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power-quality disturbances could find its application at any voltages Va, Vb, and Vc. The latter are obtained from the
voltage level. At higher voltage levels it could be part of measured voltage waveforms. Both characteristic voltage V
disturbance recorders of protection relays. and PN factor F are complex numbers. The absolute value and
the argument of the characteristic voltage are referred to as
B. Types of Three-Phase Unbalanced Dips
“magnitude” and “phase-angle jump” of the voltage dip,
Voltage dips are due to short circuits and earth faults, respectively. The magnitude (absolute value of the
transformer energizing and motor starting. By using the characteristic voltage) is a generalization for three-phase
voltage recovery and the voltage unbalance during the dip it is events of the retained voltage defined in IEC 61000-4-30.
possible to distinguish between these three types from voltage
recordings [12]. A further subdivision of voltage dips due to C. Relation with Fault Types
faults is proposed in [6][7]. The basic distinction is between The dip type depends on the fault type and the winding
types A, C and D: connection of the transformers between the fault and the
• type A is an equal drop in the three phases; measurement location [6]. The characteristic voltage is the
• type C is a drop in two phases; main characteristic describing the event. It is determined by
• type D is a large drop in one phase with a small drop in the positive-sequence source and feeder impedance for two-
the other two phases. phase and three-phase faults. For single-phase faults the zero-
For types C and D a further subdivision is needed to include sequence impedance also affects the characteristic voltage of
the symmetrical phase (the phase with the large voltage drop the dip [7].
for type D, the phase without voltage drop for type C). The The PN factor is a second characteristic. It is a measure of
resulting six types of three-phase unbalanced dips are shown in the unbalance of the event. The lower the magnitude of the PN
Fig.1. Type Db is a drop in phase b; type Cb a drop in phases a factor, the more balanced the dip; where the PN factor cannot
and c, etc. Alternatively, type Cb can be interpreted as a drop be smaller than the characteristic voltage (in absolute
in the ac voltage difference, etc. value)[8]. For single-phase and phase-to-phase faults the PN-
factor is close to 1 pu. The deviation from 1 pu is due to the
Ca Cb Cc load and will be discussed in more detail later. For two-phase-
to-ground faults in solidly-grounded systems, the PN factor is
less than 1 pu. The drop in PN factor is at most one third of the
drop in characteristic voltage. For three-phase faults the PN
factor is equal to the characteristic voltage.
The zero-sequence voltage V0 can be used as a third
Da Db Dc characteristic to completely describe the event. It gives
additional information for obtaining the location of the
underlying event, but the zero-sequence voltage rarely affects
the operation of equipment so that it is not needed for
statistics.
Fig. 1, Six types of three-phase unbalanced voltage dips: thin arrows indicate
normal voltages; thick arrows voltages during the event. III. THE TWO ALGORITHMS
The two parameters quantifying the dip are the A. The Symmetrical Component Algorithm
characteristic voltage V and the so-called PN factor F, both
The algorithm proposed in [8] determines the dip type from
complex numbers. The phase voltages as a function of these
the positive-sequence and negative-sequence voltages. From
two parameters are, for a type Ca dip:
(1), (2) and similar expressions for the other dip types in Fig.
Va = F 1, it can be concluded that the positive-sequence voltage (with
Vb = − 12 F − 12 jV 3 (1) reference to a-phase pre-fault voltage) is the same for all dip
types:
Vc = − F +
1 1
jV 3
2 2 V1 = 1
2
(F + V ) (3)
and for a type Da dip:
The negative-sequence voltage is the same in magnitude but
Va = V
different in argument:
Vb = − 12 V − 12 jF 3 (2)
Vc = − 12 V + 12 jF 3
The phasor diagrams in Fig. 1 are given for V=0.5 and F=1.
The aim of the two algorithms to be discussed below is to
obtain the dip type according to Fig.1, the characteristic
voltage V, and the PN factor F, from the complex phase
2001TR027 by Math Bollen 3
V2 = 1
2
(F − V ) type C a arguments of the complex numbers V and F. The argument of
the characteristic voltage is the phase angle of the voltage that
V 2 = a (F − V )
1
2 type C b gives the lowest rms value: va-v0 for type Da, vb-vc for type Cc,
V 2 = 12 a 2 (F − V ) type C c etc. The argument of the PN factor is the phase angle of the
(4) voltage that gives the highest rms value.
V 2 = − 12 (F − V ) type D a
V 2 = − 12 a(F − V ) type D b IV. NUMERICAL EXAMPLES
V 2 = − 12 a 2 (F − V ) type D c To show the performance of the algorithms and their
limitations, the complex phase voltages are, for a number of
where a constitutes a rotation over 120°. If we assume that cases, calculated from given dip characteristics according to
F=1 the angle between the drop in positive-sequence positive (1) and (2). The two algorithms are next applied to the
and negative-sequence voltage is an integer multiple of 60°. complex phase voltages and the resulting characteristics
The angle obtained from a measurement can be used to obtain compared with the known input values.
the dip type:
1 ì V ü A. Single-phase fault
T= × arg í 2 ý (5)
60° î1 − V1 Consider a drop of voltage in phase a down to 50% of its
where T is rounded to the nearest integer: pre-event value. It is assumed that the voltage in b and c
T = 0 type Ca remains as before. According to the classification introduced
T = 1 type Dc before this is a dip of type Da with F=1, V=0.67, V0=-0.33.
T = 2 type Cb The results for the symmetrical component algorithm are
T = 3 type Da shown in the first column of Table 1. The remaining columns
T = 4 type Cc give the results for a voltage drop in one phase, including a
T = 5 type Db phase-angle jump of -20°, -30°, -40°. As the PN factor equals
Knowing the dip type, the other characteristics can be exactly one, the angle between drop in positive sequence and
obtained, e.g. from the sum and difference of positive and negative-sequence voltage is exactly 180°. The dip type is
negative-sequence voltage according to (3) and (4). obtained correctly and so are the other characteristics.
The phenomenon that the characteristic voltage is not
B. The six-phase algorithm exactly equal to the voltage in the faulted phase for single-
A simplified algorithm is described in [10]. After phase faults is described in [6].
subtraction of the zero-sequence voltage, the rms voltage is
TABLE I
obtained for the three phase voltages and the three phase-to- SYMMETRICAL COMPONENT ALGORITHM DURING SINGLE-PHASE FAULTS.
phase voltages: 50% 0° 50% -20° 50% -30° 50% -40°
{
V A = rms v a − 13 (v a + v b + v c ) } Va 0.50 0.47-0.17j 0.43-0.25j 0.38-0.32j
V B = rms{ v b − 13 (v a + v b + v c ) }
Vb -0.50-0.87j -0.50-0.87j -0.50-0.87j -0.50-0.87j
(6a)
Vc -0.50+0.87j -0.50+0.87j -0.50+0.87j -0.50+0.87j
VC = rms{ v c − 13 (v a + v b + v c ) } V0 -0.17 -0.18-0.06j -0.19-0.08j -0.21-0.11j
V1 0.83 0.82-0.06j 0.81-0.08j 0.79-0.11j
ì v − vb ü
V AB = rmsí a ý
V2 -0.17 -0.18-0.06j -0.19-0.08j -0.21-0.11j
î 3 angle 180° 180° 180° 180°
V 0.67 0.65-0.11j 0.62-0.17j 0.59-0.21j
ì v − vc ü
VBC = rmsí b ý (6b) |V| 0.67 0.66 0.64 0.63
î 3 F 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00
ì v − va ü
VCA = rmsí c ý TABLE II
î 3 SIX-PHASE ALGORITHM DURING SINGLE-PHASE FAULTS
The dip parameters are obtained directly: the characteristic 50% 0° 50% -20° 50% -30° 50% -40°
voltage is the lowest of the six rms voltages, the PN factor the Type 3 (Da) 3 (Da) 3 (Da) 4 (Cc)
|V| 0.67 0.66 0.64 0.60
highest of the six. The dip type is determined from the voltage
|F| 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.02
according to (6) with the lowest rms value:
VA lowest type Da
The same synthetic dips are also applied to the six-phase
VB lowest type Db
algorithm. The results are shown in Table II. For moderate
VC lowest type Dc
values of the phase-angle jump, also the six-phase algorithm
VAB lowest type Cc
gives the correct type and characteristics. For a -40° phase-
VBC lowest type Ca
angle jump the six-phase algorithm results in a type Cc instead
VCA lowest type Cb
of Da. The rotation in the a-phase voltage is so large that the
The six-phase algorithm can also be used to obtain the
2001TR027 by Math Bollen 4
TABLE VI
IMPROVED SYMMETRICAL COMPONENT ALGORITHM WITH ADDITIONAL 1.5
VOLTAGE DROP AND ROTATION DUE TO LOAD EFFECTS
50% 0° 50% -20° 50% -30° 50% -40° 1
angle -28.5° -14.9° -9.8° -6.2°
V 0.40-0.15j 0.33-0.27j 0.27-0.33j 0.21-0.37j 0.5
F 0.80-0.29j 0.80-0.29j 0.80-0.29j 0.80-0.30j
Voltage [pi]
0
V. THE SIX-PHASE ALGORITHM
In the previous section, the six-phase algorithm has been -0.5
applied to a small number of synthetic dips with known
characteristics. This same process has been repeated for a -1
larger number of synthetic dips covering a wide range of
magnitude and phase angle of the characteristic voltage. (As -1.5
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
mentioned before, the PN-factor does not affect the Time [Cycles]
performance of the six-phase algorithm.) The results are Fig. 3. Example of a three-phase unbalanced dip.
presented graphically in Fig. 2. The black dots indicate the
combinations of magnitude and phase-angle (of the Applying the symmetrical component algorithm to these
characteristic voltage) for which the algorithm gives incorrect measurements will result in positive and negative-sequence
results. Also indicated in the figure, through the solid curves, voltage phasors V1 and V2, respectively. The symmetrical
is the range of magnitude and phase-angle jump that can be component voltages are calculated from the complex
expected. The upper and lower curves are for impedance fundamental phase voltages over a half cycle (10 ms) window.
angles +10° and -60°, respectively. The black dots are A sliding window is used to obtain the symmetrical component
generated by varying the impedance angle between -90° and voltages as a function of time. The angle between (1-V1) and
+90°. (See Appendix A for an explanation of the term V2 is used to determine the type of dip. This angle is shown in
“impedance angle”.) It follows from Fig. 2 that the six-phase Fig. 4 during the fault. The values of the angle before and after
algorithm gives incorrect results for events with a large the fault are ill-defined because the negative-sequence voltage
(negative) phase-angle jump and moderate drops in voltage. is very small. The half-cycle window used to extract the
symmetrical component voltages makes that it takes about one
half-cycle to obtain a value for the angle. Initially (shortly after
fault initiation) the angle is close to 240°: the “ideal value” for
a type Cc dip. But gradually the angle decreases. In this case,
the maximum deviation is about 25 degrees, just within the
error margin. A slightly larger deviation would have resulted
in the estimation of a type Da dip.
240
230
220
Angle [Degrees]
210
200
Fig. 2. Whole-range testing of the six-phase algorithm: the black dots
indicate where the algorithm gives an incorrect result.
190
three-phase unbalanced dip shown in Fig. 3. The voltages are Fig. 4. Angle between drop in positive-sequence voltage and negative-
measured in an 11-kV distribution system during a 132-kV sequence voltage for the dip shown in Fig. 3.
fault. The fault is cleared in about 5 cycles, after which the
voltage recovers. The slow but balanced recovery indicates the The resulting characteristics are shown in Fig. 5 and Fig. 6.
presence of large amounts of induction motor load.. Fig. 5 shows the magnitude of characteristic voltage and PN-
factor. Initially the PN-factor is close to unity, but decreases
2001TR027 by Math Bollen 6
during the event. Note that the PN-factor is continuous both at frequency will result in additional errors in the angle used for
fault initiation and at fault clearing. This behavior has been detecting the type of dip. An error of 0.1 Hz in frequency will
observed for all single-phase and phase-to-phase faults. The give in 10 cycles an error of 7.2° in phase angle for the phase
decay and recovery of the PN-factor can be explained from the voltages, leading to an error up to 14.4° in the angle used for
decay and recovery of the voltage source behind reactance in detecting the dip type.
the induction machine model. This also explains that the ratio
of characteristic voltage and PN-factor is constant during the
fault [9]. VII. THE PERFECT ALGORITHM
Fig. 6 shows the phase angle of the characteristic voltage To understand why there is no perfect algorithm to
and the PN-factor. The large transients in the angle at fault determine the dip characteristics, consider the following set of
initiation and fault clearing are artifacts due to the Fourier synthetic events:
transform method used to extract the phase-angle information. Dip Type = Ca
The figure shows that the angle of the PN-factor is zero at fault xe − j 60°
initiation and decreases to about -12° during the 5-cycle V= (8a)
1 + xe − j 60°
duration of the fault. Note that a 12° rotation in PN-factor (Fig.
− j 40°(1− V )
6) gives a 25° rotation in the angle used to detect the dip type F = (0.7 + 0.3V ) e (8b)
(Fig. 4). with 0<x<∞. The characteristic voltage is given for an
impedance angle of -60° (see Appendix A). For the PN-factor,
1
both magnitude and phase angle are assumed to depend
linearly on the magnitude of the characteristic voltage.
0.9
This represents dips with a large (characteristic) phase-angle
jump, a large drop in PN-factor, and a large phase shift in PN-
factor. The symmetrical component algorithm according to (5)
Magnitude [pu]
0.8
has been applied to these events. The resulting values are
0.7
shown in Fig. 7 and Fig. 8. For x<0.6 the algorithm results in
an incorrect dip type (Db in this case). The incorrect dip type
in turn results in incorrect values for characteristic voltage and
0.6
PN-factor.
The estimated magnitudes of characteristic voltage and PN-
0.5
factor are shown in Fig. 7; the phase angles in Fig. 8. In both
0 2 4 6 8 10
Time [Cycles]
12 14 16 cases the magnitude of the actual characteristic voltage is
given along the horizontal axis. For low values of the
Fig. 5. Absolute value of characteristic magnitude and PN-factor for the dip
shown in Fig. 3.
characteristic magnitude the algorithm results in significant
errors in both magnitude and phase angle, where the
10 magnitude of the PN-factor and the phase angle of the
characteristic voltage reach unrealistic values. The presence of
5
these unrealistic values can be used as an indication that the
0
algorithm has given an incorrect result.
Angle [Degrees]
-5
1
-10
0.8
-15
Estimated Magnitude
-20 0.6
-25
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 0.4
Time [Cycles]
Fig. 6. Phase angle of characteristic voltage (solid line) and PN-factor (dotted
0.2
line) for the dip shown in Fig. 3.
known accurately. The discrete-Fourier transform algorithm Fig. 7. Estimated magnitude of characteristic voltage (solid line) and PN-
for extracting the complex phasors must be synchronized to factor (dashed line). The actual values are indicated through dotted lines.
the pre-fault voltage. Assuming exactly 50 Hz (60 Hz)
2001TR027 by Math Bollen 7
generation of synthetic voltage dips with realistic magnitude [8] L.D. Zhang, M.H.J. Bollen, Characteristic of voltage dips (sags) in
power systems, IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery, Vol. 15, no.2
and phase-angle jump combinations. (April 2000), pp.827-832.
The feeder impedance is normally more resistive than the [9] L.D. Zhang, Three-phase unbalance of voltage dips, Licentiate thesis,
source impedance, so that α is typically negative. Realistic Chalmers University of Technology, Gothenburg, Sweden, November
1999.
values for the impedance angle are between -10° and +10° for [10] M.H.J. Bollen, E. Styvaktakis, Characterization of three-phase
transmission system faults and between –60° and -10° for unbalanced dips (as easy as one two three?), IEEE Power Summer
distribution system faults. For faults on distribution cables Meeting 16-20 July, 2000, Seattle, WA, USA, pp.899-904, Vol.2.
[11] IEC 61000-4-30, Power quality measurement methods, CDV 2001.
values between –40° and -60° have been found. [12] E. Styvaktakis, M.H.J. Bollen, Y.H. Gu, Expert system for classification
and analysis of power system events, IEEE Transactions on Power
X. REFERENCES Delivery, in print.
[13] G. Yalcinkaya, M.H.J. Bollen, P.A. Crossley, Characterisation of
[1] G. Desquilbet, C. Foucher, P. Fauquembergue, Statistical analysis of voltage sags in industrial distribution systems, IEEE Transactions on
voltage dips, PQA-94 Amsterdam. Industry Applications, Vol.34, no.4, July 1998, p.682-688.
[2] J.C. Smith, J. Lamoree, P. Vinett, T. Duffy, M. Klein, The impact of
voltage sags on industrial plants, Int. Conf. on Power Quality: End-use
Applications and perspectives (PQA-91), pp.171-178. XI. BIOGRAPHY
[3] M.F. McGranaghan, D.R. Mueller, M.J. Samotyj, Voltage sags in Math Bollen (M’94, SM’96) is professor in
industrial power systems, IEEE Transactions on Industry Applications, electric power systems in the department of
Vol.29, no.2, pp.397-403, Mar/Apr 1993. electric power engineering at Chalmers University
[4] L. Conrad, K. Little, C. Grigg, Predicting and preventing problems of Technology, Gothenburg, Sweden. He received
associated with remote fault-clearing voltage dips, IEEE Transactions his MSc and BSc from Eindhoven University of
on Industry Applications, Vol.27, no.1, Jan. 1991, p.167-172. Technology in 1985 and 1989, respectively.
[5] D.O. Koval, M.B. Hughes, Canadian national power quality survey: Before joining Chalmers in 1996 he was post-doc
frequency of industrial and commercial voltage sags, IEEE Transactions at Eindhoven University of Technology and
on Industry Applications, Vol.33, no.3, pp.622-627, May/June 1997. lecturer at UMIST, Manchester, UK. Math Bollen
[6] M.H.J. Bollen, Characterization of voltage sags experienced by leads a team of researchers on power quality,
three-phase adjustable-speed drives, IEEE Transactions on Power reliability and power-electronic applications to
Delivery, Vol.12, no.4, pp.1666-1671, October 1997. power systems. His own contribution to research consists of the development
[7] M.H.J. Bollen, Understanding power quality problems – voltage sags of methods for voltage dip analysis, which resulted in a text book on power
and interruptions. New York, IEEE Press, 1999. quality. Math is active in IEEE and CIGRE working groups on voltage dip
analysis and statistics