ALVAIRA Combustion Efficiency Combustion efficiency is a measure of how much of the heat available in the fuel is released and

utilized.If your calculation shows that your equipment is losing 20% of the heating energy of the fuel through stack losses, your equipment is running at 80% efficiency.Combustion efficiency, determined from combustion analysis, is a cost-effective way to improve equipment operation and reduce fuel expense.

The flue heat losses can be calculated as, flue heat losses = Lg + Lh + Lm + Lco where Lg = heat loss due to dry gas Lh = heat loss due to moisture from burning hydrogen Lm = heat loss due to moisture in fuel Lco = heat loss from the formation of CO

Engine Design and Control Selection Type A. Cycle Engine cycles may be operated as a two- or four-stroke-cycle engine. Two-stroke-cycle enginehas a compression stroke followed by an explosion of the compressed fuel. On the return stroke, new fuel mixture is inserted into the cylinder. Meanwhile, four-stroke-cycle engine has one compression stroke and one exhaust stoke. Each is followed by a return stroke. B. Arrangement of Cylinders Arrangement of cylinders includes the horizontal, vertical and special configurations. Low-speed engines and engines in which floor space does not matter are built with horizontal cylinders. Vertical in-line cylinders are preferred for higher speeds. When the engine must be more compact, V-type and radial engines make still shorter and lighter constructions. C. Number of Cylinders Horizontal engines are built with one, two, or four cylinders, either all parallel, or, in larger sizes, in tandem and double-tandem arrangements to obtain a better utilization of the

running gear. Vertical engines are built form one to sixteen cylinders. In radial engines, the number of cylinders used are3-5-7-9, and 14 and 18 staggered in two banks. D. Single and Double Action In regard to general design, engines may be classified as single- and double-acting. Single actionworks on one side of the piston only. Double action acts alternately on both sides of the piston. Pressures A. Compression Pressure and Ratio Values for approximate compression pressures pc and average compression ratios r are available for a wide variety of engine cycles. A higher compression ratio gives a better thermal efficiency and increases the mean effective pressure, or power output of the engine, but at the same time results in higher stresses in the working parts. In compression-ignition engines, the pressure of compression must be high enough to ensure ignition at any conditions. In sparkignition engines, a higher compression ratio also requires special precautions in designing the compression chamber to avoid preignition and detonation. B. Mean Indicated Pressure The mean indicated pressure pi can be assumed directly if there is a previous experience. In a stricter sense, it can be computed using the formula

where Ql = heat value of material id = ideal-cycle efficiency r = relative efficiency ch = charge efficiency vf = volume of one pound of fuel a = percent theoretical air e = percent excess air C. Brake Mean Effective Pressure

Brake mean effective pressure, often called simply mean effective pressure and designated pe, can be computed as

where pi is the mean indicated pressure and m is the mechanical efficiency. It is very convenient to use the value pe when comparing different engines or designing a new engine. Engine Speed A. Rotative and Piston Speed The selection of the rotative speed, in revolutions per minute, is often governed by the purpose for which the engine is designed or by the speed of the machinery with which the engine must be connected. The speed varies between 100 and 5000 rpm, and no set rules can be given for its selection. Piston speed in present engines varies from 650 to 3600 fpm, with a tendency toward a further increase in some types. Its purpose is the same as the rotative speed with is to decrease the weight of the engine. The applications of internal-combustion engines are so varied that no general formula is possible. B. Speed Factor Engines can be classified into several classes as to speediness; low-, medium- and highspeed types. The use of either the rotative speed or the piston speed as a speed characteristic is unsatisfactory, because they both are inadequate for the purpose. The rotative speed does not take into consideration the size of the engine while piston speed is influenced excessively by the piston stroke. A good speed characteristic commonly called now speed factor, cs can be obtained as

where n = rotative speed l = length of the stroke For the sake of classification, engines with a speed factor below 3 can be called lowspeed, with a speed factor between 3 and 9 are medium-speed, form 9 to 27 are high-speed, and above 27 are super-high-speed-engines. C. Stroke-bore Ratio

The ratio of stroke to bore l/d varies between 0.9 and 1.9 with only a high-speed opposed-piston two-stroke engine having l/d=2.5.

D. Principle of Similitude In designing a new engine, the use of principle of similitude is suggested. This implies that the dimensions and behavior of existing engines must be more or less approaching those for which the new engine is being designed. The similarity must be geometrical, kinetical, and dynamical which means that the engines must have the same stroke-bore ratio, speed factor and mean effective pressure.

E. Determination of Main Dimensions After the selection of the main characteristics stroke-bore ratio q, speed factor csand mean effective pressurepe, the next thing is to decide about the number of cylinders. The required horsepower N can then be computed along with the diameter d. For two-stroke single-acting cylinder,

The diameter of the cylinder would be

For a four-stroke engine,

If the rotative speed n is given or assumed instead of the speed factor c s, then

and,

where

where p is the number of pair of poles. Meanwhile, f is

F is the force per inch of deflection, W is the weight and k is a constant. After the bore, stroke and speed are found, a theoretical indicator diagram must be drawn and the dimensions of the different parts determined, taking into consideration the various acting forces such as gas pressures, pressures acting upon the piston, forces of inertia, and other resistances and heat stresses. Sample Problem Determine the main dimensions of two-stroke single-acting airless-injection 500-bhp oil engine with n equal to 360 using fuel oil which has an elementary analysis of 85 percent carbon and 12 percent hydrogen. The engine must be direct connected to an electrical generator with a speed of 360 rpm. Select 4 as the number of cylinders, stroke-bore ratio of 1.25, compression ratio of 13.5, and an excess air at 0.6. Efficiencies would be nid = 0.435, nr = 0.86 and nsc = 0.77. From fuel data, the amount of theoretical air and fuel can be taken as 190.6 ft3/lb. Assume a mechanical efficiency of 0.75. Solution: (1)

(2)

(3)

(4) mean effective pressure

(5) The horsepower per cylinder is 500/4 = 125. Adding 10 percent of overload gives 137.5 hp. (6)

(7)

(8) speed factor

This is a medium-speed engine according to the definition.

MANGABANG Fuel Characteristics and Utilization Fuel is a substance which, when burnt, i.e. on coming in contact and reacting with oxygen or air, produces heat. Thus, the substances classified as fuel must necessarily contain one or several of the combustible elements : carbon, hydrogen, sulphur, etc. In the process of combustion, the chemical energy of fuel is converted into heat energy. Fuels may broadly be classified in two ways: (a) according to the physical state in which they exist in nature solid, liquid and gaseous, (b) according to the mode of their procurement natural and manufactured.

Solid Fuels and their Characteristics Solid fuels are mainly classified into two categories, i.e. natural fuels, such as wood, coal, etc. and manufactured fuels, such as charcoal, coke, briquettes, etc.

Advantages (a) They are easy to transport. (b) They are convenient to store without any risk of spontaneous explosion. (c) Their cost of production is low. (d) They possess moderate ignition temperature. Disadvantages (a) Their ash content is high. (b) Their large proportion of heat is wasted. (c) They burn with clinker formation. (d) Their combustion operation cannot be controlled easily. (e) Their cost of handling is high. Woods and their Characteristics The most commonly used and easily obtainable solid fuel is wood. It is the oldest type of fuel which man had used for centuries after the discovery of the fire itself. In India, wood is used in almost every village, as well as in small towns and cities. In some parts of country such as Kashmir and Mysore, wood is used for industrial purposes as well. Constituents of Wood Wood is vegetable tissue of trees and bushes. It consists of mainly cellular tissue and lignin and lesser parts of fat and tar, as well as sugar.

Calorific Value

Moisture A freshly felled tree anything from 40% to 60% of hygroscopic moisture depending upon the species of the tree as well as the seasons of the year. On exposure to atmospheric air, the moisture dries up and reduces to 15-20% in about 18 months. On the exposure for a longer period, no appreciable change had been observed. When wood is seasoned in water, it absorbs nearly 150% of water by weight. Characteristics of Flame The nature of the flame depends on the tar content of wood. Pine and birch contain more tar and hence burn with a thick and bright flame, while aspen and alder burn with a dim, transparent flame. The length of the flame also depends on the tar content. Combustion Characteristics The lighter the wood, the more intensely it burns with a long flame. This is because air penetrates easily throughout the whole piece during combustion. If the wood is heavy, i.e. hard, the penetration of air is rendered difficult and a concentrated flame results with the development of more heat at the point of burning. Ignition Temperature Wood ignites very easily. That is why it is used for lighting other fuels. The average ignition temperature of different kinds of wood is given in Table 3.7.

Manufactured Solid Fuels and their Characteristics The manufactured solid fuels include, charcoal, coke, briquettes, etc. They are obtained from the natural fuels, like wood, coal, etc. Charcoal and its Characteristics The charcoal occupies the first place in India. In some parts of the country, for example, Mysore, huge quantities of charcoal are being used till today in blast furnaces for reducing iron ores, etc. and in many homes charcoal is used for cooking purposes. Charcoal is a produce derived from destructive distillation of wood, being left in the shape of solid residue. Charcoal burns rapidly with a clear flame, producing no smoke and developing heat of about 6,050 cal/kg. Coke and its Characteristics It is obtained from destructive distillation of coal, being left in the shape of solid residue. Coke can be classified into two categories : soft coke and hard coke. Soft coke is obtained as the solid residue from the destructive distillation of coal in the temperature range of 600-650oC. It contains 5 to 10% volatile matter. It burns without smoke. It is extensively used as domestic fuel. Hard coke is obtained as solid residue from the destructive distillation of coal in the temperature range of 1200-1400oC. It burns with smoke and is a useful fuel for metallurgical process.

Liquid Fuels and their Characteristics The liquid fuels can be classified as follows : (a) Natural or crude oil, and (b) Artificial or manufactured oils. Advantages (a) They possess higher calorific value per unit mass than solid fuels. (b) They burn without dust, ash, clinkers, etc. (c) Their firing is easier and also fire can be extinguished easily by stopping liquid fuel supply. (d) They are easy to transport through pipes. (e) They can be stored indefinitely without any loss. (f) They are clean in use and economic to handle. (g) Loss of heat in chimney is very low due to greater cleanliness. (h) They require less excess air for complete combustion. (i) They require less furnace space for combustion. Disadvantages (a) The cost of liquid fuel is relatively much higher as compared to solid fuel.

(b) Costly special storage tanks are required for storing liquid fuels. (c) There is a greater risk of five hazards, particularly, in case of highly inflammable and volatile liquid fuels. (d) They give bad odour. (e) For efficient burning of liquid fuels, specially constructed burners and spraying apparatus are required. Petroleum and its Characteristics Petroleum is a basic natural fuel. It is a dark greenish brown, viscous mineral oil, found deep in earths crust. It is mainly composed of various hydrocarbons (like straight chain paraffins, cycloparaffins or napthenes, olefins, and aromatics) together with small amount of organic compounds containing oxygen nitrogen and sulphur. The average composition of crude petroleum is : C = 79.5 to 87.1%; H = 11.5 to 14.8%; S = 0.1 to 3.5%, N and O = 0.1 to 0.5%. Classification of Petroleum The chemical nature of crude petroleum varies with the part of the world in which it is found. They appear, however, to be three principal verities. o Paraffinic Base Type Crude Petroleum This type of petroleum is mainly composed of the saturated hydrocarbons from CH4 to C35 H72 and a little of the napthenes and aromatics. The hydrocarbons from H38 to C18 H38 to C35 H72 are sometimes called waxes. o Asphalitc Base Type Crude Petroleum It contains mainly cycloparaffins or napthenes with smaller amount of parffins and aromatic hydrocarbons. o Mixed Base Type Crude Petroleum It contains both paraffinic and asphaltic hydrocarbons and are generally rich in semi-solid waxes. Manufactured Liquid Fuels and their Characteristics Manufactured liquid fuels include Gasoline, Diesel oil, Kerosene, Heavy oil, Naptha, Lubricating oils, etc. These are obtained mostly by fractional distillation of crude petroleum or liquefaction of coal. Diesel Fuel and its Characteristics The diesel fuel or gas oil is obtained between 250-320oC during the fractional distillation of crude petroleum. This oil generally contains 85% C. 12% H. Its calorific value is about 11,000 kcal/kg. The suitability of a diesel fuel is determined by its cetane value. Diesel fuels consist of longer hydrocarbons and have low values of ash, sediment, water and sulphalt contents. The main characteristics of a diesel fuel is that it should easily ignite below compression temperature. The hydrocarbon molecules in a diesel fuel should be, as far as possible, the straight-chain ones, with a minimum admixture of aromatic and side-chain hydrocarbon molecules. It is used in diesel engines as heating oil and for cracking to get gasoline. Heavy Oil and its Characteristics It is a fraction obtained between 320-400oC during fractional distillation of crude petroleum. This oil on refractionationgives :

(a) Lubricating oils which are used as lubricants. (b) Petroleum-jelly (Vaseline) which is used as lubricants in medicines and in cosmetics. (c) Greases which are used as lubricants. (d) Paraffin wax which is used in candles, boot polishes, wax paper, tarpolin cloth and for electrical insulation purposes. Gaseous Fuels and their Characteristics Gaseous fuels occur in nature, besides being manufactured from solid and liquid fuels. Advantages Gaseous fuels due to erase and flexibility of their applications, possess the following advantages over solid or liquid fuels : (a) They can be conveyed easily through pipelines to the actual place of need, thereby eliminating manual labour in transportation. (b) They can be lighted at ease. (c) They have high heat contents and hence help us in having higher temperatures. (d) They can be pre-heated by the heat of hot waste gases, thereby affecting economy in heat. (e) Their combustion can readily by controlled for change in demand like oxidizing or reducing atmosphere, length flame, temperature, etc. (f) They are clean in use. (g) They do not require any special burner. (h) They burn without any shoot, or smoke and ashes. (i) They are free from impurities found in solid and liquid fuels. Disadvantages (a) Very large storage tanks are needed. (b) They are highly inflammable, so chances of fire hazards in their use is high. Natural Gas and its Characteristics Natural gas is generally associated with petroleum deposits and is obtained from wells dug in the oilbearing regions. The approximate composition of natural gas is CH4 = 70.9%, C2H6 = 5.10%, H2 = 3%, CO + CO2 = 22% The calorific value varies from 12,000 to 14,000 kcal/m3. It is an excellent domestic fuel and is conveyed in pipelines over very large distances. In America, it is available to a great extent, and so, is quite popular as a domestic fuel. It is now used in manufacture of chemicals by synthetic process. It is a colourless gas and is non-poisonous. Its specific gravity is usually between 0.57 to 0.7 Manufactured Gases and their Characteristics Coal Gas its Characteristics Coal gas is obtained when it is carbonized or heated in absence of air at about 1300 C in either coke ovens or gas-making retorts. In gas making retort process coal is fed in closed silica retorts, which are then heated to about 1300oC by burning producer gas and air mixture.

C + 1/2 O2 CO +29.5 kcal Coal gas is a colourless gas having a characteristic odour. It is lighter than air and burns with a long smoky flame. Its average composition is : H2 = 47%, CH4 = 32%, CO = 7%, C2H2 = 2%, C2H4 = 3%, N2 = 4%, CO2 = 1% and rest = 4%. Its calorific value is about 4,900 kcal/m3. It is used as (a) illuminant in cities and town, (b) a fuel, and (c) in metallurgical operations for providing reducing atmosphere.

Blast Furnace Gas and its Characteristics It is a by product flue gas obtained during the reduction of ion ore by coke in the blast furnace. Its calorific value is about 1,000 kcal/m3. It contains about 20-25% carbon monoxide along with CO2, N2, etc. About 1/3 of this gas is used for preheating air used in blast furnace itself; while the remaining 2/3rd is available for use in boilers or after cleaning in gas engines. It is also used for burning in a special type of stoves (called Cowpers stove) where the furnace is preheated. This gas contains much dust and is usually cleaned before use by dust settlers, cyclones or electrolytic precipitators.

LUAREZ Particulate Removal and Gravity Settlers Particle pollution (also called particulate matter or PM) It is the term for a mixture of solid particles and liquid droplets found in the air. Some particles, such as dust, dirt, soot, or smoke, are large or dark enough to be seen with the naked eye. Others are so small they can only be detected using an electron microscope. These particles come in many sizes and shapes and can be made up of hundreds of different chemicals. Some particulates occur naturally, originating from volcanoes, dust storms, forest and grassland fires, living vegetation, and sea spray. Human activities, such as the burning of fossil fuels in vehicles, power plants and various industrial processes also generate significant amounts of particulates. Coal combustion in developing countries is the primary method for heating homes and supplying energy. Two types of solids dispersoids: Dust which is composed of particles larger than 1m. Dusts usually result from mechanical disintegration of matter. They may be redispersed from the settled, or bulk, condition by an air blast. Fume consists of particles generally smaller than 1m. Fumes are submicrometer dispersoids formed by processes such as combustion, sublimation, and condensation. Particulate Removal (Dust Removal)- concerned with the removal or collection of solid dispersoids in gases. Purpose of Particulate Removal (Dust removal) 1. Air pollution control, as in fly-ash removal from power-plant flue gases. 2. Equipment-maintenance reduction, such as filtration of engine intake air or pyrites furnace-gas treatment prior to its entry to a contact sulfuric acid plant. 3. Safety- or health-hazard elimination, as in collection siliceous and metallic dusts around grinding and drilling equipment and in some metallurgical operations and flour dusts from milling and bugging operation. 4. Product-quality improvement, as in air cleaning in the production of pharmaceutical products and photographic film. 5. Recovery of a valuable product, as in collection of dusts fro driers and smelters. Particle Removal Devices Fabric Filters (Baghouse) Electrostatic Precipitator ( ESP) Wet Scrubbers (Venturic Scrubber) Gravity Settlers Cyclones

Cyclones Is a commercially proven technology and can be refractory-lined for high temperature operations. Cyclone separator is a simple mechanical device used to remove relatively large particles from gas streams. In industrial applications, cyclones are often used as precleaners for the more sophisticated pollution control equipment such as baghouse filters and electrostatic precipitators and it is more efficient in removing particulate matters than settling chambers. Are relatively inexpensive to construct and operate. Cyclones uses centrifugal force and force the incoming gas to twist and turn in a spiral fashion. Large particles entering cannot turn with the gas due to their momentum or inertia. As a result, they break out of the gas stream and hit the wall. The particle falls down from the wall and collected in a hopper.

Cyclone Separator Schematic Diagram

Cyclone Separator

High temperature candle filters Have been developed and can remove particulates from raw syngas at temperatures between 550F and 900F (~ 300C to 500C). Below 550F, the filters may be blinded by deposits of ammonium chloride. Above 900F, alkali compounds may pass through the filters at unacceptable levels, as the vapor pressures of these compounds may still be high. Development of candle filters that can remove particulates at high temperatures is a significant technology development for gasification. Use of candle filters in dry solids removal systems is now considered commercially available technology. In some current gasification designs, candle filters are being used upstream of a wet scrubber for effective overall solids removal.

Operation Characteristics Note: The CFM (Cubic Feet per Minute) - is the measurement of how much air passes through the unit. Gravity Settlers (Settling Chambers) One of the first devices used to control particulate emissions. It is an expansion chamber in which the gas velocity is reduced, thus following the particle to settle out under the action of gravity. One primary feature of this device is that the external force causing separation of particles from the gas stream is provided free by nature. This chambers use in industry is generally limited to the removal of larger-sized particles, e.g., 40 60 m in diameter. Have also been used to study the flow of particles in a gas stream. Two (2) Basic Types of Dry Gravity Settlers Filters 1 - 6 cfm per ft2 of collection area 4 6 inches H2O pressure loss 1 1.3 Watts/cfm ESPs 2 8 cfm per ft2 of collection area 0.2 0.5 inches H2O pressure loss 0.4 1.0 Watts/cfm Venturi Scrubber 6000 30,000 cfm per ft2 of throat 10 50 inches H2O pressure loss 4 - 12 Watts/cfm

 Simple Expansion Chamber - The unit is constructed in the form of a long horizontal box with an inlet, and outlet, and dust collection hoppers. - These units primarily depend on gravity for collection of the particles. The particle laden gas stream enters the unit at the gas inlet. The gas stream then enters the expansion section of the duct. Expansion of the gas stream causes the gas velocity to be reduced. All particles in the gas stream are subject to the force of gravity. However, ate reduced gas velocities (in the range of 1.0 10.0 ft/s) the larger particles are acted on preferentially by gravity and fall into the dust hopper(s). - Theoretically, a settling chamber of infinite length could collect even the very small particles (<10m).

Since effectiveness of settling rate of the dust decreases with increasing turbulence the velocity of the gas stream in the settling chamber is normally kept as low as possible. For practical purposes, the velocity must not be so high that settled particles are reentrained or so low that the chamber volume becomes excessive In actual practice, the gravitational settling velocities used in the design must be based on experience or tests conducted under actual conditions because the terminal settling velocity may be influenced by factors such as agglomeration and electrostatic charge. Pressure drops experienced in settling chambers are quite low, less than 0.2 in H2O.

Multiple tray settling Chamber

Physical Description of gravity settler 1. Length (L) 2. Width (B) 3. Height (H) 4. Number of shelves (if applicable) 5. Ancillary equipment inlet and outlet ducts, cleaning mechanisms, hoppers, etc.

Collection Hoppers located at the bottom of the settler are usually designed with positive-seal valves and must be emptied as dust buildup occurs. Dust buildup will vary depending on the concentration levels of particulate matter and the gas streams, especially in the case of heavy concentrations of particles greater than 60m in diameter.

Design and Performance Equation For capture to occur the particle must reach collection surface a b c d during its residence time t r in the unit. For plug flow tr is equal to:

From Geankoplis, The Settling design equation is:

Where: = free settling velocity or terminal velocity

Dp= Diameter of the particle g= acceleration due to gravity p= density of the particle =density of the fluid (in this discussion; air is equal to 1174 g/m3) = viscosity of the fluid (in this discussion; air is equal to 0.01813 g/m-s)

For settling efficiency equation:

Where: n= settling chamber efficiency vt= terminal velocity Ls= Length of the gravity settling chamber in direction to gas flow. Hs= Height of the gravity settling chamber vs= velocity of fluid or gas The process design variables for settling chamber consist of length (L), width (B), and height (H). These parameters are usually chosen by the chamber manufacturer in order to remove all particles above a specified size. The chambers design must provide conditions for sufficient particle residence time to capture the desired particle size range. These can be accomplished by keeping the velocity of the exhaust gas through the chamber as low as possible.

Operation and Maintenance; and Improving Performance 1. Reasonable overload can be tolerated without causing damage. If operated excessive flow rates, erosion or vibration will occur. 2. Recommended maintenance of a gravity settler requires regular inspection to ensure mechanical soundness of the unit and a level performance consistent with the original criteria. 3. Vibratory disturbance, excessive pressure drop, decreased efficiency are all signs that thorough inspection and maintenance procedures are required. 4. Complete inspection requires shutdown of the unit for access to the internals. 5. Internals and exteriors, where accessible, should be visually inspected for fouling, corrosion, or damage. 6. The nature of any metal deterioration should be investigated to properly determine the anticipated life of the equipment or possible corrective action.

7. General corrosion, intergranular corrosion, stress cracking, galvanic corrosion, impingement, or erosion attacks are the possible cause of deterioration. ESCARE CYCLONES, BAGHOUSEFILTER & ELECTROSTATIC PRECIPITATOR CYCLONES Cyclone Separators The most widely used type of dustcollection equipment is the cyclone, in which dust-laden gas enters a cylindrical or conical chamber tangentially at one or more points and leaves through a central opening. The dust particles, by virtue of their inertia, will tend to move toward the outside separator wall, from which they are led into a receiver. A cyclone is essentially a settling chamber in which gravitational acceleration is replaced by centrifugal acceleration. At operating conditions commonly employed, the centrifugal separating force or acceleration may range from 5 times gravity in very large diameter, low-resistance cyclones, to 2500 times gravity in very small, high-resistance units. The immediate entrance to a cyclone is usually rectangular. Fields of ApplicationWithin the range of their performance capabilities, cyclone collectors offer one of the least expensive means of dust collection from the standpoint of both investment and operation. Their major limitation is that unless very small units are used, their efficiency is low for collection of particles smaller than 5 mm. Although cyclones may be used to collect particles larger than 200 mm, gravity settling chambers or simple inertial separators (such as gas-reversal chambers) are usually satisfactory and less subject to abrasion. In special cases in which the dust is highly flocculated or high dust concentrations (over 230 g/m3, or 100 gr/ft3) are encountered, cyclones will remove dusts having small particle sizes. In certain instances efficiencies as high as 98 percent have been attained on dusts having ultimate particle sizes of 0.1 to 2.0 mm because of the predominant effect of flocculation. Cyclones are used to remove both solids and liquids from gases and have been operated at temperatures as high as 1000C and pressures as high as 50,700 kPa (500 atm). Flow PatternIn a cyclone the gas path involves a double vortex with the gas spiraling downward at the outside and upward at the inside. When the gas enters the cyclone, its velocity undergoes a redistribution so that the tangential component of velocity increases with decreasing radius as expressed by Vct~ r-n. The spiral velocity in a cyclone may reach a value several times the average inletgas velocity. Cyclone EfficiencyCyclones work by using centrifugal force to increase the gravity field experienced by the solids. They then settle to the wall under the influence of their increased weight. Settling is improved as the path the solids traverse under centrifugal flow is increased. This path is equated with the number of spirals the solids make in the cyclone barrel. The figure below gives the number of spirals Ns as a function of themaximum velocity in the cyclone. The maximum velocity may be seen either at the inlet or outlet depending on design.

The equation for Dpth, the theoretical size particle removed by the cyclone, is

The equation contains effects of cyclone size, velocity,viscosity, and density of solids. In practice, a design curve as given in the figure below uses Dpth as the size at which 50 percent of solids of a given size are collected by the cyclone. The material entering the cyclone is divided into fractional sizes, and the collection efficiency for each size is determined. The total efficiency of collection is the sum of the collection efficiencies of the cuts. The above applies for very dilute systems, usually on the order of 1 grain/ft3, or 2.3 g/m3 where a grain equals 1/7000 of a pound. When an appreciable amount of solids are present, the efficiency increases dramatically. This may be due to the coarse particles colliding with fines as they settle, which takes the fines to the wall more quickly. Other explanations are that the solids have a lower drag coefficient or tend to flocculate in multiparticle environments. At very high loadings, it is believed the gas simply cannot hold that much solid material in suspension at high gravities, and the bulk of the solids simply condenses out of the gas stream.

Cyclone Design Factors Cyclones are generally designed to meet specified pressure-drop limitations. For ordinary installations,operating at approximately atmospheric pressure, fan limitations generally dictate a maximum allowable pressure drop corresponding to a cyclone inlet velocity in the range of 8 to 30 m/s (25 to 100 ft/s). Consequently, cyclones are usually designed for an inlet velocity of 15 m/s (50 ft/s), though this need not be strictly adhered to. In the removal of dusts, collection efficiency can be changed by only a relatively small amount by a variation in operating conditions. The primary design factor that can be utilized to control collection efficiency is the cyclone diameter, a smaller-diameter unit operating at a fixed pressure drop having the higher efficiency. Small diameter cyclones, however, will require a multiple of units in parallel for a specified capacity. In such cases the individual cyclones can discharge the dust into a common receiving hopper. The final design involves a compromise between collection efficiency and complexity of equipment. It iscustomary to design a single cyclone for a given capacity, resorting tomultiple parallel units only if the predicted collection efficiency is inadequate for a single unit. Reducing the gas outlet diameter will increase both collection efficiency and pressure drop. To exit the cyclone, gas must enter the cyclonic flow associated with the outlet tube. If the outlet diameter is reduced, the outlet vortex increases in length to compensate. Therefore, when the outlet area is less than the inlet area, the length of the cyclone must increase. Too short a cyclone is associated with erosion of the cone and reentrainment of solids into the exit flow. Table below gives this increase as a function of outlet-to-inlet area. The length is measured centrally along a cylinder 10 cm larger than the inner diameter of the outlet tube to prevent interference with the cone. If the cone interferes, the barrel must be lengthened. The minimum cone angle should be 60 or greater with steeper angles appropriate to materials that are cohesive.

The inlet is usually rectangular and sometimes circular. In either case, projection of the flow path should never interfere with the outlet tube. If a very heavy solids loading is anticipated, the barrel diameter should be increased slightly. Collection efficiency is normally increased by increasing the gas throughput. However, if the entering dust is flocculated, increased gas velocities may cause deflocculation in the cyclone, so that efficiency remains the same or actually decreases. Also, variations in design proportions that result in increased collection efficiency with dispersed dusts may be detrimental with flocculated dusts. Kalen and Zenz report that collection efficiency increases with increasing gas inlet velocity up to a minimum tangential velocity at which dust is either re-entrained or not deposited because of saltation. Koch and Licht estimate that for typical cyclones the saltation velocity is consistent with cyclone inlet velocities in the range of 15 to 27 m/s (50 to 90 ft/s). C. E. Lapple (private communication) reports that in cyclone tests with talc dust collection efficiency increased steadily as the inlet velocity was increased up to the maximum of 52 m/s (170 ft/s). With ilmenite dust, which was much more strongly flocculated, efficiency decreased over the same inlet-velocity range. In later experiments with well-dispersed talc dust, collection efficiency continued to increase at inlet velocities up to the maximum used, 82 m/s (270 ft/s). Another effect of increasing the cyclone inlet gas velocity is that friable materials may disintegrate as they hit the cyclone wall at high velocity. Thus, the increase in efficiency associated with increased velocity may be more than lost due to generation of fine attrited material that the cyclone cannot contain. BAGHOUSE FILTER/FABRIC FILTERS Fabric Filters Fabric filters, commonly termed bag filters or baghouses, are collectors in which dust is removed from the gas stream by passing the dust-laden gas through a fabric of some type (e.g., woven cloth, felt, or porous membrane). These devices are surface filters in that dust collects in a layer on the surface of the filter medium, and the dust layer itself becomes the effective filter medium. The pores in the medium (particularly in woven cloth) are usually many times the size of the dust particles, so that collection efficiency is low until sufficient particles have been collected to build up a precoat in the fabric pores. During this initial period, particle deposition takes place mainly by inertial and flow-line interception, diffusion, and gravity. Once the dust layer has been fully established, sieving is probably the dominant deposition mechanism, penetration is usually extremely low except during the fabriccleaning cycle, and only limited additional means remain for influencing collection efficiency by filter design. Filter design is related mainly to choices of gas filtration velocities and pressure drops and of fabric-cleaning cycles.

Because of their inherently high efficiency on dusts in all particlesize ranges, fabric filters have been used for collection of fine dusts and fumes for over 100 years. The greatest limitation on filter application has been imposed by the temperature limits of available fabric materials. The upper limit for natural fibers is about 90C (200F). The major new developments in filter technology that have been made since 1945 have followed the development of fabrics made from glass and synthetic fibers, which has extended the temperature limits to about 230 to 260C (450 to 500F). The capabilities of available fibers to resist high temperatures are still among the most severe limitations on the possible applications of fabric filters. Types of Filters Current fabric-filter designs fall into three types, depending on the method of cleaning used: (1) shaker-cleaned, (2) reverse-flow-cleaned, and (3) reverse-pulse-cleaned. The shaker-cleaned filter is the earliest form of bag filter (Fig. 17-58). The open lower ends of the bags are fastened over openings in the tube sheet that separates the lower dirty-gas inlet chamber from the upper clean gas chamber. The bag supports from which the bags are suspended are connected to a shaking mechanism. The dirty gas flows upward into the filter bags, and the dust collects on the inside surfaces of the bags. When the gas pressure drop rises to a chosen upper limit as the result of dust accumulation, the gas flow is stopped and the shaker is operated, giving a whipping motion to the bags. The dislodged dust falls into the dust hopper located below the tube sheet. If the filter is to be operated continuously, it must be constructed with multiple compartments, so that the individual compartments can be sequentially taken off line for cleaning while the other compartments continue in operation. Reverse-flow-cleaned filters are generally similar to the shaker-cleaned filters except for the elimination of the shaker. After the flow of dirty gas has stopped, a fan is used to force clean gas through the bags from the clean-gas side. This flow of gas partly collapses the bags and dislodges the collected dust, which falls to the dust hopper. Rings are usually sewn into the bags at intervals along the length to prevent complete collapse, which would obstruct the fall of the dislodged dust. The principal applications of reverse-flow cleaning are in units using fiberglass fabric bags for dust collection at temperatures above 150C (300F). Collapsing and reinflation of the bags can be made sufficiently gentle to avoid putting excessive stresses on the fiberglass fabrics. As with shaker-cleaned filters, compartments of the baghouse are taken off line sequentially for bag cleaning. The gas for reverse-flow cleaning is commonly supplied in an amount necessary to give a superficial velocity through the bags of 0.5 to 0.6 m/min (1.5 to 2.0 ft/min), which is the same range as the filtrationvelocities frequently used. In the reverse-pulse filter (frequently termed a reverse-jet filter), the filter bag forms a sleeve that is drawn over a wire cage, which is usually cylindrical. The cage supports the fabric on the clean-gas side, and the dust is collected on the outside of the bag. A venturi nozzle is located in the clean-gas outlet from the bag. For cleaning, a jet of high-velocity air is directed through the venturi nozzle and into the bag, inducing a flow of cleaned gas to enter the bag and flow through the fabric to the dirty-gas side. The high-velocity jet is released in a sudden, short pulse (typical duration 100 ms or less) from a compressed-air line by a solenoid valve. The pulse of air and clean gas expands the bag and dislodges the collected dust. Rows of bags are cleaned in a timed sequence by programmed operation of the solenoid valves. The pressure of the pulse is sufficient to dislodge the dust without cessation of the gas flow through the filter unit. Reverse-pulse filters are typically operated at higher filtration velocities (airto-cloth ratios) than shaker or reverse-flow filters designed for the same duty. Filtration velocities may range from 1 to 4.5 m/min (3 to 15 ft/min), depending on the dust being collected, but for most dusts the commonly used range is about 1.2 to 2.5 m/min (4 to 8 ft/min). The frequency of cleaning is also

dependent on the nature and concentration of the dust, with the intervals between pulses varying from about 2 to 15 min.

ELECTROSTATIC PRECIPITATOR Electrical Precipitators When particles suspended in a gas are exposed to gas ions in an electrostatic field, they will become charged and migrate under the action of the field. The functional mechanisms of electrical precipitation may be listed as follows: 1. Gas ionization 2. Particle collection a. Production of electrostatic field to cause charging and migration of dust particles b. Gas retention to permit particle migration to a collection surface c. Prevention of re-entrainment of collected particles d. Removal of collected particles from the equipment There are two general classes of electrical precipitators: (1) singlestage, in which ionization and collection are combined; (2) two-stage, in which ionization is achieved in one portion of the equipment, followed by collection in another. Field Strength Whereas the applied potential or voltage is the quantity commonly known, it is the field strength that determinesbehavior in an electrostatic field. The field strength is uniform between parallel plates, whereas it varies in the space between concentric cylinders, being highest at the surface of the central cylinder. After corona sets in, the current flow will become appreciable. The field strength near the center electrode will be less than and that in the major portion of the clearance space will be greater and more uniform. Potential and Ionization In order to obtain gas ionization it is necessary to exceed, at least locally, the electrical breakdown strength of the gas. Corona is the name applied to such a local discharge that fails to propagate itself. Sparking is essentially an advanced stage of corona in which complete breakdown of the gas occurs along a given path. Since corona represents a local breakdown, it can occur only in a nonuniform electrical field.

Current Flow Corona discharge is accompanied by a relatively small flow of electric current, typically 0.1 to 0.5 mA/m2 of collectingelectrodearea (projected, rather than actual area). Sparking usually involves a considerably larger flow of current which cannot be tolerated except for occasional periods of a fraction of a second duration, and then only when suitable electrical controls are provided to limit the current. Electric Wind By virtue of the momentum transfer from gas ions moving in the electrical field to the surrounding gas molecules, a gas circulation, known as the electric or ionic wind, is set up between the electrodes. For conditions encountered in electrical precipitators, the velocity of this circulation is on the order of 0.6 m/s (2 ft/s). Also, as a result of this momentum transfer, the pressure at the collecting electrode is slightly higher than at the discharge electrode. Charging of Particles Three forces act on a gas ion in the vicinity of a particle: attractive forces due to the field strength and the ionic image; and repulsive forces due to the Coulomb effect.

Collection Efficiency Although actual particle mobilities may be considerably greater than would be calculated on the basis given inthe preceding paragraph because of the action of the electric wind in single-stage precipitators, the latter acts in a compensating fashion, and the overall effect of the electric wind is probably to provide an equalization of particle concentration between the electrodes similar to the action of normal turbulence. Application The theoretical considerations that have been expounded should be used only for order-ofmagnitude estimates, since a number of extraneous factors may enter into actual performance. In actual installations rectified alternating current is employed. Hence the electric field is not fixed but varies continuously, depending on the waveform of the rectifier. Resistivity Problems Optimum performance of electrostatic precipitators is achieved when the electrical resistivity of the collected dust is sufficiently high to result in electrostatic pinning of the particles to the collecting surface, but not so high that dielectric breakdown of the dust layer occurs as the corona current passes through it. The optimum resistivity range is generally considered to be from 108 to 1010 Wcm, measured at operating conditions. As the dust builds up on the collecting electrode, it impedes the flow of current. DURANO Absorption is a mass transfer process in which a vapor solute A in a gas mixture is absorbed by means of a liquid in which the solute is more or less soluble. The gas mixture consists mainly of an inert gas and the solute. The liquid is primarily immiscible in the gas phase. Plate Tower. In order to efficiently contact the vapor and liquid in absorption, tray (plate) towers are often used. 1. Sieve tray. In the sieve tray, vapor bubbles up through simple holes in the tray through the flowing liquid. Hole sizes range from 3 to 12 mm in diameter, with 5mm a common size. The vapor area of the holes varies between 5 to 15% of the tray area. 2. Valve tray. A modification of the sieve tray is the valve tray, which consists of openings in the tray and a lift-valve cover for each opening, providing a variable open area which is varied by the vapor flow inhibiting leakage of liquid down the opening at low vapor rates. Hence, this type of tray can operate at a great range of flow rates than the sieve tray. 3. Bubble-cap tray. In the bubble tray, the vapor or gas rises through the opening in the tray into the bubble caps. Then the gas flows through slots in the periphery of each cap and bubbles upward through the flowing liquid. Packed Towers. Packed towers are used for continuous countercurrent contacting of gas and liquid in absorption. The tower consists of a cylindrical column containing a gas inlet and distributing space at the bottom, a liquid inlet and distributing device at the top, a liquid outlet at the bottom, and a packing or filling in the tower. A large area of intimate contact between the liquid gas is provided by the packing. Most of the tower packings are made of inert and cheap materials such as clay, porcelain, graphite or plastic. High void spaces of 60 to 90% are characteristics of good packings. Typical tower packings that are used are the Raschig ring, Lessing ring, Berl saddle and Pall ring. Flooding velocity the limit to the rate of gas flow.

Loading point a gas flow rate in which the gas starts to hinder the liquid downfall. Flooding point the liquid can no longer flow down the packing and is blown out with the gas.

In actual operating tower the gas velocity is well below flooding. The optimum economic gas velocity is about one half or so of the flooding velocity. Design of Plate Absorption Tower

where: = molar flow rate of inert solvent, kg mol/s = molar flow rate of inert air, kg mol/s = mole fraction A in the liquid = mole fraction of A in the gas = concentration of A in the exit gas stream = concentration of A in the exit liquid stream =initial concentration of A in the liquid stream = initial concentration of A in the gas stream Example: A tray tower is to be designed to absorb SO2 from an air stream by using pure water at 293 K (68F). The entering gas contains 20 mol% SO2 and that leaving 2% mol at a total pressure of 101.3 kPa. The inert air flow rate is 150 kg air/ hm2, and the entering water flow rate is 6000 kg water/hm 2. Assuming an overall tray efficiency of 25%, how many theoretical trays and actual trays are needed? Assume that the tower operates at 293 K (20C). Given: =0.2 =0.02 =0 2 air= 150 kg air/hm 2 water= 6000 kg water/hm =0.25 Soln:

From graph, the theoretical trays is determined to be 2.4 theoretical trays. The actual number of trays is 2.4/0.25 = 9.6 trays = 10 trays.

ENRIQUEZ Gas Removal Measurement Monitoring Monitoring Objectives Determine the highest concentration expected to occur in the area covered by the network. Measure typical concentrations in areas of high population density. Determine the impact of significant sources or source categories on air quality. Determine background concentration levels. Determine the extent of regional pollutant transport among populated areas. Measure air pollution impacts on visibility, vegetation damage, or welfare-based impacts. Sampling equipment requirements are generally divided into three categories, consistent with the desired averaging times: Continuous - Pollutant concentrations determined with automated methods, and recorded or displayed continuously. Integrated - Pollutant concentrations determined with manual or automated methods from integrated hourly or daily samples on a fixed schedule. Static - Pollutant estimates or effects determined from long-term (weekly or monthly) exposure to qualitative measurement devices or materials. Measurement Procedures Measurement procedures for inorganic gases o Manual procedures In the case of manual measurement procedures for inorganic gases, the substance to be measured is normally adsorbed during the sampling in a solution or solid material. In most cases a photometric determination is made after an appropriate colour reaction. Several manual measurement procedures have special significance as reference procedures. Because of the relatively high personnel cost, these manual procedures are

conducted only rarely for field measurements today, when alternative automatic procedures are available. Manual measurement procedures for inorganic gases Material Procedure Execution SO2 TCM procedure Absorption in tetrachloromercurate solution (wash bottle); reaction with formaldehyde and pararosaniline to red-violet sulphonic acid; photometric determination SO2 Silica gel procedure Removal of interfering substances by concentrated H3PO4; adsorption on silica gel; thermal desorption in H2stream and reduction to H2S; reaction to molybdenum-blue; photometric determination NO2 Saltzman Absorption in reaction solution while procedure forming a red azo dye (wash bottle); photometric determination O3 Potassium iodide Formation of iodine from aqueous procedure potassium iodide solution (wash bottle); photometric determination F Silver bead Sampling with dust preseparator; procedure; enrichment of F on sodium carbonatevariant 1 coated silver beads; elution and measurement with ion-sensitive lanthanum fluoride-electrode chain F Silver bead Sampling with heated membrane filter; procedure; enrichment of F on sodium carbonatevariant 2 coated silver beads; determination by electrochemical (variant 1) or photometric (alizarin-complexone) procedure Cl Mercury rhodanide Absorption in 0.1 N sodium hydroxide procedure solution (wash bottle); reaction with mercury rhodanide and Fe(III) ions to iron thiocyanato complex; photometric determination Cl2 Methyl-orange Bleaching reaction with methyl-orange procedure solution (wash bottle); photometric determination NH3 Indophenol Absorption in dilute procedure H2SO4 (Impinger/wash bottle); conversion with phenol and hypochlorite to indophenol dye; photometric determination NH3 Nessler procedure Absorption in dilute

Comments DL = 0.2 g SO2; s = 0.03 mg/m3 at 0.5 mg/m3

DL = 0.3 g SO2; s = 0.03 mg/m3 at 0.5 mg/m3

Calibration with sodium nitrite; DL = 3 g/m3 DL = 20 g/m3; rel. s = 3.5% at 390 g/m3 Inclusion of an undetermined portion of particulate fluoride emissions Danger of lower findings due to partial sorption of gaseous fluoride emissions on membrane filter; DL = 0.5 g/m3 DL = 9 g/m3

DL = 0.015 mg/m3

DL = 3 g/m3 (impinger); partial inclusion of compounds and amines DL = 2.5 g/m3 (impinger);

H2SO4 (Impinger/wash bottle); distillation and reaction with Nesslers reagent, photometric determination H2S Molybdenum-blue Absorption as silver sulphide on glass procedure beads treated with silver sulphate and potassium hydrogen sulphate (sorption tube); released as hydrogen sulphide and conversion to molybdenum blue; photometric determination H2S Methylene blue Absorption in cadmium hydroxide procedure suspension while forming CdS; conversion to methylene blue; photometric determination DL = detection limit; s = standard deviation; rel. s = relative s.

partial inclusion of compounds and amines DL = 0.4 g/m3

DL = 0.3 g/m3

Automated procedures There are numerous different continuous measuring monitors for sulphur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, carbon monoxide and ozone. For the most part they are used particularly in measurement networks. The most important features of the individual methods are:

Automated measurement procedures for inorganic gases Material Measuring principle Comments SO2 Conductometry reaction of SO2 with Exclusion of interferences with selective H2O2 in dilute H2SO4; measurement of filter (KHSO4/AgNO3) increased conductivity SO2 UV fluorescence; excitationof Interferences, e.g., by hydrocarbons, SO2 molecules with UV radiation (190 must be eliminated with appropriate 230 nm); measurement of fluorescence filter systems radiation NO/NO2 Chemiluminescence; reaction of NO with NO2 only indirectly measurable; use of O3 to NO2; detection of converters for reduction of NO2 to NO; chemiluminescence radiation with measurement of NO and NOx photomultiplier (=NO+NO2) in separate channels CO Non-dispersive infrared absorption; Reference: (a) cell with N2; (b) ambient measurement of IR absorption with air after removal of CO; (c) optical specific detector against reference cell removal of CO absorption (gas filter correlation) O3 UV absorption; low-pressure Hg lamp as Reference: ambient air after removal of radiation source (253.7 nm); registration ozone (e.g., Cu/MnO2) of UV absorption in accordance with Lambert-Beers law; detector: vacuum photodiode, photosensitive valve O3 Chemiluminescence; reaction of O3 with Good selectivity; ethylene necessary as ethene to formaldehyde; detection of reagent gas chemiluminescence radiation with

photomultiplier Measurement of suspended particulate matter and metallic compounds in SPM As is the case with measurements of gaseous air pollutants, continuous and discontinuous measurement procedures for SPM can be differentiated. As a rule, SPM is first separated on glass fibre or membrane filters. It follows a gravimetric or radiometric determination. Depending on the sampling, a distinction can be made between a procedure to measure the total SPM without fractionation according to the size of the particles and a fractionation procedure to measure the fine dust. Measurement procedures for suspended particulate matter (SPM) Procedure Measuring principle Comments Small filter device Non-fractionated sampling; air Easy handling; control clock; flow rate 2.72.8 m3/h; filter device operable with PM-10 diameter 50 mm; gravimetric preseparator analysis LIB device Non-fractionated sampling; air Separation of large dust flow rate 15-16 m3/h; filter quantities; advantageous for diameter 120 mm; gravimetric analysis of dust components; analysis control clock High-Volume-Sampler Inclusion of particles up to Separation of large dust approx. 30 m diameter; air flow quantities, advantageous for rate approx. 100 m3/h; filter analysis of dust components; diameter 257 mm; gravimetric relatively high noise level analysis FH 62 I Continuous, radiometric Gravimetric calibration by dusting dust measuring device; non- of single filters; device also fractionating sampling; air flow operable with PM-10 rate 1 or 3 m3/h; registration of preseparator dust mass separated on a filter band by measuring attenuation of -radiation (krypton 85) in passage through exposed filter (ionization chamber) BETA dust meter F 703 Continuous, radiometric Gravimetric calibration by dusting dust measuring device; non- of single filters; device also fractionated sampling; air flow operable with PM-10 rate 3 m3/h; registration of preseparator dust mass separated on a filter band by measuring attenuation of -radiation (carbon 14) in passage through exposed filter (Geiger Mller counter tube) TEOM 1400 Continuous dust measuring Relationship between frequency device; non-fractionated lowering and dust mass must be sampling; air flow rate 1 m3/h; established through calibration dust collected on a filter, which

is part of a self-resonating, vibrating system, in side stream (3 l/min); registration of the frequency lowering by increased dust load on the filter

Measurement Procedures for Organic Air Pollutants The measurement of air pollution containing organic components is complicated primarily by the range of materials in this class of compounds. Several hundred individual components with very different toxicological, chemical and physical characteristics are covered under the general title organic air pollutants in the emissions registers and air quality pla ns of congested areas. Especially due to the great differences in potential impact, collecting relevant individual components has more and more taken the place of previously used summation procedures (e.g., Flame Ionization Detector, total carbon procedure), the results of which cannot be assessed toxicologically. The FID method, however, has retained certain significance in connection with a short separation column to separate out methane, which is photochemically not very reactive, and for collecting the precursor volatile organic compounds (VOC) for the formation of photo-oxidants. The frequent necessity of separating the complex mixtures of the organic compounds into relevant individual components makes measuring it virtually an exercise in applied chromatography. Chromatographic procedures are the methods of choice when the organic compounds are sufficiently stable, thermally and chemically. For organic materials with reactive functional groups, separate procedures that use the functional groups physi cal characteristics or chemical reactions for detection continue to hold their ground. Among chromatographic procedures, gas chromatography (GC) and high-pressure liquid chromatography (HPLC) are most frequently employed for separating the often complex mixtures. For gas chromatography, separation columns with very narrow diameters (approx. 0.2 to 0.3 mm, and approx. 30 to 100 m long), so-called high-resolution capillary columns (HRGC), are almost exclusively utilized today. A series of detectors are available for finding the individual components after the separation column, such as the above-mentioned FID, the ECD (electron capture detector, specifically for electrophilic substitutes such as halogen), the PID (photoionization detector, which is especially sensitive to aromatic hydrocarbons and other p-electron systems), and the NPD (thermo-ionic detector specifically for nitrogen and phosphorus compounds). The HPLC uses special through-flow detectors which, for example, are designed as the through-flow cuvette of a UV spectrometer. Overview of common chromatographic air quality measurement procedures of organic compounds (with examples of applications) Material group Hydrocarbons C1C9 Concentration range g/m3 Sampling, preparation Final analytical step Gas mice (rapid sampling), gas-tight GC/FID

Low-boiling ng/m3g/m3 hydrocarbons, highly volatile halogenated hydrocarbons Organic compounds in g/m3 boiling point range C6-C30 (60350 C) Organic compounds in ng/m3g/m3 boiling point range 20300 C

syringe, cold trapping in front of capillary column (focusing), thermal desorption Evacuated, passivated high-grade GC/FID/ECD/PID steel cylinder (also for clean air measurements) Sampling dispatch through gas loops, cold trapping, thermal desorption Adsorption on activated carbon, (a) Capillary desorption with CS2 (b) desorption GC/FID with solvents (c) headspace analysis Adsorption on organic polymers (e.g., Tenax) or molecular carbon sieve (carbopack), thermal desorption with cold trapping in front of capillary column (focusing) or solvent extraction Adsorption on cooled polymers (e.g. thermogradient tube), cooled to 120 C, use of carbopack Capillary GC/FID/ECD/MS

Modification for low- ng/m3g/m3 boiling compounds (from 120 C) High boiling organic fg/m3ng/m3 compounds partially attached to particles (esp. PAH, PCB, PCDD/PCDF), high sampling volume High boiling organic fg/m3ng/m3 compounds, esp. PCDD, PCDF, PBDD, PBDF, low sampling volume

Capillary GC/FID/ECD/MS

Sampling on filters (e.g., small filter Capillary device or high volume sampler) with GC-GCMS subsequent polyurethane cartridges (PCDD/PCDF), for gaseous portion, solvent capillary GC-FID or desorption of filter and polyurethane, MS (PAH), HPLC various purification and preparatory fluorescence steps, for PAH also sublimation detector (PAH) Adsorption on organic polymers (e.g., HRGC/ECD polyurethane foam cylinder) with prior filters (e.g., glass fibre) or inorg. adsorp. (e.g., silica gel), extraction with solvents, various purification and preparatory steps, (including multicolumn chromatography), derivatizing for chlorophenols High boiling organic ng/m3 Separation of aerosols on glass fibre HRGC/MS compounds ngg/g filters (e.g., high or low volume HPLC (for PAHs) bound to particles, e.g., aerosol sampler) or dust collection on components pgng/m2 day standardized surfaces, extraction of organic aerosols, with solvents (for deposition also of deposition remaining filtered water), various samples purification and preparation steps GC = gas chromatography; GCMS = GC/mass spectroscopy; FID = flame ionization detector; HRGC/ECD = high resolution GC/ECD; ECD = electron capture detector; HPLC = high performance liquid chromatography. PID = photo-ionization detector.

ARES PHILIPPINE CLEAN AIR ACT OF 1999 (RA 8749) The Philippine Clean Air Act of 1999, otherwise known as Republic Act 8749, is a provision approved by 23 June, 1999 which is set to provide a comprehensive air pollution control policy and for other purposes. RESTRICTIONS Ban on Incineration - (burning of municipal, bio-medical and hazardous wastes, which process emits poisonous and toxic fumes) however it does not apply to traditional small-scale method of community/neighborhood sanitation "siga", traditional, agricultural, cultural, health, and food preparation and crematoria. Pollution from Smoking - (Smoking inside a public building or an enclosed public place including public vehicles and other means of transport or in any enclosed area outside of one's private residence, private place of work or any duly designated smoking area) Fuels and Additives No person shall manufacture, import, sell, supply, offer for sale, dispense, transport or introduce into a. commerce unleaded premium gasoline fuel which has an antiknock index (AKI) of not less than 87.5 and Reid vapor pressure of not more than 9 psi. Unleaded gasoline fuel shall contain aromatics not to exceed forty-five percent (45%) by volume and benzene not to exceed four percent (4%) by volume. b. commerce industrial diesel fuel which contains a concentration of sulfur in excess of 0.30% (by weight). c. commerce automotive diesel fuel which contains a concentration of sulfur in excess of 0.20% by weight with a cetane number or index of not less than forty-eight (48).

POLLUTANT LIMITATIONS Ambient Air Quality Guideline Values and Standards. a. For National Ambient Air Quality Guideline for Criteria Pollutants: Short Term a Pollutants Suspended Particulate Matter c -TSP -PM-10 Sulfur Dioxide c Nitrogen Dioxide Photochemical Oxidants As Ozone g/NCM 230d 150f 180 150 140 60 35 ppm Averaging Time 24 hours 24 hours 24 hours 24 hours 1 hour 8 hours 1 hour g/NCM 90 60 80 -----

Long Term b ppm --0.03 ----Averaging Time 1 year c 1 year e 1 year -----

0.07 0.08 0.07 0.03 30

Carbon Monoxide
a

mg/NCM 10 mg/NCM

8 hours

--

--

--

Maximum limits represented by ninety-eight percentile (98%) values not to be exceeded more than once a year. b Arithmetic mean. c SO2 and Suspended Particulate Matter are sampled once every six days when using the manual methods. A minimum of twelve sampling days per quarter or forty-eight sampling days each year is required for these methods. Daily sampling may be done in the future once continuous analyzers are procured and become available. d Limits for Total Suspended Particulate Matter with mass median diameter less than 25-50 m. e Annual Geometric Mean. f Provisional limits for Suspended Particulate Matter with mass median diameter less than 10 microns and below until sufficient monitoring data are gathered to base a proper guideline. b. For National Ambient Air Quality Standards for Source Specific Air Pollutants from Industrial Sources/Operations: Pollutants1 Concentration2 Averaging g/NCM ppm Time (min) Ammonia 200 0.28 30 Carbon Disulfide 30 0.01 30 Chlorine and Chlorine compounds expressed as Cl2 100 0.03 5 Formaldehyde 50 0.04 30 Hydrogen Chloride 200 0.13 30 Hydrogen Sulfide 100 0.07 30 Lead 20 30 Nitrogen Dioxide 375 0.20 30 260 0.14 60 Phenol 100 0.03 30 Sulfur Dioxide 470 0.18 60 340 0.13 60 Suspended Particulate 300 -Matter -TSP 200 -60 -PM10 1 Pertinent ambient standards for Antimony, Arsenic, Cadmium, Asbestos, Nitric Acid and Sulfuric Acid Mists in the 1978 NPCC Rules and Regulations may be considered as guides in determining compliance. 2 Ninety-eight percentile (98%) values of 30-minute sampling measured at 25C and one atmosphere pressure. Pollution from Stationary Sources. With respect to any trade, industry, process and fuel-burning equipment or industrial plant emitting air pollutants, the concentration at the point of emission shall not exceed the following limits: Pollutants Standard Applicable to Source Maximum Permissible Limits (mg/NCM) Antimony and its Any source 10 as Sb

compounds Arsenic and its compounds Cadmium and its compounds Carbon Monoxide Copper and its compounds Hydrofluoric Acid and Fluoride compounds

Any source Any source Any industrial source Any industrial source

10 as As 10 as Cd 500 as CO 100 as Cu

Any source other than the manufacture of Aluminum from Alumina

50 as HF

Hydrogen Sulfide

Lead Mercury Nickel and its compounds, except Nickel Carbonyl d NOx

Geothermal power plants Geothermal exploration and welltesting iii) Any source other than (i) and (ii) Any trade, industry or process Any source Any source

i) ii)

a, b c

7 as H2S 10 as Pb 5 as elemental Hg 20 as Ni

i) ii)

Manufacture of Nitric Acid Fuel burning steam generators

2000 as acid and NOx and calculated as NO2 1500 as NO2

Existing Source New Source Coal-fired Oil-fired iii) Any Other source than (i) and (ii)

1000 as NO2 500 as NO2

Existing Source New Source

Phosphorus Any Source e Pentoxide Zinc and its Any Source 100 as Zn compounds a All new geothermal power plants starting construction by 01 January 1995 shall control H 2S emissions to not more than 150 g/GMW-Hr. b All existing geothermal power plants shall control H2S emissions to not more than 200 g/GMW-Hr within 5 years from the date of effectivity of these revised regulations.

1000 as NO2 500 as NO2 200 as P2O5

Best practicable control technology for air emissions and liquid discharges. Compliance with air and water quality standards is required. d Emission limit of Nickel Carbonyl shall not exceed 0.5 mg/NCM. e Provisional Guideline Provided, that the maximum limits in mg/NCM particulates in said sources shall be: 1. Fuel Burning Equipment a. Urban or Industrial Area b. Other Area

150 mg/NCM 200 mg/NCM

2. Cement Plants (Kilns, etc.) 150 mg/NCM 3. Smelting Furnaces 150 mg/NCM a 4. Other Stationary Sources 200 mg/NCM a Other Stationary Sources means a trade, process, industrial plant, or fuel burning equipment other than thermal power plants, industrial boilers, cement plants, incinerators and smelting furnaces Provided, further, that the maximum limits for sulfur oxides in said sources shall be: 1. Existing Sources i. Manufacture of Sulfuric 2.0 gm/NCM as SO3 Acid and Sulf(on)ation Process 1.5 gm/NCM as SO2 ii. Fuel Burning Equipment 1.0 gm/NCM as SO3 iii. Other Stationary Sources 2. New Sources i. Manufacture of Sulfuric 1.5 gm/NCM as SO3 Acid and Sulf(on)ation Process 0.7 gm/NCM as SO2 ii. Fuel Burning Equipment 0.2 gm/NCM as SO3 iii. Other Stationary Sources a a Other Stationary Sources refer to existing and new stationary sources other than those caused by the manufacture of sulfuric acid and sulfonation process, fuel burning equipment and incineration. For stationary sources of pollution not specifically included in the immediately preceding paragraph, the following emission standards shall not be exceeded in the exhaust gas: I. Daily And Half Hourly Average Values Daily Average Values Half Hourly Average Values (mg/m3) (mg/m3) Total Dust 10 30 Gaseous and vaporous 10 20 organic substances, expressed as total organic carbon Hydrogen chloride (HCl) 10 60 Hydrogen Fluoride (HF) 1 4

Sulfur dioxide (SO2) Nitrogen monoxide (NO) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2), expressed as nitrogen dioxide for incineration plants with a capacity of 3 tonnes per hour or less Nitorgen monoxide (NO) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2), expressed as nitrogen for incineration plants with a capacity of 3 tonnes per hour or less Ammonia

50 200

200 400

300

10

20

II.

All Average Values over the Sample Period of a Minimum of 4 and Maximum of 8 Hours Cadmium and its compounds, expressed as cadmium (Cd) Thallium and its compounds, expressed as thallium (Tl) Mercury and its compounds, expressed as mercury (Hg) Antimony and its compounds, expressed as antimony (Sb) Arsenic and its compounds, expressed as arsenic (As) Lead and its compounds, expressed as lead (pb) Chromium and its compounds, expressed as (Cr) Cobalt and its compounds, expressed as cobalt (Co) Copper and its compounds, expressed as copper (Cu) Manganese and its compounds, expressed as manganese (Mn) Nickel and its compounds, expressed as nickel (Ni) Vanadium and its compounds, expressed as vanadium (V) Tin and its compounds, expressed as tin (Sn) Total 0.05 mg/m3

Total 0.5 mg/m3

Pollution from Motor Vehicles. a. For light duty vehicles, the exhaust emission limits for gaseous pollutants shall be:

CO (g/km) 2.72

HC + NOx (g/km) 0.97

PMa (g/km) 0.14

b. For light commercial vehicles, the exhaust emission limit of gaseous pollutants as a function of the given reference mass shall be: Reference weight (kg) 1250 < RW 1250 < RW <1700 RW > 1700 CO (g/km) 2.72 5.17 6.9 HC + NOx (g/km) 0.97 1.4 1.7 PMa (g/km) 0.14 0.19 0.25

Category 1 Category 2 Category 3

c. For heavy duty vehicles, the exhaust emission limits of gaseous pollutants shall be: CO HC NOx PMb (g/kWh) (g/kWh) (g/kWh) (g/kWh) 4.5 1.1 8.0 0.36a a for compression-ignition engines only b In the case of engines of 85kW or less, the limit value for particular emissions is increased by multiplying the quoted limit by a coefficient of 1.7 VIOLATION PENALTIES Violation of Standards for Stationary Sources - One hundred thousand pesos (100,000.00) for every day of violation against the owner or operator of a stationary source until such time that the standards have been complied with. The fines shall increase by at least ten percent (10%) every three (3) years to compensate for inflation and to maintain the deterrent function of such fines. Violation of Standards for Motor Vehicles a. First offense - a fine not to exceed 2,000.00 b. Second offense - a fine not less than 2,000.00 and not to exceed 4,000.00 c. Third offense - one (1) year suspension of the Motor Vehicle Registration (MVR) and a fine of not less than 4,000.00 and not more than 6,000.00.