General Description of Production, Properties, and Uses of Sintered Powder Metallurgy Bearings and Structural Parts

This information serves as a guide to the specifications for sintered PM bearings and structural parts (ASTM designations: B595, B !", B!# , B!$", B!%!, B!5", B!!"&

Po'der metallurg( (PM& components can be made b( pressing and sintering metal po'ders) These parts ma( be used as bearings or in structural applications) The po'der metallurg( process is used for economic advantage and for uni*ue properties) POWDERS Metal po'ders are made b( mechanical, chemical, and ph(sical processes such as milling, solid+state reduction of an o,ide, or atomi-ation) The method of choice depends on the particular metal) PROCESS !G The ma.or processing steps are compaction of a metal po'der and sintering of the PM compact) Co"paction The initial step is the application of pressure to the desired *uantit( of metal po'der that is contained in a rigid die) To a large degree, the initial compaction dictates the densit(, shape, dimensions, and mechanical properties of the finished part) Sintering /nder properl( controlled conditions of temperature, heating rate, time, and furnace atmosphere, the compacted metal po'der particles are metallurgicall( bonded and the green compact becomes a useful part) The sintering temperature has the greatest influence on final properties) 0evertheless, sintering time and furnace atmosphere can be selected to provide optimum properties along 'ith cost+effective processing) Post#Sinter Processing (Secondar( 1perations& Additional processing steps include si-ing, coining, restri2ing, double pressing double sintering (3P3S or $P$S&, impregnation, and infiltration (see Terminolog( B$%"&) 1f course, PM parts can also be heat treated, plated, bra-ed, 'elded, or machined as re*uired) Because PM parts are less dense than cast or 'rought materials (the( contain pores&, these processing steps ma( have to be modified

from the t(pical practice used for full( dense parts) BE$R !GS PM bearings (Specifications B%"! and B%"9& are self+lubricating because their porosit( is impregnated 'ith lubricants during the manufacturing process) 4n use, heat causes the lubricant to e,pand out of the pores forming a film bet'een mating parts) 5hen operation is suspended, the lubricant cools and is dra'n bac2 into the pores for subse*uent reuse) 6o' coefficients of friction, minimal maintenance and trouble+free service life, lo' cost, and simple installation are the chief advantages of PM bearings) Both copper+base and iron+base PM bearings are manufactured and in common use) The copper+base bearings have bron-e (7u+#8 Sn& compositions 'hen considered for general+purpose utili-ation) These allo(s are also made 'ith graphite additions 'hen the added solid lubrication is deemed necessar() Bron-e ma( be diluted 'ith %8 to 98: iron to lo'er the material cost) These bearings usuall( contain 8)5 to #)": graphite for self+lubrication) 4ron+base sintered metal bearings are supplied in a variet( of compositions such as plain iron, iron+carbon, iron+copper, and iron+copper+carbon) The( are used 'here ample lubrication is provided, 'here higher loads and slo'er speeds are prevalent, and 'here cost factors are significant) S%RUC%UR$& P$R%S PM structural parts are used 'herever the( offer an economic advantage) This advantage can be reali-ed in the manufacture of unusual shapes, the elimination of post+sintering (secondar(& machining operations, and the minimi-ation of scrap losses) Structural parts can be processed to various levels of mechanical properties, 'hich ma2e them desirable in upgrading or improving products at little or no e,tra cost) The properties of PM parts depend upon a number of factors) Co"position As in most metallic materials, chemical composition has a ma.or effect on properties) ;or ferrous PM materials, the manner in 'hich the chemical composition is achieved (the allo(ing method& has a significant effect on the resulting microstructure and hence the mechanical properties) There are four commercial allo( t(pes in ferrous PM materials: admi,ed, diffusion+allo(ed, preallo(ed, and h(brid+allo(ed allo(ed) Admi,ed materials consist of elemental or ferroallo( additions to a base iron) 5ith diffusion+allo(ed materials, allo( additions are thermall( bonded via diffusion to either an iron or a preallo(ed po'der base) Adding elemental or ferroallo( po'ders to either a preallo(ed or a diffusion+allo(ed base po'der produces h(brid allo(s)

;or ferrous parts, those made from unallo(ed iron po'der have the lo'est strength and apparent hardness) ;or stronger parts, iron+carbon, iron+copper, and iron+copper+carbon allo(s are used) 4ron+nic2el+carbon allo(s are used for heat+treated applications (<,amples of these variations ma( be found in Specification B !"&) PM parts 'ith combined carbon ma( be heat treated b( methods appropriate to cast and 'rought steel parts) ;or increased hardenabilit(, preallo(ed, diffusion+allo(ed, or h(brid allo(s ma( be used) 4t is common practice to *uench ferrous PM parts in oil= salt bath treatments are generall( to be avoided due to potential corrosion problems as a result of salt entrapment 'ithin the pores) 7areful control of sintering and heat+treatment atmospheres is necessar( to maintain the desired combined carbon level at the part surface) 7arburi-ing and other gaseous surface treatments are applicable to ferrous PM parts) 3epending on the level of porosit(, the depth of surface reaction 'ill be greater for a fi,ed time compared 'ith full( dense parts) Density and Mec'anical Properties An important factor affecting the properties of structural parts is their porosit() (The relative densit( is e*ual to one minus the volume fraction of porosit(&) 4n general, increasing the densit( of a PM part 'ill increase its tensile strength, compressive strength, and ductilit() The indentation hardness of a sintered material is also strongl( affected b( its porosit(, because the pores in the structure of a material do not contribute to the support of the indenter) The indentation of a porous material results in an apparent hardness, 'hich is lo'er than the indentation hardness of a pore+free material 'ith identical composition and microstructure) ;or a material of a given composition and microstructure, there is a direct relationship bet'een densit( and hardness= the lo'er the densit(, the lo'er 'ill be its apparent hardness) Microindentation hardness techni*ues are recommended for determining the hardness of the metallic matri,, independent of the effects of the porosit() The use of lo' indenter loads and the relativel( small volume of the resulting hardness impression ma2e this possible) &ow#Density Parts Structural components that have relativel( lo' densit( and high porosit( have the added advantage of self+lubrication as in sintered metal bearings) This self+lubrication provides a lo'er coefficient of friction and lo'er 'ear in applications in 'hich sliding movement is involved such as in gears and cams) 4n plating lo'+densit( ferrous parts, special precautions must be ta2en so the plating salts are not entrapped in the surface+connected pores of the parts) This could cause eventual discoloration of the finish, internal corrosion, and >flo'ering? of the plated surface) Techni*ues of burnishing, carefull( controlled shot peening, and resin impregnation have been developed to either close the surface pores or fill all surface+connected pores and thereb( avoid these defects)

;errous PM parts are being plated successfull( 'ith copper, nic2el, chromium, cadmium, -inc, and other metals= non+ferrous PM parts ma( also be plated) ;errous+base PM parts ma( be steam treated b( heating them in an atmosphere of superheated steam (@uide B9"5&) Such a process results in a blac2 magnetite (iron o,ide& finish that not onl( improves corrosion resistance, but also ma2es the parts harder and more 'ear resistant) 7orrosion resistance can be enhanced further b( immersing the parts in light oil that 'ill remain in the pores providing a barrier to corrosive media) As mentioned previousl(, lo'+carbon sintered ferrous PM parts ma( be carburi-ed and surface hardened b( gas carburi-ing and *uenching) ;or lo'+ densit( parts, ho'ever, no sharpl( defined case is formed since the carbonaceous gas readil( penetrates into the core of the parts via their surface+connected porosit() (ig'er#Density Parts 4ncreased densit( in structural parts is fre*uentl( attainable b( additional manufacturing operations) ;or this reason, higher densit( parts are generall( more costl() Aepressing of sintered parts is used to increase part densit( and introduce cold 'or2) 3epending on the degree of densification and cold 'or2ing, repressing 'ill increase the apparent hardness and strength of parts, 'hile decreasing ductilit() 4n brass parts, for instance, the apparent hardness of the sintered part ma( be of the order of 'rought annealed brass, 'hile repressing ma( increase the apparent hardness to that of one+*uarter hard brass) A second sintering operation after repressing 'ill remove the effect of cold 'or2 and result in higher ductilit() ;errous PM parts 'ith densities up to )# gBcm " can be produced b( using a suitable choice of po'ders, compacting, and sintering conditions) The four+step process of double pressing, double sintering can reach higher densities) Cigher densities ma( also be reached using 'arm compaction processing or 'arm+die compaction processing) 4n the former, the po'der and the compacting tools are heated and high densit( is achieved in a single compaction stro2e) 5ith 'arm+die compaction onl( the die is heated) 5arm compaction 'ith 8)9: lubricant additions can achieve green densities of )" gBcm " in ferrous PM parts (about 9!: of the pore+free densit( of the po'der mi,&) 5arm+die compaction 'ith onl( 8)%: lubricant has permitted green densities of )% gBcm " to be reached in PM parts) 5hen the densit( of ferrous PM parts e,ceeds )" gBcm ", the amount of surface+connected internal porosit( is negligible) Such parts can therefore be carburi-ed and surface hardened in a manner that is ver( similar to 'rought steel, and the( can be plated similarl( to 'rought parts 'ithout an( special precautions) Cigh densit( processed preallo(ed, diffusion+allo(ed, and h(brid

allo( materials are particularl( 'ell suited for either surface hardening or through+ hardening heat treatments) Another method of increasing the densit( of ferrous PM parts, 'hich is 'idel( used for highl( stressed parts, is b( infiltration 'ith copper or a copper allo( (Specification B !"&) 4nfiltration improves the strength, ductilit(, and impact energ( toughness of ferrous parts) 4nfiltrated parts can also be plated 'ithout special precautions and can be .oined b( bra-ing) The strength of carbon+free copper infiltrated parts ma( be increased b( a solution and precipitation heat treatment) 7arbon+containing infiltrated parts ma( be heat treated b( *uenching and tempering) )ualification %ests @enerall(, standard test specimens cannot be machined from man( structural PM parts for mechanical propert( testing) ;or this reason, the specifications for mechanical properties of structural parts provide for *ualification tests) These tests should be agreed upon b( the manufacturer and the purchaser and be based on the function the part is to perform) 7ompressive strength and ductilit( can be determined b( deforming the part under compression, or b( bending, and observing 'hether fracture occurs before the part has e,hibited sufficient strength or ductilit( for the intended purpose) 4mpact toughness can be determined b( dropping a mass on the part to be tested) The mass, the height from 'hich it is dropped, the point of impact, and the method of supporting the part should be specified) Cardness ma(, for certain applications, be used as a *ualification test) All normal precautions in hardness testing, such as avoiding an anvil effect in thin parts, shall be observed) 0evertheless, the best manufacturing controls and test procedures cannot prevent occasional stra( hardness readings considerabl( belo', or above, the mean hardness value for a sample lot of production sintered PM parts) The inspection of production parts for apparent hardness shall be done in a prescribed manner to avoid a *uestion of acceptabilit() 5here microindentation hardness test e*uipment is available, the universalit( of application of the hardness scale provides for a convenient hardness number series) 7onversion of microindentation hardness values to a familiar Aoc2'ell scale ma( be done using Method B9"") Microindentation hardness testing is a favorable method for determining the effective case depth of surface+hardened PM components) 1ne useful concept for developing an apparent hardness specification for acceptance inspection is >minimum average hardness?) The average of a specified number of indentations shall not be less than a given minimum value) There ma( be an occasion 'hen the specified hardness ma( be no less than a

stated minimum average and no more than a stated ma,imum average) Thus, an apparent hardness specification ma( include details as follo's: #) A minimum (and possibl( a ma,imum& average apparent hardness should be specified for acceptance inspection of PM parts) $) The number of indentations per part, or the number of parts to be chec2ed, or both, should be specified) ") The section of the part to be chec2ed should be specified) %) 4f parts are thin, a scale should be chosen to ensure that indentation effects do not penetrate through the part) 5) The hardness scale must be reported)

Reco""endation The mechanical properties listed in the appendices to the specifications for structural parts should be considered as t(pical for parts made b( normal production methods) Superior mechanical properties can be achieved b( special processing methods) 4t is suggested that the purchaser 'or2 closel( 'ith the parts ma2er in the design and development of ne' parts or in the conversion to po'der metallurg( fabrication of e,isting parts) B B& OGR$P(* #) ;errous Po'der Metallurg(, Andre. Dala2, published b( 7ambridge 4nternational Science Publishing, #995) $) Po'der Metallurg( E 7riteria for 3esign and 4nspection , <nrico Mosca, published b( Associa-ione 4ndustriali Metallurgici Meccanici Affini, #9!%) ") ASM Candboo2, Folume , Po'der Metal Technologies and Applications, published b( ASM 4nternational, #99!) %) Po'der Metallurg( Science, second edition, Aandall M) @erman, published b( Metal Po'der 4ndustries ;ederation, #99%) 5) Po'der Metallurg( of 4ron and Steel, Aandall M) @erman, published b( Gohn 5ile( H Sons, 4nc), #99!) 9) Sintering Theor( and Practice, Aandall M) @erman, published b( Gohn 5ile( H Sons, 4nc), #999) ) Po'der Metallurg( E Principles and Applications , ;rit- F) 6enel, published b( Metal Po'der 4ndustries ;ederation, #9!8)

!) ;undamentals of Po'der Metallurg(, 6eander ;) Pease 444 and 5illiam @) 5est, published b( Metal Po'der 4ndustries ;ederation, $88$) 9) Po'der Metallurg( 3esign Manual, third edition, published b( Metal Po'der 4ndustries ;ederation, #99!) #8) The 7ommon 7rac2s in @reen 7ompacts, 3avid 7) Ienger and Caimian 7ia, published b( Metal Po'der 4ndustries ;ederation, #99 ) ##) Po'der Metallurg( Principles and Methods, Cenr( Causner, 7hemical Publishing 7o), #9% ) #$) Candboo2 of Po'der Metallurg(, Cenr( Causner, 7hemical Publishing 7ompan(, #9 ") #") Po'der Metallurg( and Particulate Materials Processing , Aandall @erman, Metal Po'der 4ndustries ;ederation ($885&) #%) Po'der Metallurg( of Stainless Steels: Processing, Microstructures, and Properties, <rhard Jlar and Prasan Samal, ASM 4nternational, $88 ) #5) Particle Pac2ing 7haracteristics, Aandall @erman, Metal Po'der 4ndustries ;ederation, #9!9) #9) MP4; Standard "5, Material Standards for PM Structural Parts - 2009 , published b( Metal Po'der 4ndustries ;ederation, Princeton, 0G) # ) MP4; Standard "5, Material Standards for PM Self-Lubricating Bearings 2010, published b( Metal Po'der 4ndustries ;ederation, Princeton, 0G)

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