Kotoi Nicoleta Cristina BCS, 1st year

Masculinity studies

In contrast to feminist theory, masculinity studies or, as it is also often called, mens studies is a relatively new research field pertaining to gender studies. The academic field of masculinity studies originated from the field of gender and women's studies, as gender studies scholars began to question the status of men in a seemingly patriarchal society. In order to trace the origins of mens studies, it is imperative to consider the impact that the feminist theories had on the society; The first wave of masculinity studies emerged during the 1970's and was influenced by the initial activity of the men's liberation movements. Male activists were exposed during this period to the notion of second wave feminism and the call for women's solidarity. These activists felt that masculinity was suffering a crisis and that a new consciousness should be promoted. They were joined by therapists and social workers that focused on dealing with the challenges of masculinity, especially middle-class masculinity. They formed personal growth groups in which men could express their hardships as men. In the academia, researchers attempted to identify the pressures employed on young men to meet the standards of masculinity. Their main argument was that men, and not only women, pay a price for the gender conventions of society.1 Men are expected to achieve positions of dominance in order to be successful, but it is impossible for every man to live up to these expectations. Regarding this topic, Jack Sawyer remarks: Male liberation calls for men to free themselves of the sex-role stereotypes that limit their ability to be human. Sex-role stereotypes say that men should be dominant; achieving and enacting a dominant role in relations with others is often taken as an indicator of success.2 He continues by demonstrating that most men fail to accomplish this role and as a consequence they are wrongfully judged by the society as failures. Masculinity Studies developed throughout the last decades as an interdisciplinary field of cultural, social, historical, political, psychological, economic, and artistic analysis that interrogates the constructions of masculinity in communities across the world and at various times in history. It also looks at the tense and complex relationship between hegemonic masculinities (that is, the idea of a real man in a given time and place) and subordinate
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http://culturalstudiesnow.blogspot.ro/2011/07/masculinity-studies-overview.html J. Sawyer, On Male Liberation in Oxford Readings in Feminism: Feminism and Masculinities, Oxford University Press, 2004, p. 25.

masculinities (masculinities that, in a given time and place, fall short of the real man ideal). For example, being involved in sports and being a provider are the examples of American hegemonic masculinity, while shunning sports and being a stay-at-home-dad are examples of subordinate masculinities.3 Therefore, the downsides of hegemony are discussed by the representatives of masculinity studies, who claim that it can inflict harm on those to whom it is attributed. In this respect, Todd W. Reeser observes: One reason not to make masculinity monolithic in this way is that it can be oppressive to those who wield it.4 He brings further support to his argument by quoting the French sociologist Pierre Bourdieu who claims that men are dominated by their domination. In addition to this, Reeser explains by giving a simple example: If masculinity is a factor contributing to war, then it easily doubles back on to the men fighting that war, causing them pain in the process.5 The concept of masculinities in the plural form was first discussed in R. W. Connells pioneering book Masculinities, the first edition published in 1995. This book has inspired further research on the topic and it has been reviewed as the fundamental study on masculinity as a formative factor of modern social inequality, and also one of the most important books in the social sciences in recent years.6 Connell promotes the idea that masculinity as a social and historical construct is relative, and its variations in time and space call for a scrutiny that goes beyond a univocal term like masculinity. Connell distinguishes four patterns of masculinities, namely hegemony, subordination, complicity and marginalization, which is considered a first step in defining masculinit y: 'Masculinity' is not a coherent object about which a generalizing science can be produced. Yet we can have coherent knowledge about the issues raised in these attempts. If we broaden the angle of vision, we can see masculinity, not as an isolated object, but as an aspect of a larger structure.7 Contrary to the opinions that unknowingly associate masculinity studies with male misogyny and homophobia, it must be stated that the purpose of the research in this area is to undermine the sex-role restrictions imposed by society. Accordingly, T. W. Reeser remarks: Men's Studies, a field of inquiry largely social science in origin that often takes male hegemony and identities as its objects of study with the practical aim of reversing sexism and homophobia and of transforming men.8

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http://siuewmst.wordpress.com/2012/12/06/masculinity-studies-what-is-it-and-why-would-a-feminist-care/ T. W. Reeser, Masculinities in Theory, Wiley-Blackwell, 2010, p. 8. 5 Ibidem. 6 R. W. Connell, Masculinities Second Edition, University of California Press, 2005, p.13. 7 R. W. Connell, p.67. 8 T. W. Reeser, Masculinities in Theory, Wiley-Blackwell, 2010, p. 15.

Another error that people make when talking about masculinity studies is the fact that they consider mens studies as a repudiation of feminism. Despite the popular belief that masculinity studies come in opposition to feminist theories, these two are intertwined because, as stated before, masculinity studies appeared as a result of the problems that the feminists put under inquiry. masculinity studies is a significant outgrowth of feminist studies and an ally to its older sister in a complex and constantly shifting relationship. Masculinity studies is not necessarily the reactionary defensive rage of the mens rights groups *+. Rather, masculinity studies can be informed by a feminist project to interrogate different masculinities, whether real (as in corporeal) or imagined (as in representations and texts).9 In conclusion, masculinity studies works in collaboration with feminist theories in order to expose the damaging influence of pre-conceived patterns of social sex roles and at the same time it promotes alternative masculinities that can highlight the complexity of masculinity.

Bibliography Connell, Robert William. Masculinities Second Edition. University of California Press, 2005. Gardiner, Judith Kegan. Masculinity Studies & Feminist Theory: New Directions. Columbia University Press, 2002. Reeser, Todd W. Masculinities in Theory. Wiley-Blackwell, 2010. Sawyer, Jack. On Male Liberation. Oxford Readings in Feminism: Feminism and Masculinities. Oxford University Press, 2004.

Sites: http://culturalstudiesnow.blogspot.ro/2011/07/masculinity-studies-overview.html Accessed on the 13th of November 2013 http://siuewmst.wordpress.com/2012/12/06/masculinity-studies-what-is-it-and-why-would-afeminist-care/ Accessed on the 14th of November 2013

J. K. Gardiner, Masculinity Studies & Feminist Theory: New Directions, Columbia University Press, 2002, p. 9.