g t o o t h e r concerns (whose importance took precedence over S c r i p t u r e ) : one was the 'end-

t i m e ' , which was connected to the experience of present d i s tress. The authors c a l l e d f o r l o y a l t y t o God, His chosen way

of l i f e a n d community i n s t i t u t i o n s , r a t h e r than t o f a i t h f u l ness t o S c r i p t u r e ; a second was i n t e l l e c t u a l d i s p u t a t i o n , where authors c a l l e d people t o choose one tradi t i o n / i n t e r p r e t a t i o n over another ( n e i t h e r , , or b o t h , of which were s p e c i f i e d in S c r i p t u r e ) ; and a third was s p e c u l a t t o n , where authors c l e a r l y went beyond the things recorded i n S c r i p t u r e .
T h i s i s t o say t h a t , throughout the tradition h i s t o r y
o f Zechariah 1-8 as a part o f S c r i p t u r e , i t s i n f l u e n c e on

l a t e r s t a g e s o f Judaism was watered down on s u c c e s s i v e occas i o n s , u n t i l i t s i n h i d u a l i s t i c i n f l u e n c e became e x c e e d i n g l y minimal o v e r a l l a n d , i n s p e c i f i c i n s t a n c e s , only a c c i d e n t a l : 1 ) the Qumran l i t e r a t u r e a n d the Testaments o f the Twelve P a t r i a r c h s appear t o have incorporated b e l i e f s concerning
two Messiahs, one royal and the o t h e r p r i e s t l y .

I have en-

deavored t o show that this b e l i e f d i d not o r i g i n a t e with Zechariah, b u t that Zechariah 1-8 was i n t e r p r e t e d ( s p e c i f i -

275
c a l l y Zech. 3 : 8 , 4 : l - 1 4 , 6:9-14) m e s s i a n i c a l l y a n d was

thus brought i n as suppo'rt f o r the l a t e r b e l i e f ( i f the l a t e r communities were concerned t o have such support a t h a n d ) .
2 ) the a u t h o r o f the book o f J u b i l e e s made use o f s e v e r a l

v e r s e s o f Zech. 8 i n forming J u b . 1:15-17.

The passage was

intended as a d e s c r i p t i o n o f the r e s t o r a t i o n e r a , and t h e r e was a l s o the i n d i c a t i o n t h a t the passage was meant t o desc r i b e c o n d i t i o n s o f the a u t h o r ' s day. The author h a d read

Zechariah 1-8 b o t h h i s t o r i c a l l y and e s c h a t o l o g i c a l l y , vlewfng the promises o f Zech. 8 a s h a v i n g been f u l f i l l e d in h i s day (perhaps because these promises c l o s e l y approximated the extant situation)

3 ) Zechariah 1-8 was a l s o r e f e r r e d t o twice i n the Eighteen

B e n e d i c t i o n s , speaking o f God as the ' B u i l d e r o f Jerusalem' i n the Fourteenth Benediction (Zech. 8 : 3 ) and as the one who would cause the Messiah to a r i s e i n the F i f t e e n t h Benediction 637 (Zech. 3 : 8 ) . This material can h a r d l y be considered a p o c a l y p t i c i n nature, b u t i t r e v e a l e d how c l o s e l y apocalypt i c d o c t r i n e s e x i s t e d t o the h e a r t o f Judaism.

4 ) Zechariah 1-8 was a l s o u t i l i z e d by the author o f the New

Testament book o f R e v e l a t f o n . The passage Rev. 6 : l - 8 employed the m o t i f s o f the r i d e r s on d i f f e r e n t - c o l o r e d horses ( c f . Zech. 1 : 8 ; 6:1-6)
and t h e i r mission o f d e s t r u c t i o n upon the

e a r t h ( c f . Zech, 6:1-8).

637.

D. P a t t e ,

O J .

c i t . , p.84.

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