UNIT 1 Ques1(a). Explain the phases of compiler, with the neat schematic. The process of compilation is very complex.

So it comes out to be customary from the logical as well as implementation point of view to partition the compilation process into several phases. A phase is a logically cohesive operation that takes as input one representation of source program and produces as output another representation. Source program is a stream of characters: E.g. pos = init + rate * 60 lexical analysis: groups characters into non-separable units, called token, and generates token stream: id1 = id2 + id3 * const The information about the identifiers must be stored somewhere (symbol table). Syntax analysis: checks whether the token stream meets the grammatical specification of the language and generates the syntax tree. Semantic analysis: checks whether the program has a meaning (e.g. if pos is a record and init and rate are integers then the assignment does not make a sense).
:=
id1 :=

+ id2 *

id1 id2

*
id3 inttoreal 60

id3

60

Syntax analysis Semantic analysis Intermediate code generation, intermediate code is something that is both close to the final machine code and easy to manipulate (for optimization). One example is the threeaddress code: dst = op1 op op2 The three-address code for the assignment statement: temp1 = inttoreal(60); temp2 = id3 * temp1; temp3 = id2 + temp2; id1 = temp3 Code optimization: produces better/semantically equivalent code. temp1 = id3 * 60.0 id1 = id2 + temp1 Code generation: generates assembly MOVF id3, R2 MULF #60.0, R2 MOVF id2, R1 ADDF R2, R1 MOVF R1, id1 Symbol Table Creation / Maintenance Contains Info (storage, type, scope, args) on Each Meaningful Token, typically Identifiers Data Structure Created / Initialized During Lexical Analysis Utilized / Updated During Later Analysis & Synthesis Error Handling Detection of Different Errors Which Correspond to All Phases Each phase should know somehow to deal with error, so that compilation can proceed, to allow further errors to be detected

Ques1(b). Explain in detail about compiler constructions tools.

-directed Translation Engines : Generate Intermediate Code Generators : Generate Actual Code -Flow Engines : Support Optimization Ques1(c). Draw pictures of DFAs for each of the follwing regular expressions. a. (a/b)*c/d

b. Ab*/cd*

OR
Ques2(a). Given the regular expression RE = a.(b*).(aa | a) over the alphabet = {a,b} answer the following questions: (a) Derive the NFA corresponds to this RE. (b) Convert this NFA to a DFA using the closure computation.

Ans:

(a) See NFA below.

(b) The subset construction yields the DFA on below where we have noted the subset each state stands for.

Ques2(b). Explain in detail about the role of lexical analyzer. Few errors are discernible at the lexical level alone, because a lexical analyzer has a very localized view of a source program. The simplest recovery strategy is panic mode recovery: delete the successive characters from the remaining input until the lexical analyzer can find a well-formed token. Other possible error recovery actions are o Deleting an extraneous character o Inserting a missing character o Replacing an incorrect character by a correct character o Transposing two adjacent characters Ques2(c). Explain briefly in detail about the Input buffering technique with the algorithm. Determining the next lexeme requires reading the input beyond the end of the lexeme. Buffer Pairs: Concerns with efficiency issues Used with a look ahead on the input It is a specialized buffering technique used to reduce the overhead required to process an input character. Buffer is divided into two N-character halves. Use two pointers. Used at times when the lexical analyzer needs to look ahead several characters beyond the lexeme for a pattern before a match is announced. One pointer called forward pointer, points to first character of the next lexeme found. The string of characters between two forms the lexeme. Increment procedure for forward pointer: (2) If forward at end of first half then reload second half forward+=1 else if forward at end of second half reload the first half move forward to beginning of first half else forward+=1 Sentinels: (2)

It is the special character which cannot be a part of source program. It is used to reduce the two tests into one. e.g. eof Increment procedure for forward pointer using sentinels: forward+=1 if forward =eof then If forward at end of first half then reload second half forward+=1 else if forward at end of second half reload the first half move forward to beginning of first half else terminate lexical analysis UNIT 2 Ques3(a). Construct predictive parsing table for the grammar S->(L) | a L->L,S | S After the elimination of left recursion: S->(L) | a L->SL L->,SL | Calculation of First: First(S) = {(, a} First(L) = {(, a} First(L) = {, , } Calculation of Follow: Follow(S) = {$, , ,)} Follow (L) = {)} Follow (L) = {)} Predictive parsing table: Non Input symbol terminals a ( ) , $ S S->a S->(L) L L->SL L->SL L L-> L->,SL Ques3(a). Eliminate immediate left recursion for the following grammar E->E+T | T, T->T * F | F, F-> (E) | id. The rule to eliminate the left recursion is A->A | can be converted as A-> Aand A-> A | . So, the grammar after eliminating left recursion is E->TE; E->+TE| ; T->FT; T->*FT | ; F-> (E) | id.
Ques3(b). Consider the following grammar G for expressions and lists of statements (StatList) using assignment statements (Assign) and basic expressions (Expr) with the productions presented below and already augmented by the intitial production G StatList $. (0) (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) G StatList $ StatList Stat ; StatList StatList Stat Stat Assign Assign id = Expr Expr id Expr const

For the grammar presented above determine the following: (a) Compute the DFA that recognizes the set of LR(0) items. (b) Construct the LR(0) parsing table.

(c) Identify the nature of and explain how to resolve any conflicts in the table found in (b).

Answer:
(a) The set of LR(0) items and the corresponding DFA that identifies them is depicted below where for each state (labeled at the upper right corner) we indicate the items and the transition on terminals and non-terminals.

(b) The LR(0) parsing table is shown below.

(c) As can be seen there is a shift/reduce conflict in state 2 resulting from the fact that on a terminal ; and having seen a Statement the parser could reduce immediately by the production rule (2). But because there might be a valid statement list coming next, there is also a possibility of executing a shift operation and moving to state 3. Typically, as one tries to parse the largest possible sentences preference is given to a shift operation.

OR Ques4(a). Construct a parse tree of (a+b)*c for the grammar E->E+E | E*E | (E) | id.

Ques4(b). Find the SLR parsing table for the given grammar and parse the sentence (a+b)*c. E->E+E | E*E | (E) | id. E->E*.E E->.E+E Ans: Given grammar: E->.E*E 1. E->E+E E->.(E) 2. E->E*E E->.id 3. E->(E) I6: goto(I2, E) 4. E->id E->(E.) Augmented grammar: E->E.+E E->E E->E.*E E->E+E I7: goto(I4, E) E->E*E E->E+E. E->(E) E->E.+E E->id E->E.*E I0: E->.E I8: goto(I5, E) E->.E+E E->E*E. E->.E*E E->E.+E E->.(E) E->E.*E E->.id I1: goto(I0, E) goto(I2, ()=I2 E->E. goto(I2, id)=I3 E->E.+E goto(I4, ()=I2 E->E.*E goto(I4, id)=I3 I2: goto(I0, () goto(I5, ()=I2 E->(.E) goto(I5, id)=I3 E->.E+E E->.E*E I9: goto(I6, )) E->.(E) E->(E). E->.id I3: goto(I0, id) goto(I6, +)=I4 E->id. goto(I6, *)=I5 I4: goto(I1, +) goto(I7, +)=I4 E->E+.E goto(I7, *)=I5 E->.E+E goto(I8, +)=I4 E->.E*E goto(I8, *)=I5 E->.(E) E->.id I5: goto(I1, *) First(E) = {(, id} Follow(E)={+, *, ), $}

SLR parsing table: States 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Action + S4 r4 * S5 S2 r4 S2 S2 S4 S4, r1 S4, r2 r3 S5 S5, r1 S5, r2 r3 S9 r1 r2 r3 r4 S3 S3 r1 r2 r3 S3 r4 7 8 ( S2 ) id S3 $ Acc 6 Goto E 1

Parsing the sentence (a+b)*c: 0 0(2 0(2a3 0(2E6 0(2E6+4 0(2E6+4b3 0(2E6+4E7 0(2E6 0(2E6)9 0E1 0E1*5 0E1*5c3 0E1*5E8 0E1 (a+b)*c$ a+b)*c$ +b)*c$ +b)*c$ b)*c$ )*c$ )*c$ )*c$ *c$ *c$ c$ $ $ $ shift 2 shift 3 reduce by E->id shift 4 shift 3 reduce by E->id reduce by E->E+E shift 9 reduce by E->(E) shift 5 shift 3 reduce by E->id reduce by E->E*E accept UNIT 3 Ques5(a). Define three address code. Describe the various types &methods of implementing three address
statements with an example.

It is one of the intermediate representations. It is a sequence of statements of the form x:= y op z, where x, y, and z are names, constants or compiler-generated temporaries and op is an operator which can be arithmetic or a logical operator. E.g. x+y*z is translated as t1=y*z and t2=x+t1. (4) Reason for the term three-address code is that each statement usually contains three addresses, two for the operands and one for the result. (2)

Implementation: Quadruples Record with four fields, op, arg1, arg2 and result Triples Record with three fields, op, arg1, arg2 to avoid entering temporary names into symbol table. Here, refer the temporary value by the position of the statement that computes it. Indirect triples List the pointers to triples rather than listing the triples For a: = b* -c + b * -c Quadruples Op arg1 arg2 result (0) uminus c t1 (1) * b t1 t2 (2) uminus c t3 (3) * b t3 t4 (4) + t2 t4 t5 (5) := t5 a
Triples Op arg1 arg2

(0) (1) (2) (3) (4) (5)

uminus * uminus * + assign

c b c b (1) a (2) (3) (4) (0)

Indirect Triples Op (14) (15) (16) (17) (18) (19) uminus * uminus * + assign

arg1 c b c b (15) a

arg2

Statement (0) (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (14) (15) (16) (17) (18) (19)

(14) (16) (17) (18)

Ques5(b). Explain different storage allocation strategies. Strategies: Static allocation lays out storage for all data objects during compile time Stack allocation manages the run-time storage as a stack Heap allocation allocates and deallocates storages as needed at runtime from heap area

Static allocation: (2) Names are bound to storage at compile time No need for run-time support package When a procedure is activated, its names are bound to same storage location. Compiler must decide where activation records should go. Limitations: size must be known at compile time recursive procedures are restricted data structures cant be created dynamically Stack allocation: (3) Activation records are pushed and popped as activations begin and end. Locals are bound to fresh storage in each activation and deleted when the activation ends. Call sequence and return sequence caller and callee Dangling references Heap allocation: (3) Stack allocation cannot be used if either of the following is possible: 1. The values of local names must be retained when an activation ends 2. A called activation outlives the caller. Allocate pieces of memory for activation records, which can be deallocated in any order Maintain linked list of free blocks Fill a request for size s with a block of size s, where s is the smallest size greater than or equal to s Use heap manager, which takes care of defragmentation and garbage collection. OR Ques6(a). Generate intermediate code for the following code segment: i=1; s=0; while(i<=10) s=s+a[i][i] i=i+1 Ans: Intermediate code generated: (1) i:=1 (2) s:=0 (3) if i 10 goto (5) (4) goto (15) (5) t1=i*10 (6) t1=t1+i (7) t1=t1+4 (8) t2=addr(a)-44 //(1*10+1)*4 (9) t3=t2[t1] //a[i][j] (10) t4=s+t3

(11) s=t4 (12) t5=i+1 (13) i=t5 (14) goto (3) Ques6(b). Explain (1) Storage organization (2) Parameter passing Subdivision of run time memory: Run time storage: The block of memory obtained by compiler from OS to execute the compiled program. It is subdivided into Generated target code Data objects Stack to keep track of the activations Heap to store all other information

Activation record: (Frame) It is used to store the information required by a single procedure call. Returned value Actual parameters Optional control link Optional access link Saved machine status Local data temporaries Temporaries are used to hold values that arise in the evaluation of expressions. Local data is the data that is local to the execution of procedure. Saved machine status represents status of machine just before the procedure is called. Control link (dynamic link) points to the activation record of the calling procedure. Access link refers to the non-local data in other activation records. Actual parameters are the one which is passed to the called procedure. Returned value field is used by the called procedure to return a value to the calling procedure Compile time layout of local data: The amount of storage needed for a name is determined by its type. The field for the local data is laid out as the declarations in a procedure are examined at compile time. The storage layout for data objects is strongly influenced by the addressing constraints on the target machine. (2) Parameter passing. Call by value A formal parameter is treated just like a local name. Its storage is in the activation record of the called procedure

 The caller evaluates the actual parameter and place the r-value in the storage for the formals Call by reference If an actual parameter is a name or expression having L-value, then that lvalue itself is passed However, if it is not (e.g. a+b or 2) that has no l-value, then expression is evaluated in the new location and its address is passed. Copy-Restore: Hybrid between call-by-value and call-by-ref (copy in, copy out) Actual parameters evaluated, its r-value is passed and l-value of the actuals are determined When the called procedure is done, r-value of the formals are copied back to the l-value of the actuals Call by name Inline expansion(procedures are treated like a macro) UNIT 4 Ques7(a). Define back patching with an example. Back patching is the activity of filling up unspecified information of labels using appropriate semantic actions in during the code generation process. In the semantic actions the functions used are mklist(i), merge_list(p1,p2) and backpatch(p,i). Source: L2: x= y+1 if a or b then L3: if c then After Backpatching: x= y+1 100: if a goto 103 Translation: 101: if b goto 103 if a go to L1 102: goto 106 if b go to L1 103: if c goto 105 go to L3 104: goto 106 L1: if c goto L2 105: x=y+1 goto L3 106: Ques7(b). Define basic block and flow graph. A basic block is a sequence of consecutive statements in which flow of control enters at the beginning and leaves at the end without halt or possibility of branching except at the end. A flow graph is a directed graph in which the flow control information is added to the basic blocks. The nodes in the flow graph are basic blocks the block whose leader is the first statement is called initial block. There is a directed edge from block B1 to block B2 if B2 immediately follows B1 in the some execution sequence. We can say that B1 is a predecessor of B2 and B2 is a successor of B1. Ques7(c). Discuss briefly about DAG representation of basic blocks. Draw DAG for t1:=4*i t2:=a[t1] A DAG for a basic block is a directed acyclic graph in which

operators It is useful for implementing transformations on basic blocks and shows how values computed by a statement are used in subsequent statements. e.g t1:=4*i t2:=a[t1] Dag is

Algorithm for the construction of DAG: Input: A basic block Output: DAG for that basic block, having Label for each node where leaves are identifiers, interior nodes are operator symbol. for each node, a list of identifiers to hold computed values 1) x = y op z 2) x = op y 3) x = y Step 1: If node(y) is undefined, create a leaf labeled y and let node(y) be this node. In 1), if node(z) is undefined, create a leaf labeled z and let that leaf be node(z) Step 2: For 1), create node op with left child y and right child z, after checking for common sub expression For 2), check for a node op with a child y. If not create such node For 3), let n be node y. Step 3: Delete x from the list of identifiers for node x. Append x to the list of attached identifiers for node n found in step 2 and set node x to n Applications of DAG: 8 Determining the common sub-expressions. 8 Determining which identifiers have their values used in the block 8 Determining which statements compute values that could be used outside the block 8 Simplifying the list of quadruples by eliminating the common sub-expressions and not performing the assignment of the form x: = y unless and until it is a must.

OR Ques8(a). Discuss briefly about peephole optimization. Peephole optimization is a simple and effective technique for locally improving target code. This technique is applied to improve the performance of the target program by examining the short sequence of target instructions and replacing these instructions by shorter or faster sequence, whenever is possible. Peep hole is a small, moving window on the target program.

Local in nature Pattern driven Limited by the size of the window Characteristics of peephole optimization: 8 Redundant instruction elimination 8 Flow of control optimization 8 Algebraic simplification 8 Use of machine idioms Constant Folding x := 32 x := x + 32 becomes x := 64 Unreachable Code An unlabeled instruction immediately following an unconditional jump is removed. goto L2 x := x + eeded Flow of control optimizations Unnecessary jumps are eliminated. goto L1 L1: goto L2 becomes goto L2 Algebraic Simplification x := x + eeded Dead code elimination x := ere x not used after statement y := x + y y := y + 32 Reduction in strength Replace expensive operations by equivalent cheaper ones x := x x := x + x

Ques8(b). Explain the various issues in the design of code generation. Input to the code generator: Intermediate representation of the source program, like linear representations such as postfix notation, three address representations such as quadruples, virtual machine representations such as stack machine code and graphical representations such as syntax trees and dags. Target programs: It is the output such as absolute machine language, relocatable machine language or assembly language. Memory management: Mapping of names in the source program to addresses of data object in run time memory is done by front end and the code generator. Instruction selection: Nature of the instruction set of the target machine determines the difficulty of instruction selection. Register allocation: Instructions involving registers are shorter and faster. The use of registers is being divided into two sub problems: o During register allocation, we select the set of variables that will reside in registers at a point in the program

o During a subsequent register assignment phase, we pick the specific register that a variable will reside in Choice of evaluation order: The order in which computations are performed affect the efficiency of targetcode. Approaches to code generation UNIT 5 Ques9(a). Write short notes on global data flow analysis. Collecting information about the way data is used in a program. Takes control flow into account Forward flow vs. backward flow Forward: Compute OUT for given IN, GEN, KILL Information propagates from the predecessors of a vertex. Examples: Reachability, available expressions, constant propagation Backward: Compute IN for given OUT, GEN, KILL Information propagates from the successors of a vertex. Example: Live variable Analysis Ques9(b). Describe in detail about optimization of basic blocks with example. Code improving transformations: -preserving transformations o Common sub expression elimination o Dead-code eliminations Structure preserving transformations: It is implemented by constructing a dag for a basic block. Common sub expression can be detected by noticing, as a new node m is about to be added, whether there is an existing node n with the same children, in the same order, and with the same operator. If so, n computes the same value as m and may be used in its place. E.g. DAG for the basic block d:=b*c e:=a+b b:=b*c a:=e-d is given by

For dead-code elimination, delete from a dag any root (root with no ancestors) that has no live variables. Repeated application of this will remove all nodes from the dag that corresponds to dead code. Use of algebraic identities: e.g. x+0 = 0+x=x

x-0 = x x*1 = 1*x = x x/1 = x Reduction in strength: Replace expensive operator by a cheaper one. x ** 2 = x * x Constant folding: Evaluate constant expressions at compile time and replace them by their values. Can use commutative and associative laws E.g. a=b+c e=c+d+b IC: a=b+c t=c+d e=t+b If t is not needed outside the block, change this to a=b+c e=a+d Using both the associativity and commutativity of +.

OR Ques10(a). Explain in detail about code- improving transformations. Ques10(b). Describe in detail about principal sources of optimization. Code optimization is needed to make the code run faster or take less space or both. Function preserving transformations: ommon sub expression elimination -code elimination Common sub expression elimination: E is called as a common sub expression if E was previously computed and the values of variables in E have not changed since the previous computation. Copy propagation: Assignments of the form f:=g is called copy statements or copies in short. The idea here is use g for f wherever possible after the copy statement. Dead code elimination: A variable is live at a point in the program if its value can be used subsequently. Otherwise dead. Deducing at compile time that the value of an expression is a constant and using the constant instead is called constant folding. Loop optimization: p: Takes an expression that yields the same result independent of the number of times a loop is executed (a loop-invariant computation) and place the expression before the loop. ive operation by a cheaper one.