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Acids and Bases

LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this topic, you should be able to: Define acid and base using the Arrhenius and the Bronsted-Lowry theories; Explain what an alkali is; Differentiate between acid strength and base strength; Discuss the autoionisation of water; Interpret the pH scale for acidic, neutral and alkaline solutions; Identify the properties of acids, bases and alkalis; Test a solution to see whether it is an acid or a base using indicators; Determine the relationship between the number of moles and molarity; and Prepare a standard solution whose molarity is known.

X INTRODUCTION
Hello there! Are you ready for this topic entitled Acids and Bases? Firstly, do you notice that some common chemical compounds around us are acids and bases? Can you identify them and list them out? Acids and bases can be found in the food we eat and the things we use. For example, citric acid is found in lemons and other citrus food. How does it taste? Not so wonderful if you eat it straightaway, right? The acid in vinegar is acetic acid while the acid used in car batteries is sulphuric acid.

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In fact, the lining of our stomachs produce gastric juice which is essential for digestion. The acid in gastric juice is hydrochloric acid. How about base? Bases such as ammonia are used in household cleaning products while sodium hydroxide is used to make soap. From these examples, we can conclude that acid and base are essential and used widely in our everyday life. In this topic, you will be learning more about acid, base and alkali such as what is an acid, a base and an alkali, and their characteristic properties. This will be followed by the pH scale and how to test for acids and bases. Finally, you will learn how to determine the mole and molarities of substances present in aqueous solution of acids and bases. So, are you ready now? Let us put on the lab coat and get started!

7.1

ACID, BASE AND ALKALI

Let us start off this topic by learning the meaning of acid, base and alkali. Can you define them?

7.1.1

Arrhenius Theory of Acids and Bases

What is an acid? What is a base? Well, this is a definition for acid and base according to the Swedish chemist Svante Arrhenius (18591927), see Figure 7.1.
Substances that ionise in water to produce hydrogen ions, H+, are acids while substances that ionise in water to yield hydroxide ions, OH , are bases.

Figure 7.1: Svante Arrhenius Source: http://www.sciencephoto.com

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Or in a chemical form, they can be written as: HA(aq) An acid MOH(aq) A base H+(aq) M+(aq) + A(aq)

+ OH(aq)

HA is the general formula for an acid such as nitric acid, HNO3, and sulphuric acid, H2SO4, whereas MOH is the general formula for a metal hydroxide such as potassium hydroxide, KOH, and magnesium hydroxide, Mg(OH)2.

7.1.2

Bronsted-Lowry Theory of Acids and Bases

Let us move on to another concept of acids and bases. This concept is from Johannes Bronsted and Thomas Lowry. Do you know that the Arrhenius theory of acids and bases has important limitations? Firstly, it can only be used to explain acids and bases that are dissolved in water and secondly, it does not explain why substances such as ammonia, NH3, which does not contain an OH group like most bases, show basic properties in water. So, Johannes Bronsted, a Danish chemist, and Thomas Lowry, an English chemist (see Figure 7.2) later proposed a more general theory of acids and bases. They defined acid and bases differently from Arrhenius.
An acid is a substance (molecule or ion) that can donate a proton (H+ ion) to a base while a base is a substance that can accept a proton from an acid.

Figure 7.2: Johannes Bronsted and Thomas Lowry Source: http://crescentok.com

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In addition, according to Bronsted and Lowry, acid-base reactions are reversible reactions which involve the transfer of protons from an acid to a base. Their definitions are more accurate. Do you agree? Now, let us see what is going on in an acid-base reaction. For example, when a Bronsted-Lowry acid such as hydrochloric acid, HCl, is placed in water, a proton is transferred from the acid to base, which is water. The products are hydronium ion, H3O+, and chloride ion, Cl, as follows: HCl(aq) H+ donor Acid + H2O(l) + H receptor Base H3O+(aq) H+ donor Acid + Cl(aq) H+ acceptor Base

Conjugate acid-base pairs When an acid loses its protons to a base, it forms a base itself. Similarly, a base, in accepting protons, forms an acid. This means that every acid has its conjugate base and every base has its conjugate acid. Isnt this interesting? In the previous example, hydrochloric acid has a conjugate base, the chloride ion, Cl, and the water has a conjugate acid, the hydronium ion, H3O. In the reverse reaction, H3O+ is the acid and donates a proton to the base that is chloride ion, Cl. Some typical examples of Bronsted-Lowry acids include not only electrically neutral molecules, such as HCl and HNO3 but also cations and anions that contain transferable protons such as NH4+, HSO4 and HCO3. When a Bronsted-Lowry base such as ammonia, NH3, dissolves in water, it accepts a proton from the acid, which is water. The products are the hydroxide ion, OH, and the ammonium ion, NH4+. The conjugate acid of ammonia is the ammonium ion and the conjugate base of water is the hydroxide ion. How about its reverse reaction? In the reverse reaction, a proton is transferred from the acid, NH4+, to the base, OH, as follows: NH3(aq) + H+ acceptor Base H2O(l) H+ donor Acid OH+(aq) + H+ acceptor Base NH4+(aq) H+ donor Acid

Conjugate acid-base pairs

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7.1.3

Alkali

Now, we move on to alkali. What can we say about it? Do you know the origin of this word?
Alkali is originally from the Arabic word, Al-Qaly. . They are metal oxides or basic oxides of alkali metals that dissolve in water to produce the corresponding metal hydroxides.

Do you know that most common basic salts are alkali salts? More examples of metal oxides are shown in Table 7.1, namely, potassium oxide, calcium oxide and barium oxide. They dissolve in water to form the corresponding bases: potassium hydroxide, calcium hydroxide and barium hydroxide.
Table 7.1: Bases and Alkalis Metal Oxide Potassium oxide Calcium oxide Barium oxide Metal oxide + Water K2O(s) + H2O(l) CaO(p) + H2O(l) BaO(p) + H2O(l) Metal Hydroxide (Base) 2KOH(aq) Ca(OH)2(a) Ba(OH)2(aq) Potassium hydroxide Calcium hydroxide Barium hydroxide

The oxides of the metals in Group 1 and Group 2 in the Periodic Table dissolve in water to give solutions of strong bases. How about weak bases? Well, magnesium hydroxide is an example of a weak base and it has low solubility in water. Most other metal oxides are relatively insoluble in water.

7.1.4

Hydrated Protons and Hydronium Ions

Now, let us look at hydrated protons and hydronium ions. Do you notice that the proton is fundamental to both the Arrhenius and Bronsted-Lowry definitions of an acid? Ionisation of an Arrhenius acid, HA, gives an aqueous hydrogen ion, or hydrated proton, written as H+(aq): HA(aq) An acid H+(aq) + A(aq)

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Keep in mind that although the symbol H+(aq) is convenient to use in equations, it does not really represent the structure of the ion present in an aqueous solution. This is because as a bare proton with no electron nearby, H+, is much too reactive to exist by itself. Rather, the H+ attaches to a water molecule, giving the more stable hydronium ion, H3O+. We often write H3O+(aq) to represent an aqueous acid solution. HA(aq) Acid + H2O(l) H3O+(aq) + Hydronium ion A(aq)

SELF-CHECK 7.1
Account for the acidic properties of nitrous acid (HNO2) in terms of the Arrhenius theory and Bronsted-Lowry theory. Then, state the conjugate base of nitrous acid.

7.1.5

Acid Strength and Base Strength

Earlier, we learnt that an ionic compound is a compound that is made up of ions held together by ionic bonds. When dissolved in water or in aqueous solutions, the ionic compound separates into its ions. Do you know that this process is called dissociation? This process can be simplified as: H2O MgCl2(s) Mg2+(aq) + 2Cl(aq)

For example, magnesium chloride is an ionic compound and it dissociates in water to form magnesium ion and chloride ion. Some compounds such as hydrochloric acid exist as molecules. They are covalent compounds formed by the sharing of electrons between the atoms. Unlike ionic compounds, they are not made up of ions. However, many such compounds, when dissolved in water, form ions in solution. This process is called ionisation. H2O HCl2(g) H+(aq) + Cl(aq)

Can you think of any example of ionisation? Hydrochloric acid is an example of a molecular compound that ionises in water to form hydrogen ions and chloride ions.

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Different acids and bases ionise to different extents in aqueous solutions. Those acids or bases that ionise completely in aqueous solution form respectively strong acids and strong bases; those acids and bases that ionise only to a small extent are weak acids and weak bases respectively. Let us find out some examples of them. Typical examples of strong acids are hydrochloric acid, HCl, sulphuric acid, H2SO4, and nitric acid, HNO3. As for weak acids, their typical examples are ethanoic acid or more commonly known as acetic acid, CH3COOH, nitrous acid, HNO2, and hydrogen fluoride, HF. Examples of strong bases include most metal hydroxides like NaOH and Ba(OH)2 while examples of weak bases include ammonia. The strength and weakness for acid and base are summarised in Table 7.2 for your quick and easy reference.
Table 7.2: Acids and Bases ACID Strong acid HClO4 H2SO4 HBr HCl HNO3 Perchloric acid Sulphuric acid Hydrobromic acid Hydrochloric acid Nitric acid Ba(OH)2 Ca(OH)2 NaOH KOH BASE Sodium hydroxide Potassium hydroxide Barium hydroxide Calcium hydroxide Strong base

Weak acid

H3PO4 HF CH3COOH

Phosphoric acid Hydrofluoric acid Acetic acid

NH3

Ammonia

Weak base

7.1.6

Autoionisation of Water

Lastly, before we end this subtopic on the introduction of acid, base and alkali, let us look at the autoionisation of water. Water ionises slightly in solution to produce equal numbers of hydrated hydrogen ions and hydroxide ions as shown in this equation: 2H2O(l) H3O+(aq) + OH(aq)

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According to the Bronsted-Lowry theory, this autoionisation or self-ionisation of water is an acid-base reaction. One H2O molecule gives a proton to another H2O molecule as follows: H2O(aq) H+ donor Acid + H+ H2O(l) acceptor Base H3O+(aq) H+ donor Acid + OH(aq) H+ acceptor Base

Conjugate acid-base pairs Based on the previous equation, we can see that the H2O molecule that gives a proton is an acid which then becomes an OH ion, the conjugate base of water. The H2O molecule that accepts a proton is a base which then becomes an H3O+ ion, the conjugate acid of water. How about the reverse reaction? In the reverse reaction, two water molecules are formed. The H3O+ ion gives a proton to OH ion. When the H3O+ ion gives a proton to OH ion, it behaves as an acid. When the OH ion accepts a proton, it behaves as a base. Do you know that water is said to be amphiprotic? It means that H2O molecules can donate protons (acting as an acid) as well as accept protons (acting as a base).

7.2

pH SCALE

We now know what is acid strength and base strength. Then, how do we test acid strength and base strength? We can test acid strength and base strength by using the pH scale. Do you what the pH scale is?
The pH scale has been invented by scientists as a scale of numbers from 0 to 14 to show how acidic or basic/alkaline a substance is.

The scale starts with a pH of 0, which indicates that a substance is very acidic, and ends with a pH of 14, which indicates that the substance is very basic or alkaline. The middle of the scale shows a pH of 7, which indicates that a substance is neutral. The pH scale is shown in Figure 7.3.

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Figure 7.3: pH scale

As for Figure 7.4, it shows you the pH scale and pH values for some common substances that we are familiar with.

Figure 7.4: The pH scale and pH values for some common substances

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Based on Figure 7.4, we can see that lemon juice is acidic with a pH of 2.0 while baking soda is a base with a pH of 8.5.

ACTIVITY 7.1
After you have poured the milk, you can add one teaspoon of baking powder and half a teaspoon of baking soda to make this fluffy pancake.

Baking soda and baking powder are two ingredients that are used in baking especially for cakes and biscuits. What are their functions? How would you differentiate between baking soda and baking powder? How would you test whether baking soda and baking powder are acids or bases? Write a short report on how you would carry out the test.

7.3

CHARACTERISTIC PROPERTIES OF ACIDS, BASES AND ALKALIS

Now, let us move on to the characteristic properties of acids, bases and alkalis. First, we will have a look at the properties of acids, followed by the properties of bases and alkalis.

7.3.1

Properties of Acids

Aqueous solutions of most acids exhibit certain properties which are the properties of hydrated hydrogen ions in aqueous solutions. These certain properties are listed as follows: (a) (b) Acids have a sour taste. Citrus fruits such as orange and lime have a sour taste. Acids turn litmus paper from blue to red and cause bromothymol blue to change from blue to yellow.

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(c)

Acids react with metals to form salt and hydrogen gas, H2. For example, nitric acid reacts with zinc metal to form zinc nitrate and hydrogen gas. Acid + Metal 2HNO3(g) + Zn(s) Salt + Hydrogen Gas Zn(NO3)2(aq) + H2(g)

(d)

Acids react with bases or alkali to form salt and water. The reaction is a neutralisation reaction. For example, nitric acid reacts with potassium hydroxide to form potassium nitrate and water. Acid + Base HNO3(aq) + KOH(aq) Salt + Water KNO3(aq) + H2O(l)

(e)

Acids react with salts of weaker acids to form the weaker acid and the salts of the stronger acids. For example, nitric acid (a strong acid) reacts with sodium ethanoate (salt of ethanoic, which is a weak acid) to form ethanoic acid (weak acid) and sodium nitrate (salt of nitric acid, which is a strong acid). HNO3(aq) + CH3COONa(aq) CH3COOH(aq) + NaNO3(aq)

(f) (g)

Acids conduct electricity in aqueous solutions. Acids ionise into ions in solutions that are free to move in an electric field, thus conducting electricity. Carbonate salts react with acids, forming salt, carbon dioxide gas and water. For example, sulphuric acid reacts with copper carbonate to form copper sulphate, carbon dioxide gas and water. Acid + Carbonate Salt H2SO4(aq) + CuCO3(aq) Salt + Water + Carbon Dioxide Gas CuSO4(aq) + H2O(aq) + CO2(g)

(h)

Concentrated acids are corrosive and can cause injury to the skin and corrode metals.

7.3.2

Properties of Bases and Alkalis

Now, we will move on to the properties of bases and alkalis. Firstly, you need to know that aqueous solutions of bases and alkalis also exhibit certain properties, as listed in the following: (a) (b) Bases have a bitter taste. Bases feel soapy to touch. Common examples are soaps which are mildly basic and household bleach solutions.

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(c)

Bases turn litmus paper from red to blue and bromthymol blue from yellow to blue. Bases neutralise acids, forming salt and water. Bases conduct electric current in aqueous solutions because bases are ionised to some extent. Concentrated bases are corrosive and can burn the skin.

(d) (e)

(f)

Let us do Activity 7.2 to investigate the properties of acid and base.

ACTIVITY 7.2
Let us carry out the following experiment. You will need: three small beakers, water, vinegar, lemon juice, and white chalk about three pieces. Steps: (a) (b) (c) Label the beakers 1, 2 and 3. Pour lemon juice into beaker 1 until it is half full, vinegar in beaker 2 and water in beaker 3. Put one piece of chalk in each of the beakers. Make sure part of the chalk is in the liquids. Check the beakers over the next few days.

(d)

What can you observe? Explain your observations.

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7.4

TESTS FOR ACIDS AND ALKALIS

Do you know how acid test and alkali test can be carried out? The conventional and simple method to test for acids and alkalis is by using an indicator to determine the approximate pH of the solution. This is based on the principle that a substance can change colour in acid or base solutions. A typical example is litmus paper. You can do the test by just dipping the litmus paper in the test solution as in Figure 7.5.

Figure 7.5: Using a litmus paper to do acid and alkali tests Source: http://images.google.com

What can we expect from this test? If the solution is an acid, the blue litmus paper turns to red while in bases, the red litmus paper turns to blue. Besides litmus, there are other indicators which can be used to do the test. They are shown in Figure 7.6.

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Figure 7.6: Indicators and their colour change Source: http://images.google.com

Table 7.3 describes four indicators of acid, neutral and alkali solutions with their colour identification.
Table 7.3: Four Indicators and their Colour Identification for Acid, Neutral and Base Solutions Indicator Bromothymol blue Phenolphthalein Methyl orange Cresol purple Colour in Solution Acid Yellow Colourless Red Yellow Neutral Green Colourless Orange Green Base Blue Pink Yellow Purple

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Another way to test for acids and bases is to use a universal indicator. In order to determine the pH of a solution, firstly, you need to dip the universal indicator in the solution, and then check the colour change against the colour of the universal indicator in solutions of known pH from 1 to 14. Figure 7.7 shows you the colour changes for some substances using the universal indicator.

Figure 7.7: Universal indicator Source: http://images.google.com

Last but not least, if you want more accurate values of pH, you can use a pH meter (see Figure 7.8) to determine whether a substance is an acid or alkali. Have you seen this pH meter before?

Figure 7.8: pH meter Source: http://images.google.com

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ACTIVITY 7.3
Let us try make our own indicator using the following steps: (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) Grate half a small red cabbage. Put in in a 500 mL beaker. Add water to the grated cabbage to cover it. Boil the mixture for about 20 to 30 minutes. When the liquid turns dark purple, stop the heating. Cool the liquid. Then, strain the liquid into a beaker. Take a paper towel and cut it into strips of 5 cm each. Soak the strips of paper in the red cabbage juice. When they turn bluish purple, remove the strips and hang them to dry.

(f) (g) (h) (i)

Do you know that you have just prepared some cabbage indicators? Now, you can use these indicator to do the test: Put some apple juice, lime juice, tea, coconut oil, sea water, battery water and shampoo into separate petri dishes. Dip your indicator strips into the liquids. Observe the colour change in the paper strips for each liquid. Note which liquids are acids and which are bases by the colour changes of the cabbage indicators.

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7.5

CONCENTRATION OF ACID AND BASE

Firstly, do you know what the meaning of the concentration of an acid or base is?
The concentration of an acid or base is the quantity of solute in a given volume of solution which is usually 1dm3.

Thus, the concentration of a solution determines the amount of solute in a given volume of solution; the greater the amount of dissolved solute, the higher is the concentration of the solution. Next, we will investigate the relationship between the number of moles and molarity. Let us get started!

7.5.1

Relationship between the Number of Moles and Molarity

We can measure the quantity of solute in grams or moles. Thus, the concentration can be defined in two ways:

Concentration (g / dm 5 ) =

Volume of solution (dm 5 )

Number of moles of solute  mol  Volume of solution (dm 5 )

Mass of solute  g 

Concentration (mol / dm 5 ) =

As you can see from these formulas, the unit for concentration is g dm3 or mol dm3. However, the unit of concentration that is widely used is molarity (mol/dm3) or molar concentration (M).

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In the following examples, you will learn how to find the molarity of a substance. Problem 1 The concentration of nitric acid, HNO3, is 126 g dm3. Find its molarity. (Relative atomic mass: H, 1; N, 14; O, 16) Solution 1. Find the molar mass of nitric acid, HNO3. Molar mass of nitric acid, HNO3 = 1 + 14 + (16 u 3) g mol1 = 63 g mol1 2. Convert g dm3 to mol dm3 (Molarity = concentration/molar mass) Thus, molarity of HNO 3 126 g dm 3 63 g mol
1

2.0 mol dm 3

Problem 2 25 cm3 of sodium hydroxide solution was poured into a beaker. The concentration of the alkali was 1.5 mol dm3. Calculate the number of moles of sodium hydroxide in the beaker. Solution 1. Convert the volume of the solution from cm3 to dm3

Volume of the solution 2.

25 1000

0.025 dm 3

Calculate the number of moles N = MV The number of moles of sodium hydroxide = 1.5 mol dm3 u 0.025 dm3 = 0.0375 mol

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SELF-CHECK 7.2
The concentration of cholesterol (C27H46O) in normal blood is approximately 0.005 M. How many grams of cholesterol are in 750 cm3 of blood?

7.5.2

Preparation of a Standard Solution

Do you know that solutions with accurately known concentrations are called standard solutions? How about preparing them? What are the steps to follow? You will find the answers in Figure 7.9 as it shows how a standard solution is prepared.

Figure 7.9: Five steps in preparing a standard solution

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As an example, how would you prepare a standard solution of 1.0 dm3 of 0.50 mol dm3 sodium chloride? Solution: Step 1: Calculate the mass of the required sodium chloride. Molar mass of NaCl = 23 + 35.5 = 58.5 g per mol (gmol1) Molar mass of 0.50 mol NaCl = 0.50 mol u 58.5 gmol1 = 29.25 g Step 2: Step 3: Weigh 29.25 g of NaCl as shown in Figure 7.10(a). Dissolve the solid sodium chloride in distilled water in a beaker as shown in Figure 7.10(b). Carefully transfer the dissolved sodium chloride into a 1dm3 volumetric flask. Rinse the beaker with distilled water and add the washings into the flask as shown in Figure 7.10(c). Finally, add distilled water until the total volume of the solution is exactly 1dm3. Shake well to ensure thorough mixing as shown in Figure 7.10(d).

Step 4:

Step 5:

Figure 7.10: Preparation of a standard solution of sodium chloride Source: http://images.google.com

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SELF-CHECK 7.3
Let us prepare a standard solution. A science investigation requires 1.50 L of 0.250 M glucose, C6H12O6. Explain how you would prepare the above solution.

7.5.3

Solution Liquefaction

Now, let us look at how a solution can be liquefied. Firstly, do you know that if we want to prepare alkaline solutions accurately, we cannot use sodium hydroxide and potassium hydroxide? This is because they react with carbon dioxide in the air. Therefore, to prepare alkaline solutions, we need to use the dilution method. How does this method work? You can refer to Figure 7.11 to know how to prepare a solution using the dilution method.

Figure 7.11: Preparing a solution using the dilution method Source: http://images.google.com

Please note that in this method, the amount of dissolved solute used is fixed. However, the amount of solvent used (in this case, water) is increased. This process liquefies the solution. As a result, the concentration of the solution will decrease. The number of moles of solute in the original and new concentration of the solution is represented by the following equation: Mi u Vi = Mf u Vf

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Where

Mi is the initial concentration of the solution; Vi is the initial volume of the solution; Mf is the new concentration of the solution; and Vf is the final volume of the solution.

For example, how do we prepare 200 cm3 of 0.50 M H2SO4 solution from a 2.00 M solution? First, determine the required initial volume of the 2.00 M solution. (2.00 M) (Vi ) (0.50 M) (2.00 cm 3 ) Vi (0.50 M) (2.00 cm 3 ) 2.00 M 50 cm 3 Note that the solution volume increases by a factor of four (from 50 cm3 to 200 cm3). Thus, the concentration of the solution must decrease by a factor of four too (from 2.00 M to 0.50 M). Next, by using a pipette, we transfer 50 cm3 of the 2.00 M solution into a 200 cm3 volumetric flask. Finally, add distilled water until the total volume of the solution is exactly 200 cm3. Shake the solution well to ensure thorough mixing, and then we are done!

SELF-CHECK 7.4
Calculate this solution liquefaction: You are given a 10.0 M solution. 10.0 cm3 of this solution is withdrawn and then diluted to 250 cm3. Determine the concentration of the final solution.

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ACTIVITY 7.4
You are given a 2.0 M concentrated acid. To dilute the acid, you pour some water into a beaker and then add the acid to the water. More water is then added to further dilute the acid. Discuss why in diluting the concentrated acid, you did not add water directly to the acid.

x x

Acid and base can be defined using the Arrhenius theory and the BronstedLowry Theory. Arrhenius theory: Substances that ionise in water to produce hydrogen ions, H+, are acids and substances that ionise in water to yield hydroxide ions, OH, are bases. Bronsted-Lowry theory: An acid is a substance (molecule or ion) that can donate a proton (H+ ion) to a base and a base is a substance that can accept a proton from an acid. Alkalis are metal oxides or basic oxides of alkali metals that dissolve in water to produce the corresponding metal hydroxides. Different acids and bases ionise to different extents in aqueous solutions. Those acids or bases that ionise completely in aqueous solution form respectively strong acids and strong bases; those acids and bases that ionise only to a small extent are weak acids and weak bases respectively. Autoionisation of water happens when water ionises slightly in solution to produce equal numbers of hydrated hydrogen ions and hydroxide ions. The pH scale is a scale of numbers from 0 to 14 to show how acidic or basic/alkaline a substance is. Properties of acids: sour taste, turn litmus paper from blue to red, conduct electricity, etc.

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x x x

Properties of bases and alkalis: bitter taste, feel soapy to touch, turn litmus paper from red to blue, neutralise acid to form salt and water, corrosive, etc. We can do test for acids and alkalis by using litmus paper, or indicators such as universal indicator. Acidicity and alkalinity are measured by acid-base indicators that can change colour in acid or base solutions. Or, we can use the pH meter for a more accurate reading of pH value. The concentration of an acid or base is the quantity of solute in a given volume of solution, which is usually 1dm3. Standard solutions are solutions of accurately known concentrations. In the dilution method, the amount of dissolved solute used is fixed but the amount of solvent used is increased, thus liquefying the solution.

Acceptor Acid Acid-base reaction Alkali Autoionisation Base Concentration Conjugate acid Conjugate acid-base pairs Conjugate base

Dilution Donor Molarity Number of moles pH scale Properties Reversible reactions Standard solution Strength Test

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Brady, J. E., & Senese, F. (2004). Chemistry: Matter and its changes (4th ed.). New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Brown, T. L., Lemay, H. E., & Bursten, B. E. (2000). Chemistry: The central science (8th ed.). New Jersey: Prentice Hall. Kots, J. C., Treichel, P. M., & Weaver, G. C. (2006). Chemistry: The chemical reactivity (2nd ed.). Victoria, Australia: Thomson Learning. McMurray, J., & Fay, R. C. (2001). Chemistry (3rd ed.). New Jersey: Prentice Hall. Timberlake, K. C. (2006). An introduction to general, organic, and biological chemistry (9th ed.). San Francisco, CA: Pearson-Benjamin Cummings. Whitten, K. W., Davis, R. E., Peck, M. L., & Stanley, G. G. (2010). Chemistry (9th ed.). Belmont: Brooks/Cole.