Formal English Without Tears (EJOLTS, May, 2012)

volume 3(1): 67-91
www.e[olLs.neL
lSSn 2009-1788

Educational Journal of Living Theories

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Sara Salyers
Sara Salyers
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* uedlcaLed Lo rofessor !ack
WhlLehead, ur Annle Cray and
amela SmlLh, wlLhouL whom
Lhls paper and Lhls educaLor, (aL
leasL ln Lhls lncarnaLlon),
would noL exlsL. WlLh love and
graLlLude for Lhelr generoslLy,
lnsLrucLlon and wlsdom.

CopyrlghL: 20"# $%&'()*.
1hls ls an open access arLlcle
dlsLrlbuLed under Lhe Lerms of
Lhe CreaLlve Commons
ALLrlbuLlon non-Commerclal
Llcense, whlch permlLs
unresLrlcLed non-commerclal
use, dlsLrlbuLlon, and
reproducLlon ln any medlum,
provlded Lhe orlglnal auLhor and
source are credlLed.
Abstract

1hls ls an accounL of a paradlgm shlfL ln perspecLlve, emerglng
from a Llvlng 1heory approach Lo acLlon research, and Lhe way
ln whlch Lhls shlfLed perspecLlve revealed boLh a longsLandlng
and sysLemlc educaLlonal ln[usLlce and a hlgh academlc fallure
raLe dlrecLly Lled Lo LhaL ln[usLlce. lL also descrlbes Lhe
developmenL of an approach Lo Lhe Leachlng of Academlc
Lngllsh LhaL ls [usL, empowerlng and effecLlve for sLudenLs. l
argue here LhaL a LransformaLlon ln personal perspecLlve,
especlally Lhe recognlLlon of a llvlng conLradlcLlon, (as
arLlculaLed by !ack WhlLehead), was Lhe key Lo undersLandlng
and addresslng whaL has long appeared Lo be an academlc and
pedagoglcal lssue buL whlch, ln facL, was one of soclal [usLlce
and culLural dlverslLy.

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Formal English Without Tears
Educational Journal of Living Theories 5(1): 67-91, http://ejolts.net/node/194
68
Introduction
1hls paper ls a hybrld. lL descrlbes boLh Lhe evoluLlon of a personal, Llvlng
LducaLlonal 1heory, (LL1), and Lhe speclflc, generallzable flndlngs of an AcLlon 8esearch
pro[ecL. l hope Lo demonsLraLe Lhe cruclal role of a Llvlng 1heory approach ln Lhe generaLlon
of orlglnal, useful educaLlonal research. l suggesL LhaL LL1 offers more Lhan a means of
empowerlng lndlvlduals Lo become auLhenLlc, effecLlve educaLors, LhaL lL offers more, even,
Lhan a means by whlch embodled knowledge can move from Lhe LaclL Lo Lhe expllclL and
flnally, vla Lhe sharlng and publlc scruLlny of lndlvldual accounLs, Lo Lhe realm of collecLlve
knowledge. l suggesL LhaL lL provldes an lmporLanL mechanlsm for resolvlng sysLemlc and
seemlngly lnLracLable, educaLlonal problems LhaL do noL lend Lhemselves Lo resoluLlon
Lhrough convenLlonal, proposlLlonal channels.
lL does Lhls by asklng Lhe pracLlLloner, recurslvely, Lo ldenLlfy and challenge noL only
hls or her own pracLlce, buL everyLhlng LhaL lnforms LhaL pracLlce - personal, lnsLlLuLlonal
and culLural values and assumpLlons
1
. lL does Lhls Lhrough Lhe demand LhaL pracLlLloners
scruLlnlze Lhe ublqulLous conLradlcLlons beLween professed values and acLual pracLlce,
beLween our lmages of ourselves as educaLors and how we acLually occur for oLhers, (how
Lhey percelve us and how we lmpacL Lhem), and beLween our collecLlve or lnsLlLuLlonal
lmages of Lhe educaLlon we are dellverlng and whaL we are acLually dolng
. (
Such pracLlces
are bound Lo reveal embedded and unchallenged, personal and lnsLlLuLlonal assumpLlons
and lnconslsLencles, Lhe klnds of revelaLlons LhaL are Lhe precursors Lo lnslghL and change.)
llnally, LL1 Lurns Lhe LradlLlonal approach Lo educaLlon as a soclal sclence on lLs head. ln Lhe
laLLer, Lhe lndlvldual researcher narrows hls/her pracLlce, measurlng lL agalnsL exLernal, pre-
existing models or authorized knowledge (McNiffa, 2007). LL1, on Lhe oLher hand, expands
ouLwards, valldaLlng and auLhorlzlng lndlvldual, personal and embodled knowledge. 1hls, ln
Lurn, frees Lhe lndlvldual Lo quesLlon auLhorlzed knowledge and even Lo conLradlcL pre-
exlsLlng models Lhrough sub[ecLlve, emplrlcal experlence. 1hus LL1 lnvolves a process of
sLepplng ouL of Lhe box - Lhe prerequlslLe of all problem solvlng, of any new dlscovery.
An lmporLanL dlsLlncLlon here ls LhaL l do noL lnLend Lo suggesL LhaL Lhe goal elLher of
acLlon research or of a Llvlng 1heory approach ls, or oughL Lo be, LhaL of obLalnlng speclflc
ob[ecLlves or meeLlng speclflc LargeLs. ln facL, l would argue sLrenuously LhaL, prlmarlly, as
!ean Mcnlff wrlLes:
lL ls abouL problemaLlzlng pracLlce so LhaL pracLlce does noL become Lhe lmplemenLaLlon of
rules Lo flL acLlon lnLo a predeLermlned model. lL ls abouL asklng lnLeresLlng quesLlons abouL
wheLher we are exerclslng our lnfluence ln a way LhaL we hope ls educaLlonal, for Lhe good
(Mcnlff, 2007, p. 312).

1
AcLlon research beglns wlLh values. As a self reflecLlve pracLlLloner you need Lo be aware of whaL
drlves your llfe and work, so you can be clear abouL whaL you are dolng and why you are dolng lL... 1he
meLhodology of acLlon research means LhaL you have Lo evaluaLe whaL you are dolng. ?ou need Lo
check consLanLly LhaL whaL you are dolng really ls worklng. Are you really lnfluenclng your slLuaLlon or
are you foollng yourself? 1hls awareness of Lhe need for self-evaluaLlon shows your wllllngness Lo
accepL responslblllLy for your own Lhlnklng and acLlon... AcLlon research helps you Lo formallse your
learnlng and glve a clear and [usLlfled accounL of your work, noL on a one-off basls, buL as a conLlnulng
regular feaLure of your pracLlce. (Mcnlff, 2002)

Salyers, S.

69
Powever, l also suggesL LhaL Lhe naLural offsprlng of a Llvlng 1heory approach Lo
acLlon research are new, speclflc and measureable soluLlons, dlscoverles and lnslghLs. l
conslder LhaL Lhese mlghL be seen ln much ln Lhe same way LhaL Lhe ChrlsLlan canon
represenLs works as Lhe frulL of Lhe essenLlal quallLy of falLh: LhaL ls, as lndlcaLors of an
effecLlve pracLlce, buL noL Lhe only lndlcaLors nor Lhe measure of lLs value.

Background to the Inquiry
ln 2009, l began work as a wrlLlng lnsLrucLor ln Lhe 1ranslLlonal SLudles ueparLmenL
(1Su) aL elllsslppl SLaLe CommunlLy College ln LasL 1ennessee. 1hls ls a new deparLmenL,
where sLraLegles LhaL emphaslze sLudenL engagemenL and ralse process above ouLcome are
acLlvely encouraged and adopLed. lLs prlmary Lask ls helplng under-prepared sLudenLs Lo
develop Lhe requlred skllls for flrsL year college courses. As ln deparLmenLs and communlLy
colleges across Lhe naLlon, rlslng sLudenL enrollmenL and lncreaslng sLaLe demands for
hlgher, fasLer ouLcomes wlLh decreased budgeLs, mean LhaL Lhls Lask acLually requlres a
Poudlnl-llke maneuver LhaL of achlevlng wlLhln a slngle flfLeen-week semesLer whaL slx
years of hlgh school have falled Lo achleve. 1he fall-back poslLlon, of havlng sLudenLs
repeaL Lhe same courses unLll masLery ls achleved, ls self-defeaLlng. Lach Llme a sLudenL falls
Lo compleLe a pre-college course, he or she becomes slgnlflcanLly less llkely ever Lo graduaLe
college aL all (1able1, see below.)
Cf Lhe 2,000 or so freshmen enLerlng elllsslppl each year, more Lhan half wlll begln
Lhelr college careers ln Lhe 1Su. 1hls flgure ls reflecLed naLlonally and shows no llkellhood of
dropplng ln Lhe near fuLure:
...fewer Lhan half of Lhe sLudenLs who enLer college dlrecLly from hlgh school compleLe even
a mlnlmally deflned college preparaLory program. Cnce ln college, 33 percenL of all sLudenLs
musL Lake remedlal courses. 1hose sLudenLs requlrlng Lhe mosL remedlal work are Lhe leasL
llkely Lo perslsL and graduaLe (1rlLelll, 2003, p.1).
ln 2010 Lhe educaLlonal parLnershlp CeLLlng asL Co reporLed:
naLlonal daLa from Lhe u.S. ueparLmenL of LducaLlon on parLlclpaLlon ln remedlal educaLlon
found LhaL 34 of all new enLerlng college sLudenLs requlred aL leasL one remedlal educaLlon
class. Cf Lhose sLudenLs who enrolled ln a communlLy college, 43 requlred some remedlal
educaLlon.1 Whlle Lhese numbers are alarmlng, more recenL research on parLlclpaLlon raLes
aL Lhe sLaLe level palnL an even bleaker plcLure. 8ecenL sLaLe analyses conducLed by LCS
reveal LhaL many sLaLes have remedlaLlon parLlclpaLlon raLes beLween 30 and 40, wlLh
some sLaLes havlng raLes over 30. (Getting Past Go, 2010, p. 4)
1hls ls an apparenLly lnLracLable, macro-scale problem, one LhaL has drawn and
conLlnues Lo draw many mllllons of dollars and human hours ln research and educaLlonal
program developmenL. lL ls paLenLly noL Lhe klnd, or Lhe order of lssue LhaL ls relevanL or
suscepLlble Lo Lhe mlcro galns made by lndlvldual acLlon researchers seeklng Lo lmprove
Lhelr educaLlonal pracLlce and Lo share Lhelr lnslghLs wlLh fellow pracLlLloners. LxcepL LhaL, ln
a manner slmllar Lo LhaL demonsLraLed by Shumacher (1989), lL ls.

70
!"#$% '. erslsLence raLe for uS sLudenLs by number of requlred developmenLal courses
(elllsslppl SLaLe CommunlLy College, 2003, p. 22)

Part One: The Generative Role of Living Theory - From Awareness
to Diagnosis
AL Lhe sLarL of my flrsL semesLer as an lnsLrucLor, l slgned up Lo parLlclpaLe ln an
acLlon research program whose goal was Lo encourage faculLy Lo lmplemenL Lhelr own
acLlon research a sklll LhaL seemed poLenLlally useful ln helplng me Lo become an effecLlve
educaLor. Cver Lhe flrsL half of Lhe semesLer, l was Lasked Lo flnd and develop an lnqulry LhaL
was of lnLeresL and relevance Lo me as a basls for an acLlon research pro[ecL. 1he sub[ecL of
my lnqulry found me.
ln my flrsL week of college Leachlng, l found myself on an LasL knoxvllle campus,
faclng a classroom of LwenLy-four dlsengaged and, ln some cases, acLlvely hosLlle, young
adulLs. AlmosL all came from blue collar famllles. (My own ls professlonal and mlddle
class.) AbouL one Lhlrd were Afrlcan Amerlcan or mlxed race. (l am whlLe and Luropean.)
MosL were Lhe flrsL members of Lhelr famllles ever Lo enLer college. (MosL of my famlly has
aLLended college or unlverslLy.) And Lhe worlds my sLudenLs Lralled wlLh Lhem lnLo Lhe
classroom were allen, palnful and, occaslonally, shocklng.
Cne sLudenL could noL sleep aL nlghL because of Lhe sounds of gunflre ln her
nelghborhood. Lven when lL was quleL, she lay awake llsLenlng and afrald. AnoLher, a [oy Lo
have ln Lhe class, was plcked up by pollce and senL back Lo a prlson he had sworn never Lo
reLurn Lo. Pls frlends lnslsLed he was lnnocenL. Cne young moLher came Lo class wlLh brulses

Salyers, S.

71
because her boyfrlend regularly beaL her as a way of dlssuadlng her from aLLendlng college.
(Pe dlsapproved of her amblLlon Lo obLaln a degree.) ?eL anoLher became homeless aL abouL
Lhe mld semesLer mark. lor Lwo weeks, she and her husband llved ln Lhelr car. She sLlll came
Lo classes, alLhough geLLlng her asslgnmenLs done proved raLher Lrlckler.
SLandlng aL Lhe fronL of LhaL classroom, whlLe, mlddle class, mlddle aged and, from
my students point of view, profoundly out of touch with their reality, I was almost as alien
as lf l had come from anoLher planeL. 1hey knew lL, l knew lL and Lhey showed how Lhey felL
abouL lL. hone LexLlng and messaglng on soclal neLworks durlng class, shrugglng or [oklng
when asked a quesLlon, saunLerlng lnLo class laLe wlLh as much nolse and aplomb as could
be managed and oLher, slmllar behavlors were regular occurrences. 1he nexL few weeks
were noL [usL uncomforLable, Lhey were overwhelmlng. WhaLever Lheorles of language l had
absorbed, whaLever soclal and personal values had lnformed my approach Lo my role as an
educaLor, all of lL all of me - was belng confronLed by a slckenlng dlssonance ln my own
classroom, Lhe gap beLween Lhe person and Lhe educaLor l wlshed Lo be and wlshed Lo be
percelved as, and Lhe percepLlon, Lhe reflecLlon ln Lhelr eyes, LhaL my sLudenLs were glvlng
back Lo me.
More Lhan one colleague Lold me LhaL Lhelr behavlors were [usL parL of Lhe proflle for
Lhese sLudenLs: chlldlsh, undlsclpllned, lazy and dlsengaged - a carry-over from hlgh
school. l, however, dld noL percelve a proflle. lnsLead, l percelved Lhese behavlors as
hosLlle and passlve/aggresslve. AlLhough my lnLerpreLaLlon was aL odds wlLh LhaL of several,
much more experlenced colleagues, reason and lnsLlncL Lold me LhaL l knew hosLlllLy and
resenLmenL when l meL Lhem. l also knew, raLlonally aL leasL, LhaL however personal LhaL
hosLlllLy appeared Lo be, lL was very unllkely Lo acLually be personal.
When l sLopped Laklng lL personally, l began Lo experlence Lhe passlve/aggresslve
behavlor of my sLudenLs dlfferenLly. lL occurred Lo me as a way of hlLLlng back aL someLhlng l
represenLed, someLhlng deeply resenLed. Clven my power Lo affecL Lhelr llves for good or lll,
however, Lhey slmply could noL afford Lhe luxury of belng overLly hosLlle. 1he quesLlon was
whaL, exacLly, dld Lhey resenL so blLLerly? lf lL were race, class and age Lhere was noLhlng l
could do abouL lL excepL glve Lhem Llme Lo geL Lo know me... and cross my flngers. lf lL were
someLhlng else, and lf l could dlscover whaL LhaL was, Lhen l had a chance of becomlng a
much more effecLlve educaLor. 1hls quesLlon became Lhe germ of my flrsL acLlon research
lnqulry.
l was aware of my sLudenLs generally unhappy dispositions towards formal English,
somewhere beLween merely uneasy and ouLrlghL anLagonlsLlc, and of Lhelr low self-efflcacy
wlLh regard Lo wrlLlng. l now seL myself Lhe Lask of dlscoverlng Lhe rooLs of Lhelr anLagonlsm
and commlLLed myself Lo explorlng lLs conLexL - Lhe hlsLory and scope of Lhelr educaLlonal
experlences. l also consldered LhaL, Lo some degree, we mlghL, lnsLlLuLlonally and naLlonally,
be Leachlng Lo a narraLlve a collecLlon of sLorles !"#$% our sLudenLs raLher Lhan our acLual
sLudenLs. (We can call a collecLlon of such narraLlves a proflle. Cnce a proflle ls accepLed,
we Lend Lo see only evldence LhaL relnforces lL.) 1hls would mean LhaL, raLher Lhan belng
open Lo unexpecLed and exLraordlnary poLenLlals, we would have predeLermlned
expecLaLlons of our sLudenLs, expecLaLlons LhaL could become self-fulfllllng prophecles. ln
retrospect, it was my good fortune that my first semesters teaching had offered me only

72
Lwo opLlons: dlscover anoLher narraLlve or geL used Lo waLchlng angry, dlsaffecLed sLudenLs
falllng my course ln large numbers.
l began my lnqulry by seelng, as far as posslble, how Lhlngs mlghL look from my
students points of view. I saw decade-long, (or longer), sLruggles wlLh a language boLh allen
and, supposedly, superlor Lo Lhelr own, naLural ldlolecLs. l was predlsposed - perhaps
enabled - Lo see Lhls because of my own background. ln ScoLland, my naLlve counLry, Lhe
near demlse of Caellc was greaLly asslsLed by educaLlonal pollcles excludlng Lhe use of Lhe
language ln schools, (from Lhe 16Lh cenLury on), by Lhe lll-lnformed snobbery LhaL vlewed
Caellc speakers as rusLlc prlmlLlves and by Lhe concomlLanL shame of Caellc speakers llke my
own greaL-grandparenLs who refused Lo allow my grandmoLher Lo learn or Lo speak Lhelr
own, flrsL language. 1oday, ln Lhe area where l was born, Lhere ls Lhe same class/language
dlvlde beLween Lhe speakers of Lhe ScoLs vernacular, (Lallans or Lowland ScoLs), and
speakers of proper Lngllsh as LhaL whlch once dlvlded Lhe Lowland ScoLs and Lhe Caels.
(So l know a llLLle blL abouL language and culLural ldenLlLy. ln facL, l lnherenL ln my famlly and
culLural hlsLory, conslder Lhls as parL of my own, LaclL or embodled knowledge
2
). lrom
Lhls sLandpolnL - and Lo my horror - l could LruLhfully characLerlze my [ob as belng Lo Leach
my lnferlor sLudenLs an allen and superlor language. l now LhoughL l recognlzed a very
slmllar hosLlllLy ln myself Lo Lhe one l saw ln so many of Lhem. lL ls a hosLlllLy, (largely
unconsclous), born of oppresslon, (unrecognlzed), by a compulsory educaLlon program
whlch devalues, punlLlvely, all buL Lhe ldlolecL closesL Lo LhaL of Lhe mosL powerful,
prlvlleged classes.
l am lmmovably convlnced LhaL human belngs are noL dlvlded lnLo superlor and
lnferlor races, culLures, classes or sexes. l am equally convlnced LhaL, wheLher we are aware
of lL or noL, lL ls naLural and lnsLlncLlve - even rlghL ln us, Lo resenL and reslsL any sysLem or
program LhaL requlres us Lo belleve LhaL who we are and where we come from makes us less
Lhan, or worse Lhan someone who has more power or prlvllege Lhan we do. lrom Lhls
perspecLlve, Lhe dlsaffecLlon of my sLudenLs noL only appeared Lo be naLural, buL acLually
healLhy. 8oughly elghL monLhs laLer, l would hear !ack WhlLehead speak aL Lhe 2010 AcLlon
8esearch Conference ln San ulego. Pe gave a preclse and approprlaLe deflnlLlon of whaL
Lhese sLudenLs had undergone and whaL, l belleve, mosL sLudenLs ln Lhe WesLern world
undergo. He called it, educational colonization, somethlng LhaL relnforces Lhe superlorlLy
of a soclal ellLe and Lhe lnferlorlLy of Lhose who are Lo be educaLed. 1hls ls whaL l had
unconsclously recognlzed ln Lhe way LhaL my sLudenLs saw me and whaL l represenLed. 1hus,
Lhree or four weeks afLer Lhe sLarL of Lhe semesLer, l walked lnLo my classroom and, ln Lhe
broad ScoLs of my home Lown, sald someLhlng llke:
Richt yuse tatty bogles; hawd yir wheesht, pin yer lugs back and gies yir foo, foo mind,
attenshun. Im no goany waste ma brathe, ye ken. 1hls ls whlL ylll hear whaur a cum frae... An
ers nuhin wrang wi it. (ersonal communlcaLlon)

2
...a vasL reservolr of personal knowledge underlles our personal-soclal pracLlces. We know more Lhan
we can say, our personal knowledge ls unarLlculaLable because usually, we are noL aware of lL, we [usL
know. ...1aclL knowledge ls LhaL vasL fund of pracLlcal, local and LradlLlonal knowledge LhaL ls
embodled ln dlsposlLlons and forms of llfe and expressed ln flalr and lnLulLlon and of whlch our
LheoreLlcal or arLlculaLed knowledge ls only Lhe vlslble Llp (Cray 1993:70) Cn Lhls vlew, knowledge ls ln
Lhe way we llve our llves and ls, essenLlally, embodled knowledge. (Mcnlff and WhlLehead, 2000, p.41)

Salyers, S.

73
1he effecL was lnsLanL and elecLrlc, lL was as Lhough l had morphed lnLo an
exLraLerresLrlal ln fronL of Lhe class. l was no longer whoever or whaLever Lhey lmaglned, buL
someLhlng new and unexpecLed and l had Lhelr aLLenLlon. l LranslaLed:
8lghL you poLaLo scarecrows, be quleL, pln back your ears and glve me your full, full
remember, attention. Im not going to waste my breath you know. This is whaL you wlll hear
where I come from... and theres noLhlng wrong wlLh lL. (ersonal communlcaLlon)
l Lhen gave a command performance of a long llsL of phrases Lhey wanLed Lo hear ln
broad ScoLs... AfLerwards, l explalned LhaL ScoLs ls consldered closer Lo Lhe oldesL form of
Lngllsh, Anglo Saxon, Lhan modern Lngllsh and LhaL some of Lhe supposedly worsL of
Appalachlan speech errors are slmply archalc forms of Lngllsh. ln Lhls way l led up Lo my
bombshells - LhaL Lhere ls noLhlng wrong wlLh Lhe way we speak ln our own communlLles,
and LhaL Lhe Lngllsh we use ln college ls noLhlng more Lhan an agreemenL, a common Longue
LhaL allows a ScoL, for example, and a 1ennessean Lo undersLand one anoLher.
ln LhaL momenL, l was sLandlng and breaLhlng lnslde a LruLh LhaL l had prevlously
known only lnLellecLually, language ls a llvlng, culLural Lhlng and formal Lngllsh, Lhe llngua
franca of Lhe academlc and modern world, exlsLs nowhere as a language ln lLs own rlghL. lL
ls slmply a convenLlon, an agreed medlum of communlcaLlon by whlch peoples of Lhe Lngllsh
speaklng world may undersLand one anoLher. lL exlsLs as an ldeal Lo whlch speakers and
wrlLers asplre, [usL as spoken and wrlLLen LaLln dld ln Lhe Mlddle Ages, frequenLly vlslble ln
wrlLLen form, rarely spoken and never occurrlng as a naLural and orlglnal ldlolecL. 1he
penny suddenly dropped. Slnce no one really speaks lL, lL ls essenLlally a second language
or aL leasL a second sub-seL of Lhe language - for mosL of Lhe Lngllsh-speaklng world, for Lhls
wrlLer and for you, Lhe reader. lL ls LaughL qulLe dlfferenLly, however. 8aLher Lhan Lasklng
chlldren wlLh acqulrlng a second and separaLe language, (or sub-seL), we presenL Lhem wlLh
Lhe lnvldlous, lmposslble [ob of developlng a beLLer verslon of Lhelr own, naLural dlalecL.
1wo serlous falsehoods underpln Lhls approach: flrsL, LhaL one language seL,
(academlc, formal, sLandard or proper Lngllsh), ls [usL an lmproved verslon of Lhe oLher,
(Lhe naLural dlalecL), second, LhaL Lhe beLLer verslon may be acqulred slmply by pollshlng
Lhe lnferlor dlalecL. ln facL, Lhe forms and convenLlons, Lhe muslcal cadences and
arrangemenLs of formal Lngllsh and Lhose belonglng Lo oLher dlalecLs are each dlsLlncL, each
internally consistent. And each expresses the speakers reallLy ln a unlquely creaLlve way:
8owerman concludes LhaL chlldren work ouL Lhe meanlng sysLem Lhrough acLlve experlence
wlLh language ln soclal lnLeracLlons... ln oLher words, ofLen repeaLed verbal formulae LhaL
adulLs and older chlldren use ln lnLeracLlons wlLh young chlldren provlde Lhe "frames" Lhese
chlldren use ln Lhese encounLers and hence Lhe means for dlscoverlng and consLrucLlng new
meanings Bowerman's frame model suggests that imitation plays an important role by
providing unanalyzed amalgams that constitute frames in which the young child can
dlscover Lhe semanLlc dlsLlncLlons ln hls naLlve Longue. (1aylor-arker, 1983, p. 620)
Any meLhod LhaL aLLempLs Lo resolve one ldlolecL lnLo anoLher ls, Lherefore,
lnherenLly and faLally flawed - and a Lerrlble Leachlng meLhod. Powever, we aLLempL exacLly
Lhls. We Lry Lo lmprove Lhe ldlolecL of chlldren !"#$ formal Lngllsh - whlch ls presenLed as
Lhough lL were Lhe only accepLable verslon of every ldlolecL of Lhe Lngllsh-speaklng world.
1he greaLer Lhe dlvergence of any vernacular from Lhe paLLerns and rules of Lhe proper

74
norm, Lhe greaLer ls Lhe degree of Lhe percelved debasemenL of LhaL vernacular. ln
oLher words, we Leach lL normaLlvely.
1here ls an obvlous and serlous lmpllcaLlon here, lf my ldlolecL, my naLural mode of
self-expresslon ls parL of my ldenLlLy, Lhen Lo Lhe exLenL LhaL my speech paLLerns are
unaccepLable or lnferlor - so am l. And lf Lhe llngulsLlc convenLlons of my own famlly and
communlLy, LhaL help blnd me Lo Lhem and relnforce my own ldenLlLy, lf Lhese are lnferlor,
Lhen so ls Lhe world Lo whlch l belong. SLudenLs whose own dlalecLs dlffer wldely from
formal Lngllsh have Lhus undergone a klnd of educaLlonal oppresslon. 1hey have been
confronLed from chlldhood by a language Lhey have rarely heard and whose paLLerns of
synLax and grammar are as allen as Lhey are dlfflculL. So dlfferenL are Lhe language paLLerns
ln whlch Lhey hablLually communlcaLe and whlch Lruly belong Lo Lhem from proper
Lngllsh, (whlch belongs Lo someone else), LhaL Lhey have no personal sLake ln lL. Worse yeL,
Lhls ls a language LhaL, by vlrLue of lLs proposed superlorlLy, LesLlfles Lo Lhelr soclo-
llngulsLlc lnferlorlLy. lL ls, ln a real sense, Lhe language of colonlzaLlon, someLhlng Lo be
reslsLed and resenLed.
I had discovered what Jack Whitehead calls a living contradiction
3
beLween my
values and my pracLlce: l was admlnlsLerlng a program of lnsLrucLlon based on colonlzlng
values and assumpLlons, and whlch lnvlLed fallure, (or selecLed ouL), Lhose whom lL
devalued. Clven my own feellngs abouL Lhe colonlzlng of ScoLLlsh language and LradlLlons,
Lhls was a dreadful dlscovery. And l would have been deLermlned Lo flnd a more human and
humanlzlng approach wlLh whlch Lo replace lL even lf lL were noL, demonsLrably, falllng
educaLlonally.
l am aware LhaL some Lngllsh language Leachers may be offended by Lhls
lnLerpreLaLlon. noneLheless, Lhe facL LhaL such colonlzaLlon bears no relaLlon Lo our own
consclous personal values, lnLenLlons or deslres does noL change Lhe characLer of our
program. ?ou mlghL ask yourself: ls Lhls ls a falr represenLaLlon of Lhe Leachlng of formal
Lngllsh? Speclflcally, do we Leach lL as Lhough lL were a beLLer form of any and every dlalecL?
ls LhaL approach based on LruLh? ls lL [usL? Whose dlalecL does formal Lngllsh mosL closely
resemble? (Are Lhere class based values lnherenL ln Leachlng lL normaLlvely?) Wlll Lhe
ma[orlLy Lhrlve on Lhls approach? (uo Lhey now?) An honesL response surely Lells us LhaL our
LradlLlonal approach ls lnherenLly colonlzlng, and LhaL lL puLs us ln Lhe poslLlon of acLlvely
allenaLlng sLudenLs from Lhe language we wanL Lhem Lo learn. AL Lhe very leasL, Lhls ls self-
defeaLlng as a Leachlng paradlgm - someLhlng Lhe llLeraLure on language acqulslLlon and
second language Leachlng mlghL have Lold us long ago:
Second language aLLlLude refers Lo acqulrers' orlenLaLlons Loward speakers of Lhe LargeL
language, as well as personallLy facLors. 1he second hypoLhesls ls LhaL such facLors relaLe
dlrecLly Lo acqulslLlon and only lndlrecLly Lo consclous learnlng. 8rlefly, Lhe "rlghL" aLLlLudlnal
facLors produce Lwo effecLs: Lhey encourage useful lnpuL for language acqulslLlon and Lhey
allow Lhe acqulrer Lo be "open" Lo Lhls lnpuL so lL can be uLlllzed for acqulslLlon.

3
l am Lhlnklng here of l exlsLlng as a conLradlcLlon ln Lhe sense of holdlng LogeLher a commlLmenL Lo
llve cerLaln values wlLh Lhe recognlLlon of Lhe denlal of Lhese values ln pracLlce (WhlLehead, 2009 p.
83).

Salyers, S.

75
1he pedagoglcal lmpllcaLlons of Lhese hypoLheses wlll noL surprlse many experlenced
Leachers: lf Lhe dlrecL relaLlonshlp beLween acqulslLlon and aLLlLudlnal facLors does exlsL, and
lf our ma[or goal ln language Leachlng ls Lhe developmenL of communlcaLlve ablllLles, we
musL conclude LhaL aLLlLudlnal facLors and moLlvaLlonal facLors are more lmporLanL Lhan
apLlLude. 1hls ls because consclous learnlng makes only a small conLrlbuLlon Lo
communlcaLlve ablllLy. (krashen, 1981, p. 3)
l had found a slmple, sLralghLforward and compelllng raLlonale, noL only for Lhe
passlve aggresslon l was seelng buL also for Lhe lack of fluency, Lhe self-doubL and Lhe sense
of dlsconnecLlon, (Lhe dlsconnecL), whlch characLerlze so many developmenLal sLudenLs of
formal Lngllsh. 1he same raLlonale also explalns why so many can dlscover no moLlvaLlng
lnLeresL ln Lhe dlsclpllne of wrlLlng beyond passlng Lhe course. 1hls ls lmporLanL because a
students relationship with the language of academia will play a slgnlflcanL role ln Lhe flnal
success or fallure of hls or her personal amblLlons (1hls success or fallure ls ofLen, more
lmpersonally, deflned as Lhe sLudenL reLenLlon raLe).
A consLanL baLLle Lo follow lnsLrucLlons and prompLs - Lo parLlclpaLe ln academlc llfe,
wlll presenL a relenLless source of sLress. More Lhan LhaL, lL wlll be lsolaLlng. 1he lndlvldual
who does noL speak Lhe Longue of Lhe counLry ln whlch he or she resldes, remalns an
ouLslder, a sLranger ln a sLrange land. 1wo consequences are lnescapable. Cne ls obvlous:
Lhe klnd of academlc fallure assoclaLed wlLh a general lack of proflclency ln academlc
Lngllsh. 1he second wlll be more or less lnvlslble. lL ls a drop ouL raLe reflecLlve of
prolonged sLruggle and prolonged fallure Lo progress ln any fleld of sLudy where compeLency
ln Lhe common language ls essenLlal.
Clearly, Lhen, noL only ln developmenLal programs, buL also ln labs and classrooms
across campuses, Lhe lmpacL of Lhe aforemenLloned dlsconnecL ls belng felL, reflecLed ln
sLudenL reLenLlon, ln success and fallure raLes, and ln Lhe success of a college as a whole.
Suppose LhaL Lhere were a slmple mechanlsm for successfully repalrlng Lhe dlsconnecL
from formal Lngllsh, and enabllng a rapld masLery of Lhe language. 1he repercusslons would
reach far beyond any lndlvldual Lngllsh or wrlLlng course. lf lL exlsLs, however, glven Lhe
pressure Lo flnd any klnd of maglc bulleL wlLh whlch Lo propel sLudenLs Lo academlc success,
why has lL noL been dlscovered and applled by now? 1hls brlngs me back Lo Lhe narraLlve of
Lhe low level learner, an LasL knoxvllle class room and a Llvlng LducaLlonal 1heory
approach Lo acLlon research.
1he narraLlve of Lhe aL rlsk, Lhe low-level or Lhe developmenLal learner, posLulaLes
a deflclL ln Lhe sLudenL or a value [udgmenL abouL Lhe learnlng level of LhaL sLudenL. lor
example, learnlng-supporL sLudenLs ln my college who reglsLer onllne, wlll see a charL ldenLl-
fying their deficits, as it lists the courses they need to take. When we teach a child Lo
count, clap, ride a bike or swim, do we ever represent ourselves as correcting that childs
deflclL? Cf course noL, lnsLead we vlew Lhe Lask as one of helplng Lhe chlld Lo masLer
someLhlng he or she has noL yeL learned. We place no value [udgmenL on Lhe currenL level of
the childs learning. Remediating a skill deflclL makes a clear sLaLemenL LhaL someLhlng ls
lacklng LhaL oughL Lo be Lhere, ls wrong and needs Lo be flxed. My [ob as an educaLor Lhen
becomes LhaL of remedlaLlng Lhe deflclL. Conslder LhaL Lhe LradlLlonal Leachlng of formal
Lngllsh - by pollshlng and correcting the vocabulary, grammar and syntax of the students
dlalecL lnLo Lhe requlred sLandard - ls, ln and of lLself, a klnd of remedlaLlon. uesplLe LhaL

76
remedlaLlon, Lhe learnlng supporL sLudenL has noL acqulred Lhe skllls he or she oughL Lo
have acqulred before arrlval ln college. 1hus Lhe prevalllng narraLlve and Lhe hldden assump-
Llons ln Lhe LradlLlonal Leachlng of academlc Lngllsh as normaLlve, feed lnLo one anoLher Lo
creaLe a closed and value-laden sysLem, each relnforclng Lhe sLory Lold by Lhe oLher.
1hese sLorles are furLher relnforced, l belleve, by a long-sLandlng, pervaslve and
erroneous assoclaLlon beLween language performance and lnLelllgence. 1hls ls Lhe llkely
resulL of classroom lC LesLs dellvered ln a sLandard Amerlcan Lngllsh LhaL many chlldren do
noL use, (Lngllsh speaklng and non-Lngllsh speaklng). lndeed Lhere have been famous
lnsLances of chlldren labeled as reLarded because of Lhls blas agalnsL llngulsLlc dlfference.
4

Whlle hundred of Lhousands of sLandardlzed LesLs are admlnlsLered each year, Lhe number of
locally developed lnsLrumenLs ls ln Lhe mllllons. A large number of such lnsLrumenLs are
developed by persons wlLh llLLle or no Lralnlng ln LesL developmenL, a frlghLenlng facL (glven)
LhaL all Lhose LesLs conLrlbuLe Lo declslons whlch affecL Lhe lmmedlaLe and long-range fuLure
of many lndlvlduals.
...Many of Lhe educaLlonal and lnLelllgence LesLs used Lo assess eLhnlc and llngulsLlc mlnorlLy
chlldren use norms for chlldren prlmarlly from whlLe, mlddle-class backgrounds. 1hus, such
LesLs are ofLen blased agalnsL Lhe mlnorlLy sLudenL. MosL lnLelllgence LesLs rely heavlly on
language, yeL Lhere may be llLLle aLLempL Lo deLermlne a chlld's level of proflclency ln Lhe
language or dlalecL ln whlch a LesL ls admlnlsLered. lor example, a Plspanlc chlld may be able
Lo perform a Lask LhaL ls called for ln an lnLelllgence LesL, buL noL be able Lo undersLand Lhe
dlrecLlons glven ln Lngllsh. Lven lf a Spanlsh LranslaLlon were avallable, lL mlghL noL be ln a
dialect with which the child is familiar and might yield test results that are not a true
lndlcaLlon of a chlld's ablllLles. 1he same may be Lrue from Aslans, Afrlcan Amerlcans or
Native Americans The refusal to acknowledge the importance or Lhe value of llngulsLlc
dlfference has resulLed ln lnadequaLe servlces and ln Lhe lnapproprlaLe placemenL of chlldren
Lhrough hlghly quesLlonable assessmenL procedures. (Sllva, 1997, p. 223)
As long as we do noL quesLlon Lhe valldlLy of our LesLlng meLhods, Lhe sLaLlsLlcal
evldence ls qulLe clear, low-level language skllls and low-level lnLelllgence are dlrecLly
lnLerrelaLed and Lhe narraLlve (whaL everybody knows), abouL our sLudenLs ls amply
supporLed by a huge body of sLaLlsLlcs. When we quesLlon Lhe valldlLy of Lhe LesLs, however,
Lhe plcLure of Lhe low-level learner ls replaced by one of masslve soclal ln[usLlce. ln my
sub[ecLlve, mlcrocosmlc world, my own experlence proves Lhe polnL.
An lnformal survey LhaL l conducL aL Lhe sLarL of Lhe semesLer always ylelds a
mulLlLude of varlaLlons on Lhe same Lheme. MosL of my sLudenLs have been Lold, aL some
Llme or anoLher, LhaL Lhey should noL expecL Loo much ouL of a career, should noL Lhlnk
abouL aLLendlng college or, ln a few cases, wlll never amounL Lo anyLhlng ln llfe. Well
lnLenLloned advlce, posslbly, for Lhe low-level, noL Loo brlghL or non-academlc sLudenL
whose braln ls [usL noL up Lo Lhe demands of college. ulsasLrous for Lhe oppresslon-

4
ulana vs. SLaLe 8oard of LducaLlon, CA 70 8l1 (n.u. Cal. 1970) lalnLlffs ln ulana v. SLaLe 8oard of
LducaLlon (1970), flled on behalf of Mexlcan Amerlcan chlldren ln MonLerey CounLy, Callfornla, alleged
LhaL Lhe school sysLem was lnaccuraLely ldenLlfylng Spanlsh-speaklng chlldren as menLally reLarded on
Lhe basls of lC LesLs admlnlsLered ln Lngllsh. 1he courL ruled LhaL non-Lngllsh proflclenL chlldren
cannoL be placed ln Speclal LducaLlon on Lhe basls of culLurally blased LesLs or LesLs admlnlsLered ln
Lngllsh (Learnlng ulsablllLles Learnlng AssessmenL: Legal and LLhlcal rovlslons).

Salyers, S.

77
damaged, lnLelllgenL and wonderful lndlvldual who has been condemned by an lnsLlLuLlonal
sLory Lo llve lnslde a volceless, powerless prlson whereln learnlng lLself ls beyond hls reach.
ln reallLy, such advlce ls lnvarlably dlsasLrous slnce Lhe former low level sLudenL ls an
lnvenLlon and producL of lnaccuraLe and class-based assumpLlons.
Cur narraLlve ls sLlll furLher supporLed by Lhe evldence LhaL some chlldren do prove
hlghly successful ln developlng fluency ln formal Lngllsh Lhrough LradlLlonal Leachlng
meLhods, whlle oLhers seem desLlned Lo remaln aL a remedlal level, whaLever sLeps are
Laken Lo brldge Lhe gap. 1he flaw ln LhaL evldence, however, lles ln a seL of assumpLlons: LhaL
Lhe LradlLlonal meLhod of Leachlng formal Lngllsh ls subsLanLlally effecLlve ln and of lLself,
LhaL lL musL produce Lhe same resulLs ln all chlldren of equal lnLelllgence, and LhaL Lhe
varlable ls, Lherefore, Lhe ablllLy and poLenLlal of Lhe lndlvldual chlld.
lf x ls a, Lhen y ls b, says Lhe equaLlon. 1he same seL of premlses wlll always yleld Lhe
same resulLs. lf a soluLlon requlres a dlfferenL seL of premlses, Lhen we wlll never flnd LhaL
soluLlon whlle Lhe orlglnal premlses remaln unchallenged. lf we begln from Lhe premlse LhaL,
because Lhey do noL learn Lhrough meLhods LhaL (we assume) work for Lhe ma[orlLy,
sLudenLs who sLruggle wlLh formal Lngllsh face speclal, (l.e. dlfferenL from Lhe norm),
dlsablllLles or challenges, Lhen we wlll always focus on developlng speclal meLhods Lallored
Lo Lhelr (lnherenL) dlfflculLles. We are unllkely Lo conslder LhaL Lhe meLhods we are uslng
may noL really work for Lhe ma[orlLy, LhaL Lhe successful sLudenLs may noL be Lhe ma[orlLy or
may noL be successful because of our meLhods or LhaL our meLhods may, ln facL, be creaLlng
Lhe problems we are aLLempLlng Lo solve. We cannoL flnd whaL we do noL seek.
Pow does anyone break such a self-perpeLuaLlng cycle? Applylng Lhe recurslve
quesLlonlng of boLh acLlon research and Lhe LL1 approach, and drawlng on personal and
embodled knowledge, l dlsmlssed Lhe narraLlve or proflle ln favor of someLhlng LhaL found a
sLrong resonance ln my own experlence. When l LesLed Lhe new narraLlve by changlng my
own lnsLrucLlonal paradlgm, Lhe dynamlc ln my classroom changed profoundly. Slnce LhaL
flrsL semesLer, Lhe hosLlllLy LhaL prompLed my llvlng Lheory lnqulry has noL been a feaLure of
my classroom. lL sLlll occurs sporadlcally, ln lndlvldual sLudenLs. l am absoluLely clear abouL
where lL comes from and why. And Lhose who have been mosL anLagonlsLlc aL Lhe sLarL of
Lhe semesLer, by Lhe end are generally among Lhe sLudenLs wlLh whom l have Lhe closesL
relaLlonshlps. 1haL change has provlded me wlLh supporL for explalnlng Lhelr dlsaffecLlon
and lLs concomlLanL behavlors ln Lerms of a deflclL noL ln Lhe sLudenLs, buL ln Lhelr
educaLlonal experlences. lL also allowed me Lo propose LhaL Lhls ls Lrue for Lhe ma[orlLy of
sLudenLs who do noL begln compulsory schoollng wlLh a sLrong famlly or communlLy
background ln SLandard Amerlcan/Lngllsh culLure and language.
Cnce l percelved Lhe LradlLlonal approach as lnherenLly dehumanlzlng and
lneffecLlve, l could look for anoLher. ln shorL, a Llvlng 1heory approach Lo my lnqulry allowed
me Lo challenge premlses LhaL are normally assumed, premlses someLhlng llke Lhls:
1. 1here ls a pure and proper form of Lngllsh LhaL we should all sLrlve Lo speak and
wrlLe.
2. lL can be LaughL by ldenLlfylng and repeaLlng Lhe rules of grammar, synLax and
puncLuaLlon because lL ls really Lhe language (normaLlve) we all speak when we speak
properly.

78
3. lL ls Lhe normaLlve verslon of all Lngllsh dlalecLs and Lherefore should come easlly Lo
Lhose who make Lhe efforL or have Lhe lnLellecLual ablllLy pollsh Lhelr own language
skllls.
4. ulfflculLles ln developlng language fluency reflecL a lack of lnLelllgence and
lnLellecLual ablllLy.
l replaced Lhose wlLh:
1. 1here ls only an agreed convenLlon, an ldeal LhaL we use as Lhe medlum of
professlonal and academlc communlcaLlon LhaL we call SLandard or academlc, or
formal Lngllsh.
2. lL ls naLural Lo no one.
3. 1hose whose ldlolecLs dlffer wldely from LhaL of Lhe deslred norm, are llkely Lo be
dlsenfranchlsed because Lhey are devalued by Lhe degree Lo whlch Lhelr naLural
ldlolecL dlffers from LhaL norm.
4. ulsenfranchlsemenL ls a beLLer explanaLlon for Lhe poor language skllls of my
sLudenLs Lhan lack of elLher lnLelllgence or academlc ablllLy. lormal Lngllsh,
Lherefore, should noL be LaughL normaLlvely (whlch ls educaLlonal colonlzaLlon) buL
as a unlversal medlum of naLlonal and lnLernaLlonal human communlcaLlon LhaL ls,
LruLhfully and respecLfully.
3. lL ls noL posslble Lo lmprove one dlalecL or sub-seL lnLo anoLher. 1herefore,
repalrlng Lhe dlsenfranchlsemenL, (Lhe dlsconnecL), musL depend on a radlcally
dlfferenL approach Lo Leachlng and learnlng, raLher Lhan flxlng Lhe sLudenLs ln my
classroom.

Part Two: Mending the Disconnect, a New Paradigm for a New Story
lorLunaLely Lhe radlcally dlfferenL approach was boLh obvlous and already Lrled and
LesLed ln forelgn language classrooms, lL was language lmmerslon, where emphasls ls placed
on Lhe connecLlon of sound wlLh meanlng, echolng Lhe way LhaL human belngs naLurally
learn Lo speak and Lhlnk ln our naLlve Longues. (1hls was someLhlng l was famlllar wlLh from
Lhe Caellc lmmerslon classes Lo whlch some of my ScoLLlsh frlends senL Lhelr chlldren.)
Among Lhe vasL array of phenomena LhaL one mlghL loosely conslder language- relaLed, Lhe
blollngulsLlc approach focuses aLLenLlon on a componenL of human blology LhaL enLers lnLo
Lhe use and acqulslLlon of language, however one lnLerpreLs Lhe Lerm language. Call lL Lhe
faculLy of language, adapLlng a LradlLlonal Lerm Lo a new usage. 1hls componenL ls more or
less on a par wlLh Lhe sysLems of mammallan vlslon, lnsecL navlgaLlon, and oLhers.
...1hese condlLlons Lake us back Lo Lhe LradlLlonal characLerlzaLlon of language, slnce
ArlsLoLle aL leasL, as a sysLem LhaL llnks sound and meanlng. (Chomsky, 2003, p. 9)
Cur flrsL language ls acqulred naLurally, raLher Lhan consclously learned. Modern
language lmmerslon programs emulaLe Lhe process of acqulslLlon by uslng repeaLed
exposure Lo Lhe sounds of a language and vlsual and experlenLlal assoclaLlon of Lhose sounds
wlLh meanlng:

Salyers, S.

79
1radlLlonally, second languages have been LaughL Lhrough a sLrucLured approach LhaL
focuses on Lhe grammar and funcLlons of language. SLrangely enough, Lhls ls noL Lhe way flrsL
languages are acqulred. ln facL, wlLh flrsL language acqulslLlon, Lhe grammar and funcLlons of
language are noL cusLomarlly LaughL unLll Lhe end of prlmary or Lhe beglnnlng of secondary
school, long afLer lndlvlduals have masLered communlcaLlve fluency ln Lhelr naLlve Longue.
1he lmmerslon model of language learnlng comes closesL Lo repllcaLlng Lhe naLural way ln
whlch humans acqulre Lhelr flrsL language. (Chalgne, 2006, p. 1)
Language acquisition is indeed a biolinguistic function; the language we speak is
hard-wlred Lhrough a neLwork of speclflc neural paLhways LhaL form language maps ln
Lhe braln. 1he paLhways develop as we assoclaLe sound wlLh meanlng:
Lach chlld has more Lhan 30,000 nerve paLhways LhaL can carry sounds from Lhe human
volce from Lhe ears Lo Lhe braln. 1he braln encodes Lhe words and acLually rearranges lLs
braln cells lnLo connecLlons or neLworks Lo produce language.... lf a chlld hears llLLle or no
human sound, Lhe braln walLs ln valn and evenLually wlll "reLlre" Lhese cells from Lhls
funcLlon and glve Lhese cells a dlfferenL funcLlon. 8y age 10, lf Lhe chlld has noL heard spoken
works, Lhe ablllLy Lo learn spoken language ls losL.
ln Lhe lndlana sLudy, lmplanLs used ln young deaf chlldren Lo lnLroduce human sound acLually
changed Lhe braln sLrucLure so LhaL Lhese youLh could begln consLrucLlng a vocabulary... A
unlverslLy of Chlcago sLudy showed LhaL bables whose moLhers Lalked Lo Lhem more had a
blgger vocabulary. 8y 24 monLhs, Lhe lnfanLs of less LalkaLlve moms knew 300 fewer words
Lhan bables whose moLhers spoke Lo Lhem frequenLly. 8ables are "llsLeners" and spoken
language relnforces braln connecLlons, whlch encourage more language developmenL.
(llemlng, 8raln keys Language uevelopmenL, 2002)
1hus convenLlons governlng speech are Lhus lnLernallzed, accessed Lhrough speclflc
paLhways ln Lhe braln creaLed boLh by and for Lhem. 1he paLhways form maps by whlch we
are able Lo Lhlnk, naLurally and unconsclously, ln shades of meanlng and grammaLlcal and
synLacLlc paLLerns. Cur own maps wlll, moreover, be speclflc Lo our naLlonal, communal and
famlllal groups, Lhus connecLlng us Lo our communlLles:
1he way ln whlch we undersLand "your own words" - as referrlng only Lo how you comblne
Lhem, noL whaL Lhey are - shows LhaL words are owned by a communlLy raLher Lhan an
individual. If a word isnt known to everyone around you might as well not use it, because no
one wlll know whaL youre Lalklng abouL. (lnker, 2007, p. 13)
Cur naLlve language, Lhen, ls a llvlng parL of us - a language LhaL musL llve ln us
before we can before we can speak lL, aloud or on Lhe page, wlLh a volce LhaL ls auLhenLlc, ls
our own.
Slnce sound ls Lhe dlrecL symbol of asslgned meanlng, wrlLLen language ls an lndlrecL
symbol of asslgned meanlng, l.e. Lhe symbol of a symbol. When we read Lhe lndlrecL symbols
(wrlLlng), we do noL acLually see meanlng ln Lhese, lnsLead, we LranslaLe Lhe wrlLlng lnLo Lhe
sounds lL represenLs and our bralns access Lhe meanlngs of Lhose sounds:
1he menLal lexlcon, Lhe llsLener's menLal represenLaLlon of whaL words sound llke and whaL
Lhey mean, sLands aL Lhe hearL of Lhe spoken language comprehenslon process. 1he

80
phonologlcal properLles of lexlcal lLems form Lhe lmmedlaLe LargeL of Lhe early sLages of
speech analysls. (Marslen-Wllson, 1yler, Waksler, and Clder, 1994, p. 3)
lf wrlLlng paLLerned Lhe language we speak, Lhere would be clear and dlrecL
connecLlons beLween our lnLernallzed language and Lhe rules governlng Lhe symbols of
Lhose sounds, Lhe rules of wrlLlng. lL would be a sLralghLforward Lask Lo undersLand Lhe
code for Lhe symbols, l.e. Lo lnLerpreL and use Lhe wrlLLen form of language. ause, falllng
lnLonaLlon and breaLh, long pause, rlslng lnflecLlon, Lone of auLhorlLy we dont need to
learn Lhe use of commas, perlods, paragraph lndenLaLlon, quesLlon or exclamaLlon marks ln
order Lo use Lhese ln dally conversaLlon. WrlLLen Lngllsh, however, does noL paLLern Lhe
Lngllsh we speak every day. lnsLead, lL paLLerns an ldlolecL LhaL ls noL spoken. Pow can
anyone learn rules, (mechanlcs), LhaL Lell a reader how a LexL would sound and whaL Lhe
sound means, wlLhouL knowlng how lL oughL Lo sound ln Lhe flrsL place? 8ecause language ls
hard wlred Lo speclflc neural maps, lL seems obvlous LhaL any new language, (or sub-seL of
a language), wlll requlre new and dlfferenL maps from Lhose creaLed by our flrsL language.
And only wlLh Lhese ln place can we dlrecLly connecL Lhe rules for Lhe wrlLLen symbols Lo Lhe
spoken convenLlons Lhey refer Lo.

The Magic Bullet a Brain Based Strategy
l was only parLlally aware of Lhe research, (enough Lo know roughly how language
acqulslLlon worked and Lo make Lhe connecLlon Lo my percepLlon of dlalecL as a second
language), when, soon afLer my ScoLLlsh declamaLlon, l asked my sLudenLs Lo choose and
llsLen Lo readlngs of classlc llLeraLure from a selecLlon of free audlo books. 1hey were Lo
llsLen for a perlod of 20 Lo 30 mlnuLes dally, Lo Lhe Lngllsh of ulckens, AusLen, SwlfL, 1waln
or oLher classlc auLhors whose modallLles are formal, unfamlllar and dlfflculL.
SLudenLs chose Lhelr own LexLs from a very large and varled llsL and changed Lhem aL
wlll lf Lhey dld noL llke Lhem. 1hls helped creaLe a sense of ownershlp, and self-
deLermlnaLlon qulLe unllke Lhe compulsory LexLs of hlgh school currlcula. As an ald Lo
acqulslLlon, Lhey were asked Lo llsLen aL bedLlme lf posslble, when mosL relaxed and
recepLlve. 1hls was noL a hard and fasL rule. lor many, lL was more convenlenL Lo llsLen whlle
drlvlng, walklng or dolng chores anyLhlng repeLlLlve, mechanlcal and borlng and from
whlch Lhe audlo book provlded a klnd of rellef. l dld noL Leach grammar, beyond a few
brush up exercises based on the most common mistakes appearing in students work.
lnsLead, l seL compulsory, dlrecLed and reflecLlve oral and wrlLLen dlscusslons of Lhe audlo
book experlence aL four-week lnLervals so as Lo Lrack changlng relaLlonshlps wlLh Lhe
language, changes ln fluency, confldence, volce/emerglng ownershlp and proflclency ln
mechanlcs. l encouraged sLudenLs Lo observe and dlscuss Lhelr own acqulslLlon process and
Lo asslgn Lhelr own values Lo Lhelr experlence and learnlng ouLcomes. 1hls provlded a
poLenLlally heallng experlence wlLh whlch Lo replace a long hlsLory of performance goals and
ouLcomes LhaL accorded wlLh allen, exLernal values and whlch dlscounLed Lhe sub[ecLlve
values of Lhe sLudenLs.
Cver Lhe course of a few weeks, as Lhe language became lnLernallzed Lhey qulLe
clearly began Lo Lhlnk ln formal Lngllsh, Lhen Lo speak lL and Lo wrlLe lL. 1he resulLs were so
sLarLllng LhaL l have slnce made Lhe exerclse mandaLory for all my classes. (lL has also been

Salyers, S.

81
plloLed by a number of oLher full and parL Llme faculLy wlLhln my deparLmenL.) Lxamples of
Lhose resulLs, (excerpLed buL unedlLed), are reproduced with students permission:
l have noLlced LhaL my braln ls geLLlng reprogrammed each nlghL l llsLen Lo Lhls book. When
my wlfe and l wenL ouL Lo dlnner Lhls weekend, our walLer asked us lf we would llke some
more rolls. My reply was Indeed we would. I have never spoken those words before in my
llfe. (lW - Lwo weeks, personal communlcaLlon, lebruary 1, 2010)
The title of the audio book a lotm listening to is the Hobbit by J.R.R Tolkien. Its the story about
a hobblL who flnes Lhe rlng of power. a loL chouse Lhls book because lL ls very lnLresLlng Lo me
and I like ythical creatures a lot. Pluse I hate reading, to me its just a big wast of time buL when
llsLenlng Lo a book l can be dolng whaL ever l wanL so l llke llsLenlng Lo books a loL more Lhan
readlng Lhem. (Su - one week, personal communlcaLlon, SepLember 14, 2010)
The book Ive been listening to is the Lord of the Rings, the Return of the klng and my
favorlLe parL was Lhe flghL beLween lrodo and golem, Lhe descrlpLlon for LhaL parL was [usL
amazlng. l have en[oyed llsLenlng Lo Lhe audlo books, Lhey have really helped me wlLh my
speech. AL Lhe same Llme Lhe volce ln my head wlll noL sLop, its always correcting the people
around me, and I dont want to correct them because Im not about to hurt someones
fillings thats not me. I will most likely keep listening to audio books so I dont lose touch with
proper Lngllsh, and plus l have Lo Lake Lngllsh 1010 nexL semesLer. (Su, eleven weeks wlLh
erraLlc compleLlon of asslgnmenL, personal communlcaLlon, november 18, 2010)
1he "alchemlsL," by aolo Coelho, ls a sLory of a young shepard. 1he shepard ls learnlng
abouL Lhe meanlng of llfe. Pe does Lhls Lhrough hls experlences along Lhe way. Pe dreams of
havlng a beauLlful women, of seelng Lhe worlld, and of flndlng Lreasure. Pe meeLs exlclLlng
people along Lhe way. 1hose people send hlm ln new dlrecLlons LhroughouL hls quesL. 1he
shepard soon becomes wlse Lo Lhe ways of Lhe world. (8eglnnlng !, personal communlcaLlon,
!anuary 26, 2010)
l do flnd Lhe audlo book popplng up ln my head, volces lf you wlll. eople l lnLeracL wlLh on a
dally basls, have a very slow way of speaklng engllsh. l hear Lhem drag-ouL and mlss-
pronounce words. l can'L glve Lhem Loo much grlef, slnce l do Lhe same Lhlng. Powever, aL
Llmes llke Lhese, l Lhlnk of "1he AlchemlsL." 1he Lngllsh used ln Lhe audlo book ls very
preclse. 1he narraLor does noL use unneccessary dlalog. 1he experlence makes me wanL Lo
use more preclse dlalog. l feel LhaL lf my words geL anymore snappy, l wlll lose my [ob. l look
forward Lo Lhe nexL audlo book, so LhaL l can geL Lhls one ouL of my head. lL wlll be quleL
agaln! Ahhhh! (Mlddle !, personal communlcaLlon, March 2, 2010)
l flnd LhaL lack of Llme and energy keep me from dolng acLlvlLles l really en[oy. SlLLlng down
and readlng a book of any subsLance ls a Llme consumlng process. 1herefore, readlng ofLen
geLs puL off. 1he audlo book was nlce because l dld noL have Lo sLop whaL l was dolng Lo
en[oy lL! l could sLlll eaL and drlnk whlle llsLenlng. l could sLlll drlve and llsLen Lo lL. l could sLlll
work and llsLen Lo lL. l hope you see a Lheme. 8ecause of Lhelr versaLlllLy, audlo books geL an
approval from me. AnoLher greaL faceL ls Lhe rewlnd opLlon. lf l losL Lrack or Lralled off for a
momenL, l could slmply rewlnd Lhe book and llsLen agaln. (Lnd !, personal communlcaLlon,
Aprll 20, 2010)
Pello, my name ls M C. l was born ln Memphls 1n. where l llved Llll l was nlne. AfLer hlgh
school l [olned Lhe marlnes as a machlne gunner. ueclded Lo move back Lo 1enn. afLer Lhe
mlllLary, LhaL ls when l meL my wlfe of seven 7 years. We have Lo cool llLLle klds LogeLher... l
am enrolled ln . (College) because l was bored of dolng plumblng plus my klds goL Llred of

82
me Lracklng dlrL Lhrough Lhere school hallways when l would go Lo plck Lhem up. (8eglnnlng
M. C., lnLroducLlon - one week, personal communlcaLlon, SepLember 7, 2010)
1he alr was lcy cold wlLh a smell of snow Lo lL. AfLer all of Lhe open cockplL fllghLs Ceneral
ChennaulL had Laken over Lhe many years, Lhe weaLher never really seemed Lo boLher hlm
anymore. Cuards sLood aL aLLenLlon as Ceneral ChennaulL walked slowly up Lo Lhe WhlLe
Pouse door. Lven as a hard nosed, baLLle LesLed plloL, he sLlll had an unseLLllng feellng ln Lhe
boLLom of hls sLomach. 1hls ls Lhe flrsL Llme he had ever been called upon by Lhe presldenL.
1he guards led hlm Lo a small offlce LhaL smelled of old clgareLLe smoke. 1here saL Lhe
commander-ln-chlef, resldenL lranklln u 8oosevelL drlnklng a marLlnl wlLh a serlous look on
hls face. 1he resldenL offered a chalr for Lhe general Lo slL ln - buL no marLlnl. ChennaulL saL
ln sllence walLlng for Lhe presldenL Lo speak. resldenL 8oosevelL Look a hlL from hls
cigarette and a sip of his martini before beginning to talk. I assume you have no clue why
you are here, do you general? No Mr. President, I do not. I want you to train men for my
Special Air Unit. (Lnd M. C. - fourLeen weeks, personal communlcaLlon, uecember 2, 2010)
1he sallenL characLerlsLlcs of Lhe progress curve Lend Lo hold Lrue for all Lhose
sLudenLs who underLake Lhe asslgnmenL as prescrlbed, (conslsLenLly and perslsLenLly). ln
shorL, Lhey develop levels of fluency, en[oymenL, orlglnallLy, ownershlp and confldence noL
normally assoclaLed wlLh developmenLal sLudenLs. ln 2010, l LaughL a class ln whlch Lhe
ma[orlLy of sLudenLs fulfllled my requlremenL of llsLenlng for LwenLy Lo LhlrLy mlnuLes dally.
AL around Lwelve weeks lnLo Lhe semesLer, Lhese sLudenLs suddenly began masLerlng
puncLuaLlon, grammar, spelllng and synLax. l was perplexed unLll l reallzed LhaL, as formal
Lngllsh was mapped by Lhe braln, years of grade school drlll and sklll, (ln rules LhaL had
prevlously borne no relaLlon Lo any lnLernal language), had slmply klcked ln. Cr perhaps
Lhe unlversal grammar funcLlon had begun Lo operaLe upon Lhls now embedded language:
ln cracklng Lhe code of language, Lhe chlldren's mlnds musL be consLralned Lo plck ouL [usL
Lhe rlghL klnds of generallzaLlons from Lhe speech around Lhem. 1hey can'L geL sldeLracked
by how senLences sound buL musL dlg lnLo Lhe grammaLlcal sLrucLure hldden ln Lhe words
and Lhelr arrangemenL. lL ls Lhls llne of reasonlng LhaL led Lhe llngulsL noam Chomsky Lo
propose LhaL language acqulslLlon ln chlldren ls Lhe key Lo undersLandlng Lhe naLure of
language, and LhaL chlldren musL be equlpped wlLh an lnnaLe unlversal Crammar: a seL of
plans for Lhe grammaLlcal machlnery LhaL powers all human languages. (lnker, 2007, p. 30)
ln elLher case, lL had become relevant to the students own linguistic thought
processes. ln oLher words, as Lhey developed a reference base ln Lhe spoken language, Lhe
grammaLlcal and synLacLlcal rules Lhey had memorlzed began Lo make sense. ln an lnlLlal,
comparlson sLudy of enLry and exlL wrlLlng samples from elghLeen, year lnLake and ablllLy-
maLched sLudenLs, (nlne of whom were conLrols who dld noL compleLe Lhe audlo
asslgnmenL), mechanlcal lmprovemenL Lended Lo be sllghLly hlgher ln Lhe lmmerslon
group. Powever Lhe llsLeners also showed a marked superlorlLy ln sophlsLlcaLlon of ldeas
and language sLrucLure, engagemenL, ownershlp, rlsk Laklng and volce ln general all
quallLles lllusLraLed by Lhe above examples.
3
WhaL l dld noL Lhen know, was LhaL sllenL
llsLenlng has been shown Lo be an lmporLanL sLep ln Lhe naLural process of language

3
Whlle Lhe lnformal sLaLus of Lhe research aL Lhls sLage prevenLs publlcaLlon of Lhe samples sLudled,
examples lllusLraLlng Lhe degree and rapldlLy of language acqulslLlon and Lhe klnds of non Lyplcal
work produced by Lhese developmenLal wrlLlng sLudenLs are lncluded ln Lhls paper.

Salyers, S.

83
acqulslLlon. uurlng normal language developmenL, as krashen remarks (p. 8): Chlldren are
usually allowed Lo go Lhrough a sllenL perlod, durlng whlch Lhey bulld up acqulred
compeLence Lhrough acLlve llsLenlng. Several scholars have suggesLed LhaL provldlng such a
sllenL perlod for all performers ln second language acqulslLlon would be beneflclal (see for
example, osLovsky, 1977).
lnLeresLlngly, as acqulslLlon Look place some of Lhe oppressed became
oppressors. SomeLlmes, Lhe former hosLlllLy Lowards academlc Lngllsh underwenL a volLe-
face, Lo be replaced by lnLolerance Lowards... Lhe local vernacular:
l really en[oyed llsLenlng Lo my audlo books. l was noL sure how Lhls would acLually help me
ln my speech, buL now l have Lhls llLLle volce ln my head saylng, hey are you golng Lo correcL
Lhem or whaL. When l flrsL sLarLed, l would geL frusLraLed because l could noL pay aLLenLlon
Lo Lhe Lape and whaL acLlvlLy l was dolng aL Lhe same Llme, however LhaL was noL how Lhls
process was supposed Lo be done. l declded Lo [usL puL Lhe headphones on and go, Lo my
surprlse lL works. 1here ls someLhlng sooLhlng abouL someone readlng Lo you, maybe lL
sLems from belng read Lo as a chlld. l am deflnlLely golng Lo keep on llsLenlng Lo my
audlobooks, Lhe reward ls so hlgh, and Lhe efforL ls so low. now l can Lry Lo geL my klds
lnvolved ln noL [usL readlng books, buL also llsLenlng Lo Lhem. (Mlddle M.C. - Lwelve weeks,
personal communlcaLlon, november 16, 2010)
l have always been somewhaL perLurbed by Lhe slang and lmproper verblage common Lo Lhe
souLh. LlsLenlng Lo Lhe audlo book, dolng Lhe grammar exerclses, and [usL slLLlng ln our wrlLlng
class twice a week has made it much worse... It makes me judge people, which isnt right, but I
cant help it! (S8, Audlo 8ook 2 - slx weeks, personal communlcaLlon, March 4, 2010)
lL would be one Lhlng lf Lhey were [usL uneducaLed, buL a loL of Lhem even have college
degrees. lL ls a consclous cholce for some people Lo speak lmproperly ln order Lo flL ln or
sound cool I guess. It has helped me notice when I am speaking improperly as well. Every
now and Lhen, my surroundlngs rub off on me and l say someLhlng compleLely lmproper. l
am able Lo caLch Lhls qulcker and more ofLen, whlch has helped me ln my wrlLlng. Lven
Lhough lL has helped my wrlLlng skllls, l would almosL raLher be lgnoranL Lo proper Lngllsh
because llsLenlng Lo people around easL 1ennessee makes me wanL Lo scream!
My relaLlonshlp wlLh Lngllsh has dramaLlcally changed Lhanks Lo my audlo book. Lvery Llme l
hear someone speak Lhe wheels ln my braln sLarL Lurnlng. l flnd myself noL really
concenLraLlng on whaL Lhelr saylng, buL concenLraLlng on how Lhey are saylng lL. 1hls really
annoys me! Wlll l ever geL back Lo Lhe world where we all [usL babble back and forLh wlLh
each oLher and l could care less how Lhe words are pronounced? My Lngllsh ls noL perfecL by
any means and lL never boLhered me unLll now. 1hls class and Lhe audlo books have helped
me wlLh my wrlLlng skllls Lremendously. l carefully look over whaL l have wrlLLen now for
errors and I am always proofreading everyone elses work. (kC - slx weeks, personal
communlcaLlon, March 3, 2010)
AfLer llsLenlng Lo my audlo book l sLarLed noLlclng LhaL l was uslng formal Lngllsh when l
would slng Lhe words Lo a song on Lhe radlo. 1haL was Lhe flrsL Lhlng LhaL l noLlced, because
normally l would never do such a Lhlng. l would always use Lhe same slang LhaL Lhe arLlsL dld.
1he second Lhlng LhaL l noLlced was havlng Lhe wanL Lo sLop conversaLlons Lo slmply correcL
Lhe lmproper use of a word. l never do sLop a conversaLlon for Lhls reason, buL l always have
a sLrong urge Lo. (S8 - slx weeks, personal communlcaLlon, CcLober 19, 2010)
lndeed my relaLlonshlp wlLh Lngllsh has Lransformed for Lhe beLLer. lL's scary acLually Lo hear
Lhe calculaLlons ln my head. l'm always llsLenlng for commas, beglnnlngs and endlngs. LaLely

84
lL has been Lhe Lense phrases...lL ls very frelghLlng Lo hear Lhe ways oLher people are Lalklng
Lhese days. 1he urge Lo correcL Lhem ls eaLlng me allve! (Su - seven weeks, personal
communlcaLlon, CcLober 23, 2010)
... l sLarLed llsLenlng Lo Lhe audlo book whlle l drove around, and l sLarLed llsLenlng Lo my
frlends when l would sLop drlvlng. 1haL ls when l reallzed l needed Lo sLarL an Lngllsh class
for my frlends or flnd new ones. l reallzed l was geLLlng mad aL Lhem all of Lhe Llme, because
none of Lhem could even speak one senLence wlLhouL soundlng reLarded... now l use proper
Lngllsh mosL of Lhe Llme whlle speaklng, or aL leasL Lry Lo. l only Lalk llke my frlends when
they cant understand what I am saying, because the words are too big or Lhere are comp-
leLe senLences ln my dellvery. (!M - LhlrLeen weeks, personal communlcaLlon, Aprll 23, 2010)
1hls was a shock when l flrsL observed lL. lrom a mechanlcal polnL of vlew, lL
lndlcaLed LhaL once sLudenLs began Lhlnklng ln academlc Lngllsh, wlLhln a remarkably shorL
space of Llme Lhls became Lhe cusLomary map Lhe braln used, renderlng even Lhelr own
dlalecLs oLher. 1haL a language we no longer Lhlnk ln wlll lnevlLably become someLhlng
dlfferenL and aparL from ourselves ls a fasclnaLlng phenomenon Lo observe. 1he perslsLence
of Lhe soclo-llngulsLlc hlerarchy, however, conLlnues Lo surprlse me and ls far less welcome.
ulrecLed dlscusslons as parL of ln-class and wrlLLen dlalogs, have helped Lo mlLlgaLe Lhe
superlorlLy swlng wlLh humor provldlng Lhe mosL valuable of all my resources, (humor of
Lhe have we [usL become Lhe a^#holes we used Lo haLe? varleLy). 1hls ls, for me, an area
of ongolng lnqulry and reflecLlon LhaL may ralse more quesLlons Lhan lL answers abouL Lhe
role and uses of language.

Towards a New Narrative of the Developmental Student
l have presenLed Lhe work of my sLudenLs Lo sharp lnLakes of breaLh, dellghLed
laughLer, shock and even Lears of [oy from fellow educaLors as Lhey saw expllclL proof of how
much more capable and lmpresslve are our sLudenLs Lhan Lhe prevalllng myLhology, Lhe
sLory abouL Lhem would admlL. And Lhls polnLs, l belleve, Lo a LruLh long hldden ln plaln
slghL, Lhe deflclency does noL lle, and never has laln wlLh our Lhem, lL lles wlLh an educaLlon-
nal approach whlch mlghL have been deslgned Lo achleve Lhe opposlLe of lLs acLual purpose,
LhaL ls, lL could have been englneered Lo allenaLe mosL of our chlldren from formal Lngllsh. lL
has cerLalnly succeeded ln dolng so for Lhe vasL ma[orlLy of hlgh school graduaLes and yeL we
keep dolng Lhe same Lhlng, dolng lL more lnLenslvely, and expecLlng a beLLer resulL.
1he resulLs descrlbed here also suggesL LhaL, when lL ls successful, Lhe LradlLlonal
approach represenLs a form of llngulsLlc sLudy for Lhose who already speak Lhe dlalecL. l
mean Lhose, for example, whose parenLs read Lo Lhem and encourage Lhem Lo read, who
use formal Lngllsh consLrucLlons ln Lhelr own speech or assoclaLe wlLh Lhose who do. ln
oLher words, when lL comes Lo Lhe key componenL of Lhe learnlng process, (auLhenLlc
lmmerslon), Lhe Lrue varlable ls noL Lhe ablllLy of Lhe lndlvldual sLudenL so much as Lhe luck
of Lhe draw. uplls who musL depend solely on classroom and Leachlng meLhods LhaL
lgnore Lhe real basls of llngulsLlc developmenL, wlll sLruggle. Cur currenL approach mlsLakes
Lhe meLhods LradlLlonally employed ln Lhe classroom for Lhe prlmary learnlng resource. ln
facL, for Lhose who do noL experlence Lhe language ouLslde Lhe classroom, lL ls noL even a
secondary resource. lL ls an lrrelevance.

Salyers, S.

85
WhaL sLands ln Lhe way of wldespread recognlLlon of Lhls LruLh, ls a seL of
assumpLlons underplnnlng a sLory LhaL ls as pernlclous as lL ls pervaslve. 1he sLory says LhaL
Lhere ls someLhlng wrong wlLh Lhose sLudenLs who do noL beneflL from our compulsory,
publlc educaLlon sysLem. Llke all lnsLlLuLlonal sLorles, lL proLecLs Lhe lnsLlLuLlon LhaL has
generaLed. lnsLlLuLlons, llke lndlvlduals, reslsL crlLlclsm. And lf Lhere ls noLhlng wrong wlLh
our sLudenLs Lhen Lhere ls clearly someLhlng wrong wlLh us, or wlLh Lhe way we are dolng
Lhlngs. WhaL we already know abouL low-level learners assures us LhaL Lhe problem lles
wlLh Lhe ablllLles of Lhe sLudenLs and repels any lnqulry or sLraLegy LhaL challenges Lhls
narraLlve. 1hls may explaln why a 1997 paper by SeLh kaLz and Sarah SLevens, dld noL
lmmedlaLely revoluLlonlze our classrooms:
As opposed Lo convenLlonal lnsLrucLlon ln grammar, lmmerslon has been shown Lo be Lhe
mosL effecLlve way Lo acqulre a second language lor mosL Amerlcans, SLandard Lngllsh ls,
ln essence, a second language because Lhey do noL use lL ln everyday conversaLlon. ln
lmmerslon programs, sLudenLs do noL sLudy language dlrecLly buL learn a second language as
a byproducL of uslng LhaL language ln sLudylng oLher conLenL areas. Cnly afLer sLudenLs have
acqulred some faclllLy wlLh Lhe second language do Lhey begln Lo sLudy language lLself and Lo
reflne Lhelr usage and sLyle.
...lmmerslon would succeed as a meLhod for Leachlng naLlve Lngllsh speakers Lhe SLandard
ulalecL because lmmerslon lmlLaLes Lhe process by whlch chlldren acqulre Lhelr flrsL language
skllls ln Lhelr home dlalecL: chlldren do noL acqulre language by dlscreeL lessons,
asslgnmenLs, and examlnaLlons, raLher, chlldren acqulre language hollsLlcally, Lhrough
lmmerslon ln Lhe home, Lhrough parenLs' genLle and perslsLenL coachlng and correcLlon, and
Lhrough chlldren's own deslre Lo undersLand and communlcaLe ldeas abouL Lhe world and
Lhemselves. noam Chomsky explalns Lhe language acqulslLlon process:
Language learnlng ls noL really someLhlng Lhe chlld does, lL ls someLhlng LhaL happens Lo Lhe
chlld placed ln an approprlaLe envlronmenL, much as Lhe chlld's body grows and maLures ln a
predeLermlned way when provlded approprlaLe nuLrlLlon and envlronmenLal sLlmulaLlon.
(kaLz and SLevens, p. 134)
lf Lhey were rlghL, (and Lhey were), Lhen we had been we sLlll are approachlng Lhe Leac-
hing of Standard English from an entirely erroneous starting point and with dreadful results.
lor sLudenLs who are noL dlsbarred by speclflc learnlng dlsablllLles such as lmpalred
hearlng, Lhere exlsLs a fasL, effecLlve, (non-colonlzlng), rouLe Lo masLerlng academlc Lngllsh.
Lach semesLer, and ln [usL flfLeen shorL weeks, a number of my sLudenLs wlll become
wonderful wrlLers wlLh volces and fluency superlor Lo Lhe requlremenLs of college enLry level
Lngllsh. l have experlenced Lhe LransformaLlve effecL on Lhe classroom for an lnsLrucLor as
well as for sLudenLs. lL ls Lhere ln Lhe young woman who Lold me, Lwlrllng, afLer she
dellvered a research reporL on Lhe suspenslon of Pabeas Corpus ln Amerlca, (her cholce of
topic), I cant believe I wrote this! I actually did this! Im so proud of myself! I see it in the
numerous reflecLlons l geL from sLudenLs abouL Lhe way LhaL Lhey see Lhemselves and
Lhelr ablllLles now LhaL Lhey are acLually able Lo en[oy wrlLlng, or abouL whaL lL feels llke Lo
know LhaL whaL Lhey have Lo say maLLers:
LlsLenlng Lo Lhe audlo books, llke l have been dolng, has pushed my vocabulary Lo show lLself
more. l only wlsh l had llsLened Lo Lhem more durlng Lhe beglnnlng of Lhe semesLer. l, wlLh a
loL of my classmaLes, en[oyed Lhe Llmes we went to the caf and ate pizza... I will take a lot

86
from Lhls class, such as llsLenlng Lo audlo books or speeches before wrlLlng, belng able Lo say
my oplnlon wlLh a hlgher formallLy of LhoughL behlnd lL, Lhe helghLened ablllLy Lo wrlLe ln
Academlc Lngllsh, and undersLandlng of Lngllsh lLself. l wlll look back on Lhls class as a huge
sLepplng sLone for my brlghLenlng fuLure. (8, personal communlcaLlon, uecember 9, 2012)
l have looked aL all of my asslgnmenLs and noLlce LhaL l have lmproved Lremendously. l was
told early in the semester that I shouldnt use such big words. I notice now, my writing flows
more easlly when l choose smaller ones. AlLhough l sLlll prefer Lo use Lhe blgger words, l
Lhlnk llsLenlng Lo Lhe use of formal Lngllsh has help enable me Lo use Lhem correcLly. l feel
LhaL Lhe pasL few monLhs of counLless hours sLudylng, and flndlng a relaLlonshlp wlLh my
lnner volce, has prepared me for my college experlence. l have en[oyed learnlng Lhe skllls Lo
become a beLLer wrlLer, and l wlll Lake Lhem wlLh me LhroughouL my college career. (S,
personal communlcaLlon, uecember 10, 2010)
When I submitted my first paper, I wasnt really sure what to expect. l was a llLLle nervous
and noL cerLaln lf l was golng Lo be capable of wrlLlng a college level paper. 1hen l recelved
your feedback, and l felL my self-confldence grow. ?ou helped me see LhaL l can do Lhls, even
Lhough l have noL been ln school for many years. ?ou helped me flnd Lhe sLrengLh Lo wrlLe,
and because of LhaL, l now belleve LhaL l can graduaLe and secure my dreams. l have Lo Lell
you I was scared to death, and I didnt really know if college would be right for me, but then
Lhere you were. ?ou gave me Lhe push l needed. ?ou helped me see LhaL l have Lhe
lnLelllgence Lo make lL. l know I am far from perfect, but you allowed me to see that I dont
need Lo be perfecL Lo become a good wrlLer. (C, personal communlcaLlon, uecember 9, 2012)
Looklng back on my flrsL Lwo dlscusslons has been comlcal. l never reallzed how blg of a
change l have acLually made ln my wrlLlng, and word usage. l dld noL belleve LhaL my lnner
volce would even change from negaLlve Lo poslLlve, buL l was proven wrong...1here were so
many memorable momenLs ln class, especlally when we sLarLed dolng our research papers.
1here was so much lnfo LhaL we all uncovered LhaL was lnLeresLlng, movlng even. l have had
a fantastic time in this class, and getting to know my classmates. Im sad that we have to
leave so soon lL feels llke we [usL enLered Lhls class [usL yesLerday. 1rylng Lo become beLLer
wrlLers, and noL bellevlng Ms. Salyers when she sald LhaL Lhe audlo books wlll help us learn
formal Lngllsh. l was a llLLle skepLlcal abouL Lhls learnlng meLhod, buL now l love audlo books,
and all Lhe oLher learnlng meLhods l have learned durlng my Llme ln Lhls class... l would have
never LhoughL l would be able Lo wrlLe good papers, or move an audlence. (!, personal
communlcaLlon, uecember 12, 2012)
l feel LhaL my relaLlonshlp wlLh language and wrlLlng has grown Lremendously. Looklng back
on my first couple of pieces, I am thinking to myself, Who wrote that? I like that fact that I
have learned that everyone has their own way of formal English. And that there isnt a wrong
form of lL, [usL wrongly used grammar. l learned LhaL l am capable of creaLlng very good
pleces of work buL l used Lo geL caughL up lnLo maklng myself sound beLLer by uslng blgger
words, which isnt necessary... (8, personal communlcaLlon, uecember 13, 2012)
My relaLlonshlp wlLh Lngllsh has change, l have grown Lo really love, and undersLand how lL
works. Come Lo flnd ouL Lngllsh was a second language Lo me, and l LhoughL l undersLood
Lngllsh. As, Llme wenL on l reallzed LhaL l had a loL Lo learn. Lngllsh and l have become greaL
frlends over Lhls semesLer. l have learned LhaL l need Lo sLop llsLenlng Lo Lhe negaLlve volces,
and pay more attention to the positive voices. I still let my negative voice tell me that Im not
able Lo do someLhlng...l have also learned abouL myself LhaL l am an acLlve sLudenL. 1haL lf l
conLlnue Lo push myself LhaL l wlll have a very successful fuLure. WhaL l Look away from
Lngllsh 0810, ls LhaL l declde my own fuLure. (A, personal communlcaLlon, uecember 14,
2012)

Salyers, S.

87
l love Lhls class. 1hls was Lhe besL Lngllsh class l ever Look ln my llfe. l feel llke l have learned
more Lhan l ever have. My Lngllsh has goLLen beLLer over Lo course of Lhe year. My parenLs
Lell me all Lhe Llme LhaL l sound proper. Where l llve lL ls counLry. use Lo l would sound llke a
red neck when l Lalked, now l sound llke a young buslness man. arL of Lhe reason l sound so
proper ls because of Lhe audlo books. 1he audlo books have helped me Lremendously. l can
now puL Lhe commas ln a senLence properly... l can see now LhaL Lhe audlo books acLually
help. AL flrsL l LhoughL LhaL Lhey were [usL sLupld, buL now l reallze LhaL Lhey are Lhe besL LexL
book Lo own (because Lhey are free). l wlll Lruly mlss Lhls class. (M, personal communlcaLlon,
uecember 13, 2010)
And I experience it most of all in the feedback I cherish above every other, I love
you, Mrs. Salyers, (all the more moving when it comes from a forty year old adult), and
whlch ls a common occurrence by Lhe second half of Lhe semesLer. l know, wlLhouL havlng
Lhe means, or deslre, Lo prove Lhe hypoLhesls, LhaL when a sLudenL dlscovers hls or her own
ablllLy afLer years of fallure, of educaLlonal oppresslon and of a dreadful self-efflcacy, LhaL
Lhe effecL of LhaL dlscovery can be measured ln [oy, dellghL, prlde, graLlLude and even love
for Lhe percelved medlum of LhaL dlscovery - [usL as much as ln Lhose ouLcomes LhaL counL ln
academla: hlgher scores, beLLer producLs and a greaLer llkellhood of perslsLence. My
lnformal follow up of sLudenLs over Lwo years, as well as lnformal evldence from colleagues,
conLlnues Lo polnL Lo a remarkable LransformaLlon ln sLudenL efflcacy. l can Louch lL ln Lhe
sLudenLs l meeL on campus who are sLlll aL college when Lhe sLaLlsLlcs say LhaL Lhey should
noL be, ln Lhe ones who Lell me l have changed Lhelr llves.
A sLraLegy LhaL provldes a basls for language ownershlp does many Lhlngs. lL repalrs
Lhe emoLlonal dlsconnecL prevlously descrlbed. As an owner, one who speaks Lhe local
language fluenLly, someone can become parL of a local communlLy. 1hus a sLudenL wlll
experlence hlmself or herself as belng a real member of Lhe college and Lhe academlc
communlLy. 1he currlculum and Lhe classroom are Lransformed for, once a sLudenL achleves
a degree of ownershlp of a language LhaL has hlLherLo characLerlzed Lhe allen and Lhe
oppresslve, Lhe realm of lnqulry and dlscourse move from away from mechanlcs, Lo Lhe
en[oyable challenges of ldeaLlon, arLlculaLlon, argumenL and expresslon. CompeLency,
fluency, confldence and en[oymenL of asslgned and classroom work ln general are, ln Lhelr
Lurn, all hugely lmpacLed - and Lhese are far more relevanL Lo Lhe long-Lerm success of
lndlvldual sLudenLs Lhan any LesL score. 1hls ls a quallLaLlvely dlfferenL, and more rewardlng
endeavor for all lnvolved and one LhaL speaks Lo Lhe alms and ldeals, as well as Lhe needs, of
auLhenLlc and humanlzlng educaLlon.

Post Script: From the Subjective, the Objective.
When l began Lhls lnqulry ln 2009, and unLll recenLly, l had dlfflculLy framlng lL wlLhln
Lhe conLexL of sub[ecLlve experlence. l am Lhe producL of an educaLlonal sysLem, much llke
Lhe one LhaL fashloned my sLudenLs, ln whlch ob[ecLs and ouLcomes are all lmporLanL. new
Lo Lhe pracLlce of acLlon research, l was sLlll focused on Lhe ouLcomes Lo be recorded or
explalned and, desplLe lnLense efforLs Lo lnLernallze Lhe raLlonale behlnd A8, l remalned
unable Lo see Lhe cenLral role of Lhe process, Lhe [ourney LhaL generaLed Lhose ouLcomes. l
could noL have arLlculaLed LhaL poslLlon, any more Lhan a flsh can descrlbe Lhe waLer ln
whlch lL swlms, buL l was all Lhe more consLralned and dlrecLed by Lhls unawareness. WlLh

88
exposure Lo acLlon research, came recognlLlon Lhrough experlence, LhaL Lhe ob[ecLlvlsL,
academlc sLandpolnL so long, so excluslvely and so unlversally applled, has produced Lrue
absurdlLles.
Cne such absurdlLy sLlll domlnaLes much of academla, lL ls Lhe assumpLlon LhaL any
sound lnqulry musL be enLlrely lndependenL of Lhe l of whoever ls conducLlng lL, a vlew
LhaL holds sway even ln sofL sclences, such as Lhe sLudy of human relaLlonshlps. We now
know, of course, LhaL Lhere ls no such Lhlng as pure ob[ecLlvlsm. 1he ldeal ls pure flcLlon
and anachronlsLlc, flcLlon aL LhaL. 1wenLleLh cenLury sclence long ago placed Lhe observer
and Lhe observed wlLhln a slngle, lndlvlslble conLlnuum. 1wenLy flrsL cenLury sclence
conLlnues Lo demonsLraLe Lhls sLrlcLure ln even Lhe mosL rlgorous and lmpersonal of Lhe
sclences. Whlle lL ls lncreaslngly challenged by Lhe paradlgms of acLlon research and LL1,
modern academla ln general has yeL Lo acknowledge, leL alone encompass Lhls revoluLlonary
paradlgm wlLhln lLs meLhodology:
ln Lhe 20Lh cenLury, physlcs was forced lnLo Lhe poslLlon of re-evaluaLlng Lhe role of Lhe
observer, boLh ln relaLlvlLy and ln quanLum mechanlcs. ln relaLlvlLy, Lhe absoluLes of
newLonlan physlcs were banlshed, and observaLlons obLalned by observers ln dlfferenL
frames of reference became all LhaL was avallable. 1hese observaLlons were llnked Lhrough a
sysLem of coordlnaLe LransformaLlons.
ln quanLum mechanlcs, Lhe observer and Lhe sysLem belng observed became mysLerlously
llnked so LhaL Lhe resulLs of any observaLlon seemed Lo be deLermlned ln parL by acLual
cholces made by Lhe observer. 1hls slLuaLlon ls represenLed by Lhe wave funcLlon, a funcLlon
ln Lhe complex domaln LhaL conLalns lnformaLlon abouL boLh Lhe cosmos aL large and Lhe
observer's apparenL sLaLe of knowledge. (koleckl, 2004)
lnLellecLually, l have come Lo vlew Lhe paradlgm of academlc ob[ecLlvlsm as operaLlng
boLh from a false premlse and wlLh a degree of dlshonesLy. 1he false premlse ls LhaL wlLhln
any fleld of human lnqulry, lncludlng Lhe humanlLles, Lhe soclal sclences and Lhe arLs, Lhere
exlsL purely ob[ecLlve LruLhs LhaL can be usefully severed from Lhe sub[ecLlve humanlLy of
Lhelr dlscoverers. 1he dlshonesLy - ldenLlfled and arLlculaLed so clearly by olanyl - arlses
from an unconsclous deslre Lo proLecL LhaL false premlse from exposure as a myLh. And lL ls
vlslble ln Lhe verbal gymnasLlcs, Lhe conLrlvances, by whlch Lhe lmposslblllLy of Lruly
ellmlnaLlng sub[ecLlvlLy ls commonly dlsgulsed:
...We may lnfer LhaL Lhe confldence placed ln physlcal Lheory owes much Lo lLs possesslng
Lhe same klnd of excellence from whlch pure geomeLry and pure maLhemaLlcs ln general
derlve Lhelr lnLeresL, and for Lhe sake of whlch, Lhey are culLlvaLed.
We cannoL Lruly accounL for our accepLance of such Lheorles wlLhouL endorslng our acknow-
ledgmenL of a beauLy LhaL exhllaraLes and a profundlLy LhaL enLrances us. ?eL Lhe prevalllng
concepLlon of sclence, based on Lhe dls[uncLlon of sub[ecLlvlLy and ob[ecLlvlLy, seeks and
musL seek aL all cosLs Lo ellmlnaLe from sclence such passlonaLe, personal, human
appralsals of Lheorles, or aL leasL Lo mlnlmlze Lhelr funcLlon Lo LhaL of a negllglble by-play...
1he Lerm slmpllclLy...ls used for smuggllng an essenLlal quallLy lnLo our appreclaLlon of
sclenLlflc Lheory, whlch a mlsLaken concepLlon of ob[ecLlvlLy forblds us openly Lo
acknowledge...l shall call Lhls pracLlce a pseudo-subsLlLuLlon. lL ls used for playlng down
mans real and indispensable intellectual powers for the sake of maintaining an, ob[ecLlvlsL
framework whlch ln facL cannoL accounL for Lhem. (olanyl, 1974, p. 13-16)

Salyers, S.

89
LLhlcally, l oppose Lhe culL of ob[ecLlvlLy as lnlmlcal Lo auLhenLlc human learnlng and
developmenL and pernlclous Lhrough lLs dehumanlzaLlon of Lhose engaged ln academlc
endeavor. 1haL Lhere can be any such a Lhlng as an educaLlonal process ln whlch human
relaLlonshlp ls less Lhan Lhe ground and source of all learnlng ls paLenLly absurd. ?eL we have
crafLed an educaLlonal edlflce ln whlch human relaLlonshlp ls consldered a mere by-producL
of Lhe process of Lransferrlng lnformaLlon from one, supposedly lndependenL and unrelaLed
source, (Leacher), Lo anoLher, (sLudenL). Slnce Lhls ls preclsely Lhe reverse of Lhe LruLh, we
conducL our educaLlonal programs Lhrough a haze of cognlLlve dlssonance, one ln whlch Lhe
lmpacL and lnLeracLlon of personallLles and assumpLlons ls dlscounLed whlle Lhe LesL scores
LhaL reflecL Lhose lmpacLs and lnLeracLlons are used Lo deflne Lhe ablllLles and seL Lhe
fuLures of generaLlon afLer generaLlon of sLudenLs. ln Lhls dehumanlzlng model of whaL
educaLlon ls, and ls for and how lL does lL we see Lhe frulL of whaL olanyl descrlbes as
Lhe crlppllng muLllaLlons whlch cenLurles of ob[ecLlvlsL LhoughL have lmposed on Lhe mlnds
of men (olanyl, 2974, p. 381).
1he ob[ecLlve flndlngs descrlbed ln Lhls paper are valld and lmporLanL buL Lhese do
noL explaln Lhemselves, Lhelr own genesls. ln facL, Lhese valld ob[ecLs hang from Lhe
underlylng sLrucLure of a much more fundamenLal framework:
l am argulng LhaL Lhe proposlLlonal form ls masklng Lhe llvlng form and conLenL of an
educaLlonal Lheory whlch can generaLe valld descrlpLlons and explanaLlons for Lhe
educaLlonal developmenL of lndlvlduals. 1hls ls noL Lo deny Lhe lmporLance of proposlLlonal
forms of undersLandlng. l am argulng for a reconsLrucLlon of educaLlonal Lheory lnLo a llvlng
form of quesLlon and answer whlch lncludes proposlLlonal conLrlbuLlons from Lhe LradlLlonal
dlsclpllnes of educaLlon. (WhlLehead, 2009, p. 2)
Any dlscovery can occur only wlLhln a conLexL LhaL allows of lLs posslblllLy ln Lhe flrsL
place, we do noL flnd whaL we do noL seek. 1he assumpLlons we brlng Lo our classrooms, Lhe
culLural or soclal narraLlves we unconsclously lmpose or relnforce, are Lhe conLexL LhaL
deLermlnes whaL we do and do noL seek ln and of our sLudenLs. And lL ls Lhese assumpLlons
and narraLlves, noL Lhe educaLlonal Lheorles we mlghL espouse LhaL ulLlmaLely deflne Lhe
llmlLs of posslblllLy.
1hls ls Lrue conLexL. WlLhouL lL, Lhe cycles of dlsLlncLlon, arLlculaLlon and reflecLlon
LhaL fuel Lhe conLlnuous evoluLlon of new dlscovery are sLlllborn. And any educaLlonal
Lheory whose Lrue conLexL has been erased by academlc ob[ecLlvlsm, sLands ln danger of
becomlng a new klnd of Lyranny, a formula lmposed on educaLors and sLudenLs allke only Lo
be succeeded by Lhe nexL ln a processlon of fashlonable flxes whose fallures and successes
can nelLher lnsLrucL nor lnform Lhe fuLure. As aulo lrelre ln 1he edagogy of Lhe
Cppressed says:
LducaLlon as Lhe pracLlce of freedom -- as opposed Lo educaLlon as Lhe pracLlce of
domlnaLlon -- denles LhaL man ls absLracL, lsolaLed, lndependenL and unaLLached Lo Lhe
world, lL also denles LhaL Lhe world exlsLs as a reallLy aparL from people. AuLhenLlc reflecLlon
conslders nelLher absLracL man nor Lhe world wlLhouL people, buL people ln Lhelr relaLlons
wlLh Lhe world. (lrelre, 2000)

90
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volume 3(1): 67-91

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