8.

11 Class static member

To access a private static member when no object of the class exist , provide a public static method containing it and call it by qualifying its class following a dot and its name A static member cannot access non-static class member. The this reference cannot be used in a static method. If a static variable isn t initiali!ed , the compiler assign it a default value. A import declaration import only static class member ".g # import staticpac$age%ame.&lass%ame.static'ember%ame(

Final instance variable

)inal variable can be initiali!ed when they re declared. If they are not , they must be initiali!ed in every constructor of class. Initiali!ing constants in constructor of a class enables each object to have a difference values for the constant. To override a superclass method, a subclass must declare a method with the same signature *method name, number of parameters, parameter types and order of parameter types+ as the superclass method

Protected member
A superclass sprotectedmembers can be accessed by members of that superclass, by members of its subclasses and by members of other classes in the same pac$age,protectedmembers also have pac$age access. Allpublicandprotectedsuperclass members retain their original access modifier when they become members of the subclass

8.9 Enumeration (e.g 6.10)

- All enum types are reference types. -"ach enum declaration declares an enum class with the following restriction# .enum constants are implicitly final ,static . attemp to create an object of an enum type with operator new results in a compilation error. -Any constants of enum types must be the first statement in enum s body.

Poloymor !ism
/hen a superclass variable contains areference to a subclass object, and that reference is used to call a method, the subclass version of the method is called

"bstract methods donotprovide implementations. A class that containsanyabstract

methods must be explicitly declaredabstracteven if that class contains some concrete *nonabstract+ methods &onstructors and static methods cannot be declared abstract &onstructors are not inherited, so an abstract constructor could never be implemented &onstructors are not inherited, so an abstract constructor could never be implemented Though non-private static methods are inherited, they cannot be overridden 0.Assigning a superclass reference to a superclass variable is straightforward. 1.Assigning a subclass reference to a subclass variable is straightforward. 2.Assigning a subclass reference to a superclass variable is safe, because the subclass objectis anobject of its superclass. 3owever, the superclass variable can be used to referonlyto superclass members. If this code refers to subclass-only members through the superclass variable, the compiler reports errors. 4.Attempting to assign a superclass reference to a subclass variable is a compilation error. To avoid this error, the superclass reference must be cast to a subclass type explicitly. Atexecution time, if the object to which the reference refers isnota subclass object, an exception will occur. *)or more on exception handling, see &hapter 00.+ 5ou should use the instanceof operator to ensure that such a cast is performed only if the object is a subclass object

6oftware "ngineering 7bservation 00.4

5ou must deal with chec$ed exceptions. This results in more robust code than would be created if you were able to simply ignore the exceptions. &ommon 8rogramming "rror 00.2 A compilation error occurs if a method explicitly attempts to throw a chec$ed exception *or calls another method that throws a chec$ed exception+ and that exception is not listed in that method sthrowsclause. &ommon 8rogramming "rror 00.4 If a subclass method overrides a superclass method, it s an error for the subclass method to list more exceptions in itsthrowsclause than the overridden superclass method does. 3owever, a subclass sthrowsclause can contain a subset of a superclass sthrowslist. 6oftware "ngineering 7bservation 00.9 If your method calls other methods that throw chec$ed exceptions, those exceptions must be caught or declared in your method. If an exception can be handled meaningfully in a method, the method should catch the exception rather than declare it.

#nter$ace
All methods declared in an interface are implicitlypublic abstractmethods, and all fields are implicitlypublic, staticandfinal A class that does not implement all the methods of the interface is an abstractclass and must be declared abstract

%andling e&ce tion

It s a syntax error to place code between atrybloc$ and its correspondingcatchbloc$s. "achcatchbloc$ can have only a single parameter the local variables of a try bloc$ are not accessible in the corresponding catch bloc$s 6oftware "ngineering 7bservation 00.4 5ou must deal with chec$ed exceptions. This results in more robust code than would be created if you were able to simply ignore the exceptions.

&ommon 8rogramming "rror 00.2 A compilation error occurs if a method explicitly attempts to throw a chec$ed exception *or calls another method that throws a chec$ed exception+ and that exception is not listed in that method sthrowsclause. &ommon 8rogramming "rror 00.4 If a subclass method overrides a superclass method, it s an error for the subclass method to list more exceptions in itsthrowsclause than the overridden superclass method does. 3owever, a subclass sthrowsclause can contain a subset of a superclass sthrowslist. 6oftware "ngineering 7bservation 00.9 If your method calls other methods that throw chec$ed exceptions, those exceptions must be caught or declared in your method. If an exception can be handled meaningfully in a method, the method should catch the exception rather than declare it.