DeformationofSingleCrystals

Whenasinglecrystalisdeformedunder atensilestress,itisobservedthat plasticdeformationoccursbyslip on welldefinedparallelcrystalplanes. Sectionsofthecrystalsliderelativeto oneanother,changingthegeometryof thesampleasshowninthediagram. Slipalwaysoccursonaparticularsetof crystallographicplanes,knownasslip planes.Slipalwaystakesplacealonga consistentsetofdirectionswithin theseplanes thesearecalledslip directions.Thecombinationofslip planeandslipdirectiontogethermakes upaslipsystem.

Slipsystemsareusually specifiedusingtheMillerindex notation.Forexample,cubic closepackedmetalsslipon

1 10 { 111}

Theslipdirectionmustlieinthe slipplane. Slipoccursbydislocationmotion. Tomovedislocations,acertain stressmustbeappliedtoovercome theresistancetodislocation motion. Slipoccurswhentheshearstressactingintheslipdirectionontheslip planereachessomecriticalvalue.Thiscriticalshearstressis relatedto thestressrequiredtomovedislocationsacrosstheslipplane.

Thetensileyieldstressofamaterialistheappliedstressrequiredto startplasticdeformation ofthematerialunderatensileload.We wanttorelatethetensilestressappliedtoasampletotheshear stressthatactsalongtheslipdirection.

R =

resolved _ force _ acting _ on _ slip _ plane F cos F = = cos cos = cos cos A area _ of _ slip _ plane A cos

ItisfoundthatthevalueofR atwhichslipoccursinagivenmaterial withspecifieddislocationdensity andpurityisaconstant,knownas thecriticalresolvedshearstress C.ThisisSchmid's Law. ThequantityCosCos isknownastheSchmid Factor(M) Thetensilestressatwhichthematerialstarttoslipistheyield strength.

C = Y cos cos

Inagivencrystal,theremaybemanyavailableslipsystems.As the tensileloadisincreased,theresolvedshearstressoneachsystem increasesuntileventuallyC isreachedononesystem. Thecrystalbeginstoplasticallydeformbysliponthissystem, known astheprimaryslipsystem.Thestressrequiredtocausesliponthe primaryslipsystemistheyieldstress ofthesinglecrystal.Asthe loadisincreasedfurther,C maybereachedonotherslipsystems; thesethenbegintooperate. FromSchmid's Law,itisapparentthattheprimaryslipsystemwill bethesystemwiththegreatestSchmid factor(M).

C = Y M

BasicConsiderations
Experimentaltechnique Uniaxial TensionorCompression Experimentalmeasurementsshowedthat AtRTthemajorsourceforplasticdeformationisthedislocation motionthroughthecrystallattice. Dislocationmotionsoccursonfixedcrystalplanes (slipplanes) infixedcrystallographicdirections (correspondingtotheBurgers vectorofthedislocationthatcarriestheslip) Thecrystalstructureofmetalsisnotalteredbytheplasticflow Volumechangesduringplasticflowarenegligible

SchmidsLaw
Initialyieldstressvariesfromsampletosampledependingon, amongseveralfactors,thepositionofthecrystallatticerelativeto theloadingaxis. Itistheshearstressresolvedalongtheslipdirectiononthe slip planethatinitiatesplasticdeformation. Yieldwillbeginonaslipsystemwhentheshearstressonthis systemfirstreachesacriticalvalue(criticalresolvedshearstress, crss), independentofthetensilestressoranyothernormalstress onthelatticeplane.

E.Schmid &W.Boas(1950),PlasticityofCrystals,Hughes&Co.,London.

ResolvedShearStress

= s n = cos cos c c = cos cos

Soft orientation, with slip plane at 45to tensile axis Hard orientation, with slip plane at ~90to tensile axis

Slipinsinglecrystals
Criticalresolvedshearstress(crss):minimumshearstressrequiredto initiateslip. crss = y Thisiswhenyieldingbegins(i.e.yieldstrength) (cos cos ) max Conditionfordislocationmotion:R >crss Crystalorientationcanmakeiteasyordifficulttomovedislocations.
a)

b)
R = 0 =90

c)
R = /2 =45 =45

R = 0 =90

Whathappensincasesaandc(w.r.t.plasticdeformation)?

Example Atensilestressof5kPaisappliedparalleltothe[432]directionina cubiccrystal.Findtheshearstresses,,onthe(111)planeinthe [011]direction. Solution FindtheSchmidtsfactorfortheslipsystem

5 = = 0.536 Cos = 2 2 2 2 2 2 29 3 4 + 3 + 2 1 +1 +1 [432] [011] 5 = = 0.6565 Cos = 2 2 2 2 2 2 29 2 4 + 3 + 2 1 +1 + 0 M = Cos Cos = 0.352

[432] [111]

= M = 0.352 5kPa = 1.76kPa

Therelationshipbetweentheappliedstress [applied] andtheshearstress issimplyan exampleofatensorrotation.Foratensile stress: [a ] = [ 1 2 ] EmployingtheEuler rotationtransformation

= a13a33 tensile = sin sin 2 cos tensile

0 0 0 = 0 0 0 0 0 tensile x1 0 '= 0 0 y1 0 z1

cos = sin sin 2 =

Becausea13 isthecosine oftheanglebetweenx andz,wecannowset

= cos cos
AfterMechanicalBehaviorofMaterialsbyK.Bowman

TherelationshipoftheSchmid factortotheaxialstrainandthe shearstrainisgivenby:

= cos cos

Where isthestrainalongthedirectionoftheappliedstressand istheglidestrain. ThestrainsforanspecificslipsystemcanbeexpressedbySD=[uvw] andSPN=(hkl) v h + u k u l + w h

uh v h + u k ij = 2 u l + w h 2 2 vk wk + v l 2 2 wk + v l 2 wl

Where isthemagnitudeofthesimpleshearintheslipsystem.

Example Acubiccrystalissubjectedtoastressstate x=15kPa,y=0z=7.5kPa,yz=zx=xy=0,where x=[100],y=[010]andz=[001].Whatistheshear stressonthe(111)[101]slipsystem?

15 0 0 0 0 0 kPa 0 0 7.5
1 = 90
= 45 2 = 54.7

cos 2 sin 1 + cos cos 1 sin 2 sin sin 2 cos 2 cos 1 cos sin 1 sin 2 [a ] = sin 2 cos1 cos sin 1 cos2 sin 2 sin 1 + cos cos 1 cos 2 sin cos 2 sin cos 1 sin sin 1 cos cos 54.7 sin 90 + cos 45 cos 90 sin 54.7 sin 45 sin 54.7 cos 54.7 cos 90 cos 45 sin 90 sin 54.7 [a] = sin 54.7 cos 90 cos 45 sin 90 cos 54.7 sin 54.7 sin 90 + cos 45 cos 90 cos 54.7 sin 45 cos 54.7 sin 45 cos 90 sin 45 sin 90 cos 45 cos 45 sin 54.7 cos 54.7 sin 45 sin 54.7 0.577 0.577 0.577 [a] = cos 45 cos 54.7 sin 54.7 sin 45 cos 54.7 = 0.4086 0.816 0.408 sin 45 0 0.707 0 cos 45 0.707

T = [a ] T [a ]
'
0.577 [ ] = [a][ ][a]T = 0.408 0.707 7.50 [ ] = [a][ ][a]T = 5.3 3.06

0.577 0.577 15 0 0 0.577 0.408 0.707 0 0 0 0.577 0.816 0.816 0.408 0 0 0.707 0.577 0.408 0.707 0 0 7.5 5.3 3.06 3.75 2.16 2.16 11.25

Theshearstressintheslipdirectionisinthex1planeandz1 direction =3.06kPa

Example: AnFCCCuissubjectedtoauniaxial loadalongthe[112] direction.Whatismostlikelyinitialslipsystem? IfCRSSis50MPa,whatisthetensilestressatwhichCuwillstartto deformplastically?

Slip Plane, n Slip Dir., s
n cos = | || n |

s cos = | || s |
3 /6 3 /6 0

cos cos

M=

( MPa )
184 184

(111)

[0 1 1] [ 1 01] [ 1 10 ] [0 1 1]

+2 2 / 3

6 /9 6 /9 0

undef
367 122 184

( 1 11)

2 /3

3 /6 3 /2 3 /3

6 /18 6 /6 6 /9

(1 1 1)

[101] [110 ] [011] [ 1 01] [110 ]

[011] [101] [ 1 10 ]

2 /3

3 /2 3 /6 3 /3

6 /6 6 /18 6 /9 0 0 0

122 367 184

smallest stressto causeslip (yielding)

(11 1)

0
0

3 /2 3 /2

undef undef undef

TheinitialSlipSystems(plane,direction)arethen

(1 11)[101], (1 1 1)[011]

StrainHardeningofFCCCrystals.
ShearStress ShearStrainCurves Atypicalshearstress shearstrain curveforasinglecrystalshows threestages ofworkhardening: StageI=easyglide withlow hardeningrates; StageIIwithhigh,constant hardeningrate,nearlyindependent oftemperatureorstrainrate; StageIIIwithdecreasinghardening rate andverysensitiveto temperatureandstrainrate. Theextendofeasyglide inacrystaldependsonitsorientation, thepresenceofdislocations(defects)andonthetemperature.

StageI: Afteryielding,theshearstressforplastic deformationisessentiallyconstant.There islittleornoworkhardening. Thisistypicalwhenthereisasingleslip systemoperative.Dislocationsdonot interactmuchwitheachother.Easy glide Activeslipsystemisonewithmaximum Schmid factor(i.e.,M=cos cos) StageII: Theshearstressneededtocontinueplasticdeformationbeginsto increaseinanalmostlinearfashion.Thereisextensivework hardening( G/300). Thisstagebeginswhenslipisinitiatedonmultipleslipsystems. Workhardeningisduetointeractionsbetweendislocationsmoving onintersectingslipplanes.

StageIII: Thereisadecreasingrateofwork hardening. Thisdecreaseisduetoanincreasein thedegreeofcrossslipresultingina parabolicshapetothecurve. EffectofTemperature: IncreasingTresultsinadecreaseintheextentofStageIandStageII. WHY? StageI:Initiationofsecondaryslipsystemsiseasier StageII:Crossslipiseasier StackingFaultEnergy(SFE): FCCmetal:AdecreaseintheSFEcausesadecreaseincrossslip which increasesthestressneededfortheStageIItoStageIIItransition. Example:CuZn:Cu30at.%ZnhaslowSFE,extendsStageIItohigh stresslevels.

Influenceofstressaxis orientationinthestress straincurve Thestressaxisorientation controlsthenumberofactive slipsystems. Recall:Slipoccurswhenthe Schmid factorismaximum. Moreslipsystemsmeansa harder material.

Slipsteps Luder bands

Slipsteps(fromexitofdislocations fromthecrystal)onthesurfaceof compressedsinglecrystalofNb.

Easyglideisgreaterinorientationsforwhichtheresolvedshear stressonotherpotentialsystemsislow.Easyglidedoesnotoccurs inFCCcrystalsorientedinsuchamannerthatslipoccurs simultaneouslyonmanyslipsystems.

AfterMechanicalBehaviorofMaterials W.F.Hosford

NoeasyglideisobservedinBCCsinglecrystals.HCPsinglecrystals exhibitextensiveeasyglideintensiontests(e.g.Zn,Cd,Mg).

SlipSystems infcc materials

ForFCCmaterialsthereare12slip systems(with+and shear directions: Four{111}planes,eachwith three<011>directions
Thecombinationofslipplane{a,b,c,d}andslip direction{1,2,3}thatoperateswithineachunit triangleisshowninthefigure

[Khan]

TensileDeformationofFCCCrystals
ForallorientationsofFCCcrystalswithinthisstereographictriangle, theSchmid Factor(M)forslipinthe[101]directiononthe(111) planeishigherthanthatforanyotherslipsystem. Theslipsystem[101](111)isknownastheprimaryslipsystem.

Ifthetensileaxis(TA)isrepresentedaslyinginanyotherstereographictriangle, theslipelementsmaybefoundbyexaminingtheremotecornersofthethree adjacenttriangles.The<111>directioninoneoftheadjacenttrianglesisthe normaltotheslipplaneandthe<110>directioninanotheradjacenttriangleisthe slipdirection.

ThereisanorientationdependenceoftheSchmid Factorinthe stereographictriangle.

AfterMechanicalBehaviorofMaterials W.F.Hosford

ThehighestvalueofM=0.5isobtainedwhenthetensileaxislieson thegreatcirclebetweentheslipdirectionandtheslipplanenormal withanglesof45degrees.

Ifthetensileaxis(TA)liesonboundaryofthestereographictriangle, twoslipsystemsareequallyfavored. Forexample,ifTAisonthe[100][111]boundary,thesecondsystem isthe[110](111),whichiscalledtheconjugatesystem.

Forexample,ifTAisonthe[100][111]boundary,thesecondsystemis the[110](111),whichiscalledtheconjugatesystem. Twoothersystemshave names[101](111) isthe criticalslipsystem and thesystemthatshares theslipdirectionwiththe primarysystem[101](11 1) iscalledthecrossslip system. Atthecorners,thereare four,sixoreightequally favoredslipsystems.

TensileDeformationofBCCCrystals
TheslipdirectioninBCCmetalsisalwaysinthedirectionofclose packing,<111>,invariousslipplanes{110},{123}and{112}.G.ITaylor describedtheslipinBCCcrystalsas<111>pencilglideslip.Notethatthe
basicorientationtriangleisdividedintotworegionswithdifferent<111>slip direction.

AfterMechanicalBehaviorofMaterialsbyK.Bowman

LatticeRotationinTension
Duringtensiletesting,theends ofthetensilebarare constrained.Thusthecrystal planescannotglidefreely.They areforcedtorotatetowards thetensileaxis(i<o).THUS theSchmid factorchanges! Thiscanleadtotheinitiationof sliponadifferentsystem.

Theslipplanereorientsasthelengthofthespecimenchanges. Theglideshearstressandshearstraincanbedeterminedfromthe initialorientationoftheslipplane(o)andslipdirection(o)andthe extensionofthespecimen(Li/Lo). Crystalrotationcanbetracedwiththeaidofastereographic projection.

LatticeRotationinTensionforFCCCrystals
Slipnormallycausesagraduallatticerotationororientationchange. Thegradualrotationororientationchangeoftheslipsystemwith respecttotheTA,canberepresentedbykeepingtheslipsystem fixedinspaceandrotatingtheTA.

SlipcausestranslationofpointP paralleltotheslipdirectiontoanew positionP. PointsC andC areconstructedby extendingtheSD throughO and constructingperpendicularsfromP and P totheextensionoftheslipdirection. ThedistancePC=PC.Substituting: PC = lo sin o = P ' C ' = l sin sin o l = =1+ lo sin sin o sin = AfterMechanicalBehaviorofMaterials W.F.Hosford 1+ Where istheengineeringstrain.Therefore theanglebetweenthe TAandtheSDdecreasesduringtension,i.e.theSDrotatestowards theTA.

FCCGeometryofSlipSystems
Infcc crystals,theslipsystemsare combinationsof<110>slipdirections (theBurgersvectors)and{111}slip planes.

Similarly,slipsdoesnotchangethe distancebetweentwoparallelslip planes.

l lo = P' B' = PB = cos o cos cos = cos 0 1+

Therefore,theanglebetweenthe SPNandtheTAincreasesduring tension. Theshearstrainassociatedwiththeslipsystemis:

PP' OC ' OC OC ' OC = = PB PB PB PB cos cos o = cos cos o

ForanFCCcrystalorientedinthebasicstereographictriangle, theTA willrotatetowardsthe[101]directionuntilitreachesthe[100][111] boundary. Atthispoint,slipstartsonthe[110](111)systemwhichismost favoredintheconjugatetriangle.Withequalslipofthetwosystems, thenetrotationoftheTAistowardsthe[211]orientation.The rotationalongthe[100][111]boundarybecomesslowastheTA approachesthe[211]direction,whichisthestableendorientation.

LatentHardeningandOvershooting TakeasinglecrystalandorienteditwithrespecttotheTensileAxis (TA)insuchawaythatonlyasingleslipsystem()isactive.Then, strainthecrystaluntila,P strainisreached. Now,changetheorientationoftheTAsuchthatasuccessive secondarytesttakespartonthesamespecimen.Theneworientation oftheTAwillactivateapreviouslylatentslipsystem().

Theamountoflatenthardening,i.e.hardeningofthe secondarynonactivesystemduringprimaryslip,isdirectly observablethroughcomparisonofthebackextrapolated initialyieldstressrS inthesecondarytestwiththestress levelrP attheprestrain ,P intheprimarytest.

P < P

RP < RS

LatticeRotationinTensionforBCC Crystals
InBCCcrystal,slipoccursbypencilglide. TheTArotatestowardsthe<111.slip direction.Fororientationsnearthe[110] and[111](regionA),theTArotates towardsthe[111],whilefororientation nearthe[100]theTArotatestowards the[111].OncetheTAenterregionA thenitrotatestowardsthe[111].
AfterMechanicalBehaviorofMaterials W.F.Hosford

Whenthe[100][110]boundaryisreached,thecombinedslipinthe [111]and[111]directionswillcauserotationtowardsthe[110] orientation,whichisthestableendorientation.

LatticeRotationinCompression
Incompression,theslipplanenormal (SPN)rotatestowardsthecompression axis(CA).

AfterMechanicalBehaviorofMaterialsbyK.Bowman

ForaFCCcrystal,theCArotatestowardsthe[111]untilitreaches the[100][110]boundary.Thenslipoccurssimultaneouslyonthe (111)and(111)planes,whichwillcauseanetrotationtowardsthe [110]stableendorientation.

ForaBCCcrystalwithpencilglideslipsystems,theCArotates away fromtheactiveslipdirection.IftheCAliesintheregionA,itwillend uprotatingtowardsthe[111]endstableorientation,whereasif the CAliesinitiallyinregionB,itwillrotatetowardsthe[100]end orientation.

Principalslipsystemcandependonc/a andrelativeorientationof loadtoslipplanes

hcpZinc singlecrystal

HCPSlipPlanesandDirections

{0001}planesinthedirectionof < 112 0 > Slipsystems:1x3=3 c/a 1.6333(ideal)

Cd,Zn,Mg,Ti,Be
AdaptedfromFig. 7.9,Callister6e.

{10 1 0} planesinthedirectionof < 112 0 > Slipsystems:3x1=1

Ti

{10 1 1} planesinthedirectionof < 112 0 > Slipsystems:6x1=6 c/a 1.6333(ideal)

Mg,Ti

AdaptedfromFig. 7.8,Callister6e.

DeformationofPolycrystals
Monocrystals Theyareelasticallyandplastically anisotropic. Theycanundergodeformationin onesingleslipsystem. Polycrystals Intheabsenceoftexturecanbe treatedasisotropicmaterial. Deformationononlyoneslipsystem isnotpossiblebecausevarious grainshavetobecompatible. Itisinherentlyinhomogeneous(it variesfromgraintograin. Dislocationmovementishindered becauseitisrestrictedtoonegrain.

Whenacrystalissurroundedbyothercrystalsofdifferent crystallographicorientation,deformationofthecrystalcannot startattheprimarysystemasthestraintakingplaceneedtobe compatibleattheboundarywiththestrainintheothercrystals (nodiscontinuitiesalongthegrainboundary).

Deformationofpolycrystals
Slipoccursinwelldefinedcrystallographic planeswithineachgrain,butmorethan oneslipplaneispossibleandlikely. Indifferentgrains,theslipplaneswillhave differentorientationsbecauseoftherandom natureofthecrystalorientations.

Microscopephotographofactualshearoffsetsin differentgrains,onsurfaceofacopperbar.

Singlevs.polycrystal
Singlecrystal
e.g.

polycrystalline

Centergrain

crss y = (cos cos ) max

R = /2 =45 =45

R = /2 =45 =45

y =2crss

Foreachgrain,

But and aredifferentforeachgrain. Whichwillrequiremorestresstoslipsinglecrystalorthe centergraininpolycrystal?

Sliplinesafter10%deformation
AfterGrainSizeandSolidSolutionStrengtheningin Metals ATheoreticalandExperimentalStudyby Dilip Chandrasekaran (DoctoralThesis)

PlasticDeformationinPolycrystals

Before,undeformed equiaxial grains

Theplasticdeformationhas producedelongatedgrains

Fiveindependentslipsystemsarerequiredtoproduceageneral homogeneousstraininacrystalbyslip. Forapolycrystallinematerialtohaveappreciableductility,eachof itsgrainsmustbeabletoundergothesameshapechangeasthe entirebody.Thatis,eachgraininapolycrystal mustdeformwith thesameexternalstrainsasthewholepolycrystal. Foranindividualgrain,thisamountstoanimposedsetofstrains alongthecrystalaxes. Thenumberofindependentslipsystemsisequaltothenumber ofstraincomponentsthatcanbeaccommodatedbyslip

1, 2 , 23 , 31, and 12 ,

Thethirdnormalstrainisnotindependentbecause: 3 = 1 2 Ifamaterialhaslessthanfiveindependentslipsystems,apolycrystal ofthatmaterialwillhaveverylimitedductilityunlessother deformationmechanism(e.g.twinning)suppliestheaddedfreedom necessary.

PlasticDeformationinBiCrystals Plasticdeformationwithinanindividualgrain isconstrainedbytheneighboringgrains. Becausestrainsalonggrainboundaries mustbethesameforeachgrain,thegrains willdeforminacooperativemanner.Ifthisis notthecase,catastrophicfailureoccurs.

Sinceplasticdeformationofasinglegrainis restrainedbyitsneighboringgrain,apolycrystalline materialwillhaveanintrinsicallygreaterresistance toplasticflowthanwouldasinglecrystal. Sinceingeneralonegrain(eitherAorB)willhaveahigherresolved shearstress(RSS),theplasticdeformationofthatgrainwillbe restricted.THUS: Higheryieldstressforpolycrystal versussinglecrystal. Greaterworkhardeningforpolycrystal versussinglecrystal. Thisisthebasisfortexture hardening.

Requiredtomaintaincontinuityof thegrainboundary

RvaluesinPolycrystallineMaterial

width R= Rvaluesaredefinedastheratioofwidthtothickness thickness strainsintensiontestsoftexturedmaterials(e.g.sheets).

TocalculateRvalues inatexturedmaterialitisnecessaryto: (a)identifythemoststressedslipsystem; (b)calculatethestrainsinthex,y andz coordinatesystemintermsof theshearstrain ontheslipsystem. Example: Consideracoppersheetwitha(011)[211]texture.PredicttheR valuesinatensiontestparalleltothe[211]priorrollingdirection. Solution Placethecoordinatesystem
x_axis = [2 1 1].....Rolling Direction y_axis = 1 1 1 ......Width Direction

[ ] z_axis = [0 1 1].....Thickness Direction

3 0 11 [1 0 1] 1 cos x = = cos = = z 2 2 2 2 2 2 12 4 2 +1 +1 1 + 0 +1 02 + 12 + 12 12 + 02 + 12 [2 11] 111 2 0 11 111 2 cos x = = cos z = = 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 18 6 2 +1 +1 1 +1 +1 0 +1 +1 1 +1 +1 1 1 x = z = 6 6 y = cos y cos y

x = cos x cos x

CopperisaFCCmaterial.Themost 1 1 1 [10 1] and 1 1 1 [1 1 0] favoredslipsystemwouldbe Considerthefirstslipsystemandatensionappliedalongthe[211] direction

( )

( )

[2 11] [1 0 1]

z = cos z cos z

[ ]

[ ]

[ ][ ]

cos y = cos y =

[111] [1 0 1]
2

1 +1 +1
2 2

[111] [111]

0 = =0 2 2 2 6 1 + 0 +1 = 3 9

y width R= = =0 thickness z

12 + 12 + 12 12 + 12 + 12

y = 0