Organizational Behavior and Leadership: Topic- Organizational Culture

Charles Handy Charles Handy (1976), popularized Roger Harrison (1972) with linking organizational structure to organizational culture !he descri"ed #our types o# culture are$ 1 Power culture$ concentrates power a%ong a s%all group or a central #igure and its control is radiating #ro% its center like a we" &ower cultures need only a #ew rules and little "ureaucracy "ut swi#t in decisions can ensue

2 Role culture$ authorities are delegated as such within a highly de#ined structure !hese organizations #or% hierarchical "ureaucracies, where power deri'es #ro% the personal position and rarely #ro% an e(pert power Control is %ade "y procedures (which are highly 'alued), strict roles descriptions and authority de#initions !hese organizations ha'e consistent syste%s and are 'ery predicta"le !his culture is o#ten represented "y a )Ro%an *uilding) ha'ing pillars !hese pillars represent the #unctional depart%ents

+ Task culture$ tea%s are #or%ed to sol'e particular pro"le%s &ower is deri'ed #ro% the tea% with the e(pertise to e(ecute against a task !his culture uses a s%all tea% approach, where people are highly skilled and specialized in their own area o# e(pertise ,dditionally, these cultures o#ten #eature the %ultiple reporting lines seen in a %atri( structure

- Person !el"# culture$ #or%ed where all indi'iduals "elie'e the%sel'es superior to the organization .t can "eco%e di##icult #or such organizations to continue to operate, since the concept o# an organization suggests that a group o# like/%inded indi'iduals pursue organizational goals Howe'er so%e pro#essional partnerships operate well as person cultures, "ecause each partner "rings a particular e(pertise and clientele to the #ir%

Schemata
Schemata (plural o# sche%a) are knowledge structures a person #or%s #ro% past e(periences, allowing the person to respond to si%ilar e'ents %ore e##iciently in the #uture "y guiding the processing o# in#or%ation , person0s sche%ata are created through interaction with others, and thus inherently in'ol'e co%%unication 1tanley 2 Harris (199-) argues that #i'e categories o# in/organization sche%ata are necessary #or organizational culture$ 1. Self-in-organization schemata: a person's concept of oneself within the context of the organization, including her/his personality, roles, and behavior.

2. Person-in-organization schemata: a person's memories, impressions, and expectations of other individuals within the organization.

. Organization schemata: a subset of person schemata, a person's generalized perspective on others as a whole in the organization.

!. Object/concept-in-organization schemata: "nowledge an individual has of organization aspects other than of other persons.

#. Event-in-organization schemata: a person's "nowledge of social events within an organization.

$eal and %ennedy 3eal and 4ennedy (1952) de#ined organizational culture as the way things get done around here 3eal and 4ennedy created a %odel o# culture that is "ased on - di##erent types o# organizations !hey each #ocus on how 6uickly the organization recei'es #eed"ack, the way %e%"ers are rewarded, and the le'el o# risks taken 1 &ork-hard' play-hard culture$ !his has rapid #eed"ack7reward and low risk resulting in$ 1tress co%ing #ro% 6uantity o# work rather than uncertainty High/speed action leading to high/speed recreation 8(a%ples$ Restaurants, so#tware co%panies

2 Tough-guy (acho culture$ !his has rapid #eed"ack7reward and high risk, resulting in the #ollowing$ 1tress co%ing #ro% high risk and potential loss7gain o# reward 9ocus on the present rather than the longer/ter% #uture 8(a%ples$ police, surgeons, sports

+ Process culture$ !his has slow #eed"ack7reward and low risk, resulting in the #ollowing$ :ow stress, plodding work, co%#ort and security 1tress that co%es #ro% internal politics and stupidity o# the syste% 3e'elop%ent o# "ureaucracies and other ways o# %aintaining the status 6uo 9ocus on security o# the past and o# the #uture 8(a%ples$ "anks, insurance co%panies

- Bet-the-co(pany culture$ !his has slow #eed"ack7reward and high risk, resulting in the #ollowing$ 1tress co%ing #ro% high risk and delay "e#ore knowing i# actions ha'e paid o## !he long 'iew is taken, "ut then %uch work is put into %aking sure things happen as planned 8(a%ples$ aircra#t %anu#acturers, oil co%panies

Constructive cultures
Constructi'e cultures are where people are encouraged to "e in co%%unication with their co/workers, and work as tea%s, rather than only as indi'iduals .n positions where people do a co%ple( ;o", rather than so%ething si%ple like a %echanic one, this sort o# culture is an e##icient one 1. Achievement: completing a tas" successfully, typically by effort, courage, or s"ill $pursue a standard of excellence% $explore alternatives before acting% & 'ased on the need to attain high&(uality results on challenging pro)ects, the belief that outcomes are lin"ed to one's effort rather than chance and the tendency to personally set challenging yet realistic goals. *eople high in this style thin" ahead and plan, explore alternatives before acting and learn from their mista"es. 2. Self-actualizing: realization or fulfillment of one's talents and potentialities & considered as a drive or need present in everyone $thin" in uni(ue and independent ways% $do even simple tas"s well% & 'ased on needs for personal growth, self&fulfillment and the realization of one's potential. *eople with this style demonstrate a strong desire to learn and experience things, creative yet realistic thin"ing and a balanced concern for people and tas"s. . Humanistic-encouraging: help others to grow and develop $resolve conflicts constructively% & +eflects an interest in the growth and development of people, a high positive regard for them and sensitivity to their needs. *eople high in this style devote energy to coaching and counseling others, are thoughtful and considerate and provide people with support and encouragement. !. Affiliative: treat people as more valuable than things $cooperate with others% & +eflects an interest in developing and sustaining pleasant relationships. *eople high in this style share their thoughts and feelings, are friendly and cooperative and ma"e others feel a part of things.

Aggressive/defensive cultures
!his style is characterized with %ore e%phasis on task than people *ecause o# the 'ery nature o# this style, people tend to #ocus on their own indi'idual needs at the e(pense o# the success o# the group !he aggressi'e7de#ensi'e style is 'ery stress#ul, and people using this style tend to %ake decisions "ased on status as opposed to e(pertise 1. Oppositional & ,his cultural norm is based on the idea that a need for security that ta"es the form of being very critical and cynical at times. *eople who use this style are more li"ely to (uestion others wor"- however, as"ing those tough (uestion often leads to a better product. .onetheless, those who use this style may be overly&critical toward others, using irrelevant or trivial flaws to put others down. 2. Power & ,his cultural norm is based on the idea that there is a need for prestige and influence. ,hose who use this style often e(uate their own self&worth with controlling others. ,hose who use this style have a tendency to dictate others opposing to guiding others/ actions. . Competitive & ,his cultural norm is based on the idea of a need to protect one/s status. ,hose who use this style protect their own status by comparing themselves to other individuals and outperforming them. ,hose who use this style are see"ers of appraisal and recognition from others. !. Perfectionistic & ,his cultural norm is based on the need to attain flawless results. ,hose who often use this style e(uate their self& worth with the attainment of extremely high standards. ,hose who often use this style are always focused on details and place excessive demands on themselves and others. <rganizations with aggressi'e7de#ensi'e cultures encourage or re6uire %e%"ers to appear co%petent, controlled, and superior =e%"ers who seek assistance, ad%it shortco%ings, or concede their position are 'iewed as inco%petent or weak !hese organizations e%phasize #inding errors, weeding out )%istakes) and encouraging %e%"ers to co%pete against each other rather than co%petitors !he short/ter% gains associated with these strategies are o#ten at the e(pense o# long/ter% growth