Characteristics of Diode

• Device formed from a junction of N-type(-ve@cathode)

and P-type(+ve@anode) semiconductor material.

• Diode is electronic two pins component. The lead is

anode and cathode.

• Primary function of the diode is rectification.

• Diodes are semiconductor devices which might be

described as passing current in one direction only.
Schematic Diagram and Physical
Structure of Diode
 Schematic Diagram and Physical
Structure of Diode

• The lead connected to the P-types is called

anode.
• The lead connected to the N-types is called
Cathode.
 Physics of a diode
• When a diode is absent of a voltage source, the
protons and electrons are aligned in their proper
layers (as shown ) by default.

• A region exists between the P-Type and N-Type

layers called the depletion zone

• The size of the depletion zone in a diode changes

as voltage or the configuration of a circuit is
changed.

• The depletion zone has some very interesting

characteristics. Because it is made of a material
similar to the P-Type and N-Type material, it has
"holes" that electrons fill in to prevent positive
charges from going through, thus preventing
current from flowing. There is only one way the
holes can be opened for positive charges to flow The electron/proton activity in active state
through and current to be produced. and the electron/proton alignment in
its insulating state.
VIDEO (FORWARD & REVERSE BIASED)
 Forwa rd-Bia sed
• On the other hand, if the battery's polarity is
reversed and the positive end is connected to
the diode's positive end, the electrons in the
diode will repel from the negative end and
free electrons will open the "holes" to allow
protons to enter the N-type region and
interact with the electrons.

• This interaction gives a forward-biased

behavior of the diode.

• The interaction creates current and in the

case of light emitting diodes, photons which
create light.

Positive end of the battery meets the

• In this "active" state, the depletion zone is at positive end (the anode) of the diode,
its minimum size. causing current flow..
 Reverse-Bia sed
• As know, like charges repel and opposite
charges attract.

• Whenever a battery is connected to a diode in

a way such that the negative end is connected
to the P-Type (or anode) end of the diode,
charges will be driven to the edges of the
diode and the depletion zone is at its largest
size (above left).

• This configuration gives the diode a

behavior of what is called reverse-biased.

• Because no protons are able to flow through

the depletion zone, current does not flow in Negative end of the battery meets
this state. the negative end (the cathode) of
the diode, no current flow occurs.
 Physics of a diode
• The graph on the right shows represents
relationship of current over voltage in a zener
diode.

• This graph is similar to the basic junction diode

except the junction diode does not have the
current drop shown on the left side of the graph
(it remains zero).

• In most diodes the holes in the depletion layer

won't open until a specific amount of voltage has
been surpassed.

• Since silicon is the material most diodes are made

of, the voltage in most diodes at which the holes
can be opened and current be produced is
approximately 0.7V.
 Application of a diode in a circuit
• The anode (positive end) is
connected to the negative end of
the battery.

• Charges in the diode layers are

attracted to the outermost edges,
so the depletion zone is at its
largest, no current is flowing,
and the diode is off.

• A voltage VD still exists in the

diode even when a current
doesn't. Because the orientation
of the diode is opposite to the
battery, the voltage going
through the diode is the negative
value of the battery, or -5V.
 Application of a diode in a circuit
• Anode is now connected to the
positive end of the battery,
charges are interacting in the
diode and current is flowing
through.

• Since the voltage across a diode

when current is going through it is
0.7

• Since the current through the

circuit is uniform, the current
through the resistor, diode, and
the wires is:
I = V/R = (5V-0.7V)/(1000Ω)
= 4.3mA
I-V Characteristic
 Knee Voltage
• In the forward region of the graph, the voltage
at which the current starts to increase quickly
is called the knee voltage of the diode.

• If the knee voltage is higher, the diode

conducts easily

• If the knee voltage is lower, the diode

conducts poorly

• (The knee voltage for a silicon diode is

approximately 0.7 volt and for a germanium
diode 0.3 volt)
 Forward Current
• If the value for forward-bias voltage increased,
the value of current will increase and the
resistant of the joint will decrease

• The more the voltage, the less the resistant of

the joint, and the more of the current.

• The current is known as forward current

(ID)(in miliAmpere scale).

• The decrease resistance is known as forward

resistance (RD).
 Reverse Current
• Electrons in N type material is attracted to the
+ve terminal of voltage supply (VS). This will
cause the depletion region become larger
(widen).

• The resistant become higher and known as

reverse resistant, RS.

• The current is known as reverse current (Is)(in

miliAmpere scale).

• Due to that, there is no electrons current flow

across the joint region.
 Breakdown Voltage
• This limit is known as insulation
breakdown voltage.

• It can cause the P-N joint burn.

• To overcome this situation, the

maximum reverse-bias voltage
supplied to the P-N joint must not
exceed the insulation breakdown limit.
 IDEAL DIODE
• Considered has no barrier voltage@knee voltage, no leakage
current, no resistance in front ( rd )and no breakdown voltage.

• Figures show characteristic arc diode have been distinguished

when several matter deserted.
• In ideal diode concept, during forward biased, diode as a closed
switch (ON) because empty resistance and do not have voltage
fall.

• During reverse bias, diode as a open switch namely infinity

resistance and do not have a little leakage current.
A Zener Diode is a special kind of diode which permits current to flow in the
forward direction as normal, but will also allow it to flow in the reverse
direction when the voltage is above a certain value - the breakdown voltage
known as the Zener voltage.
A zener diode can be used to make a simple voltage regulation circuit
The illustration above shows this phenomenon in a Current vs. Voltage
graph. With a zener diode connected in the forward direction, it behaves
exactly the same as a standard diode - i.e. a small voltage drop of 0.3 to
0.7V with current flowing through pretty much unrestricted. In the reverse
direction however there is a very small leakage current between 0V and
the Zener voltage - i.e. just a tiny amount of current is able to flow. Then,
when the voltage reaches the breakdown voltage (Vz), suddenly current
can flow freely through it.
 Advantages

It made to afford issue reverse current that high value

without damaging diode.

In breakdown zener and after that voltage across

diode will still and equivalent with a zener voltage.

Zener diode may be made so that voltage zener

determine at value that selected (2.4V - 200V).
LED
 LED
• Light emitting diodes, commonly called LEDs, are real
unsung heroes in the electronics world.

• Among other things, they form the numbers on digital clocks,

transmit information from remote controls, light up watches
and tell you when your appliances are turned on.

• Basically, LEDs are just tiny light bulbs that fit easily into an
electrical circuit.

• In the case of LEDs, the conductor material is typically

aluminum-gallium-arsenide (AlGaAs).
How Can a Diode Produce Light?
How Can a Diode Produce Light?
 LED Advantages
• LEDdon't have a filament that will burn out, so they last much
longer. Additionally, their small plastic bulb makes them a lot
more durable. They also fit more easily into modern electronic
circuits.

• is efficiency

• LEDs are specially constructed to release a large number of

photons outward. Additionally, they are housed in a plastic
bulb that concentrates the light in a particular direction.
 PHOTODIODE

A photodiode is a type of photo detector capable of converting

light into either current or voltage, depending upon the mode of
operation.
 About Photodiode
• Photodiodes are similar to regular semiconductor diodes except that they
may be either exposed (to detect vacuum UV or X-rays) or packaged with a
window or optical fiber connection to allow light to reach the sensitive part
of the device.

• Many diodes designed for use specifically as a photodiode will also use a
PIN junction rather than the typical junction.

• Photo diodes are semi conductor devices responsive to high energy

particles and photons.

• Photodiodes operate by absorption of charged particles and generate a flow

of current in an external circuit, proportional to the incident power.

• Photodiodes can be used to detect the presence or absence of minute

quantities of light and can be calibrated for extremely accurate
measurements from intensities below 1pW/cm2.
 Applications of Photodiodes
• Photodiodes are utilized in such diverse application
such as spectroscopy, photography, analytical
instrumentation, optical position sensors, beam
alignment, surface characterization, laser range
finders, optical communications and medical imaging
instruments.
Laser Diode
 Laser Diode
GND: Negative return for LDs and PD cathodes (-ve).
VLD: Violet (~405 nm) diode anode (+ve).
RLD: Red (~650 nm) diode anode (+ve).
IRLD: IR (~780 nm) laser diode anode (+ve).
PD: Photodiode anode.

This is a close-up of the connections on my

unit. (Note the remaining section of polymer-
PCB).
Black: LD and PD cathodes (GND, -ve).
Blue: VLD anode (+ve).
Red: RLD anode (+ve).
Laser Diode

Laser diode emitting red, with small

collimating lens.
Laser Diode
This is the Laser diode mounted on a
heatsink with the red emitter
powered.
And now, this is what you have all
been waiting for.....

Output
 Laser Diode
'laser diode', this generally refers to the combination of the semiconductor chip
that does the actual lasing along with a monitor photodiode chip (for used for
feedback control of power output) housed in a package (usually with 3 leads) that
looks like a metal can transistor with a window in the top. These are then
mounted and may be combined with driver circuitry and optics in a 'diode laser
module' or the common (red) laser pointer.

Diode lasers use nearly microscopic chips of Gallium-Arsenide or other exotic

semiconductors to generate coherent light in a very small package.

The energy level differences between the conduction and valence band electrons
in these semiconductors are what provide the mechanism for laser action.

Fortunately, laser diodes are now quite inexpensive (with prices dropping as you
read this) and widely available.

The active element is a solid state device not all that different from an LED.
Differences Between LEDs and Laser Diodes

One can think of an LED as a laser without a feedback cavity. The LED
emits photons from recombining electrons. It has a very broad spectrum.

When we add a high Q cavity to it, the feedback can be high enough to
trigger true laser action. Most laser diodes have the cavity built right into
the device but there are such things as external cavity diode lasers.

The addition of the high Q cavity cuts down drastically the number of
modes operating (in fact, it is almost improper to speak of mode
structure with an LED. The result is that the emission line narrows
drastically (more monochromatic) and the beam narrows somewhat
spatially. One can still not easily get true single mode lasing with normal
diode lasers, however, so the line will not be as sharp as a gas laser, nor
the beam as narrow.
 Applications of Laser Diodes

Typically found in CD players, CDROM drives,

laser printers, and bar code scanners.

These were scanned at 150 dpi.

 1. Average Current
2. Average Voltage
3. RMS (Root Means Square
Voltage)
 Amplitude
• The strength or power of
a wave signal. The
"height" of a wave when
viewed as a graph.
• Higher amplitudes are
interpreted as a higher
volume, hence the name
"amplifier" for a device
which increases
amplitude.
 Amplitude
• The distance between
any point on a wave and
the equivalent point on
the next phase. Literally,
the length of the wave.
 Frequency
• The frequency of a wave is the number of
waves produced by a source each second. It is
also the number of waves that pass a certain
point each second. The unit of frequency is
the hertz (Hz).
 Difference between RMS value and Peak value
• The value of an AC voltage is continually changing from zero
up to the positive peak, through zero to the negative peak and
back to zero again. Clearly for most of the time it is less than
the peak voltage, so this is not a good measure of its real effect.
Instead we use the root mean square voltage (VRMS) which
is 0.7 of the peak voltage (Vpeak):

VRMS = 0.707× Vpeak and

Vpeak = 1.4 14× VRMS
These equations also apply to current.

The RMS value is the effective value of a varying voltage or current. It is the
equivalent steady DC (constant) value which gives the same effect.
 Average Value
Average value one sine wave for half cycles positive is peak-to
peak value segmented with π:

Average Value = = 0.637 values peak

 Example -1
Calculate and get Vp, Vp-p, Vrms, Vaverage and frequency.
Answer
 Example - 2
Equation to a current AC is I = 70.71 sin 520t

Determine :
i) Current peak value.
ii) RMS current value.
iii) Current average value.
iv) Wave frequency.
v) Current after 0.0015 seconds through 0 in positive hike.
Answer
 Sajer tgk2
• http://www.ibiblio.org/kuphaldt/electricCircui
ts/Exper/EXP_5.html
RECTIFIERS
REGULATED POWER SUPPLY
 Introduction to ac to dc circuit:
• The electronic circuit used to convert alternating
current AC to direct current DC is called rectifier.
• This conversion process is called rectification.
• Alternating current AC will change the direction
periodically where as direct current Dc is the
unidirectional flow of electrons.
• Direct current is also called as galvanic current.
• Rectifiers are used in many applications such as
electronic circuits, power supplies, radio receiver etc.
• The inverter performs the reverse function of rectifier
that is converting the direct current DC to alternating
current AC.
 RECTIFIER
1. Half-wave rectifier

2. Full –wave rectifier

3. Bridge rectifier
 HALF WAVE RECTIFIER
Vin Vout

In half wave rectification, either the positive or negative half of

the AC wave is passed, while the other half is blocked.

Because only one half of the input waveform reaches the output,
it is very inefficient if used for power transfer.

Half-wave rectification can be achieved with a single diode in a

one phase supply, or with three diodes in a three-phase supply.
 OPERATION
During positive cycle entry signal, diode D in forward biased.
D act as closed switch so current can go through it.
Voltage fall in RL is equal positive cycle magnitude entry signal if we neglect
voltage fall in diode.

During negative cycle entry signal, D diode in reverse biased.

D act as open switch so current cant go through it.
Voltage fall in RL is zero.

Output voltage in positive cycle is Vout = Vin – 0.7V(Si)

Signal output frequency is equal with input frequency

 FULL WAVE RECTIFIER

• A full-wave rectifier converts the whole of the input waveform to one of constant
polarity (positive or negative) at its output.

• Full-wave rectification converts both polarities of the input waveform to DC (direct

current), and is more efficient.

• However, in a circuit with a non-center tapped transformer, four diodes are required
instead of the one needed for half-wave rectification. This has some disadvantages that
we will see later on. Four rectifiers arranged this way are called a diode bridge or bridge
rectifier:
 OPERATION
• When voltage AC will given in circuit, M and N at transformer secondary will be positive
and negative in rotation. When input voltage positive cycle were given, terminal M will be
positive and N will be negative. Diode D1 be forward biased therefore diode D2 be reverse
biased. Current will through from M, E, A, B, C, F N. 1 positive cycle were be appeare at
load RL.

• Output voltage in positive cycle is Vout = VM-N – 1.4V(Si)

• Signal output frequency is 2x with signal input frequency

:
 RECTIFIER
• There are several ways of connecting diodes to make a rectifier to
convert AC to DC. The bridge rectifier is the most important and it
produces full-wave varying DC.

• A full-wave rectifier can also be made from just two diodes if a

centre-tap transformer is used, but this method is rarely used now
that diodes are cheaper. A single diode can be used as a rectifier
but it only uses the positive (+) parts of the AC wave to produce
half-wave varying DC.
 Bridge rectifier
• A bridge rectifier can be made using four individual diodes, but it is also
available in special packages containing the four diodes required. It is called a
full-wave rectifier because it uses all the AC wave (both positive and negative
sections). 1.4V is used up in the bridge rectifier because each diode uses 0.7V
when conducting and there are always two diodes conducting, as shown in the
diagram below. Bridge rectifiers are rated by the maximum current they can
pass and the maximum reverse voltage.

Alternate pairs of diodes conduct, changing over

the connections so the alternating directions of
AC are converted to the one direction of DC.
 Single diode rectifier
• A single diode can be used as a rectifier but this produces half-wave varying
DC which has gaps when the AC is negative. It is hard to smooth this
sufficiently well to supply electronic circuits unless they require a very small
current so the smoothing capacitor does not significantly discharge during the
gaps.

Output: half-wave varying DC

(using only half the AC wave)
 Sajer tgk2
• http://members.fortunecity.com/dejavu14/Ba
b3.html

• http://www.answers.com/topic/root-mean-
square
• http://www.mainframegroup.yolasite.com/res
ources/Chapter_4.pdf