1. Language. Speech Acts 1.1. Historical background Language is seen as a tool and a product of human communication.

Communicative function of language is both the result of convention and human rational choice. As such, language is an integral part of our everyday lives. Without language, e ould not be able to e!press our feelings, thoughts, and ideas, and to communicate messages. Language is an unbreakable bond bet een people. "t enables the e!istence of societies all around the orld and locates people ithin them. "t is in almost all segments of human life and not rarely is it necessary to use it correctly and accurately. #any theories and disciplines deal ith this language feature and perhaps the speech act theory aroused the idest interest. "t as Aristotle ho first noted that there are uses of language, for e!ample prayers, hich are not of the statement$making sort. Ho ever, he put aside this kind of studies and attached it to the peripheral realms of rhetoric and poetry and it as not until Searle and Austin paid more attention to this kind of language use and elaborated it into a very significant part of language study. %here ere t o philosophers ho also contributed to the development of the first theory that as necessary for the later linguistic research. &ne of them as %homas 'eid. He recogni(ed that the principles of the art of language are )to be found in a *ust analysis of the various species of sentences. Aristotle and the logicians have analy(ed one species +to it, the proposition. %o enumerate and analy(e the other species must be the foundation of a *ust theory of language ,'eid, 1-./0123. He made distinction bet een 4social operations5 or 4social acts5 hich included promises, arnings and forgiveness and re6uired the presence of other people and thus creating a miniature 4civil society5 embracing the speaker and the hearer, and, on the other hand, 4solitary acts5 such as *udging, intention, desires hich do not presuppose any 4intelligent being in the universe5. %he other influential philosopher is Adolf 'einach, one of the follo ers of Husserl and adherers to philosophical realism. Husserl5s theory of linguistic meaning developed in his Logical Investigations as a starting point for 'einach5s o n reflections on language, its meaning and intentionality. "n Husserl5s theory predominant as the connection bet een e!tra$mental reality and language and perception. His conception of meaning pioneers Searle5s idea of language

being essentially representational. Husserl5s theory is internalistic in the sense that it starts from an analysis of an individual mental act of meaning something by a linguistic e!pression as it occurs in the silent monologue. He insists that the meaning is the same hether it is uttered publicly or not. Wanting to e!plain the meanings of special kinds of language uses such as promises, 6uestions or commands 'einach developed the first systematic theory of performative uses of language that he also called 4social acts5. %his idea as presented in his 1.17 publication The A Priori Foundations of the Civil Law, here he focused on the act of promising and applied his method to the analysis of legal phenomena such as contracts, legislation, etc. #any of the elements in his ritings ill be found in the orks of Austin and Searle. Ho ever, both of these philosophers5 ork remained ithout influence of any kind. 1.2 8hilosophical background of the speech act theory Along ith presupposition and implicature, speech acts are one of the crucial points in linguistic pragmatics. %he fact that people use language not only to describe something or e!press themselves but also to perform actions via utterances brought speech acts into focus of contemporary linguistic studies. %he theory of speech act, as developed by 9ohn Austin and 9ohn '. Searle sets language in the conte!t of human action and in6uires about the functions and purposes of human action that are accomplished by sentences. :or instance, utterances hich e use in order to make an apology, promise, command, order fit into this category. Speech$act theory as first elaborated by Austin 9.L., a linguist philosopher. "t is a reaction of Austin and his co orkers in opposition to so$called logical positivist philosophers of language. Logical positivism, emerged in 1.7;s, put the spotlight on the verification of a sentence, i.e. the classification of a sentence according to its truth or falsity. "f this is impossible to determine, the doctrine says, the sentence is meaningless. Austin launched his theory appro!imately at the same time insisting that )the total speech act in the total speech situation be the only actual phenomenon hich, in the last resort, e are engaged in elucidating< ,1.=201>13

1.7. Austin5s speech act theory %he basic idea around hich Austin5s speech act theory as developed is concerned ith the ay regular people use language in everyday situations, or to be more precise, the fact that language is used not only to make statements but also to perform actions such as creating obligations, influencing actions of others or creating ne social relationships. #ore generally, language does not only describe the e!isting state but also creates ne ones. 8erformative utterances, as he defines them, are those uses of language that often involve some ritual aspect, hich are themselves a kind of action, and hose utterance brings about some result unlike those that only name some action. He delivered his observations at Harvard ?niversity in 1.// as the William 9ames Lectures hich ere posthumously published in his book How to Do Things with Words. %his is here this first great distinction bet een performatives and constatives as made. "t is also possible to distinguish bet een the speech acts that do not re6uire an audience ho is capable of recogni(ing the speaker@s intentions, like in the cases of naming a ship or bapti(ing a baby. %hey all involve language ,and not communication3, but the audience do not have to understand this message necessarily. &n the other hand there are speech acts hich ould not be reali(ed if it as only the proposition that as uttered. %he relevant information given in the performative verb is obviously missing and the hearer is unable to understand the speaker@s intention e!pressed via that speech act. %hat is the case ith, for instance, betting, promising or thanking. %umulty0 Well, again, thank you very much. &bama0 %hank you so much. Sperber and Wilson pay special attention to acts such as guessing ,and arning3 calling them non$communicated acts. "n other ords, hile the higher$level description that the speaker is making a guess may be communicated, it does not have to be in order for the hearer to understand the utterance ,Alakemore 1..20.>3. Accoring to Austin, performatives are a special kind of utterance that contains a performative verb by force of hich it performs an act. As Austin noticed, they are ordinary language declarative sentences hich, contrary to logical positivist assumption,

are not intended to be verified as true or false, only as felicitous or infelicitous, hich e ill soon define. Another thing about these sentences is that they do not *ust say things but rather do things. %he significance of performative verbs, as Austin put it lies in the fact that in each case the performative verb lacks descriptive meaning, or in other ords, that it does not contribute to a proposition ith truth conditionals. "ts function is simply to indicate the type of speech act being performed. Austin proposes that performative verbs are only one of a range of devices ith this function, e.g. on some occasions it is possible to use pro a ly instead of I predict or therefore instead of I conclude ,Austin 1.=20=1, 1;3. I predict %rump ill immediately slip in the polls and ill never recover. &n the other hand there are constatives +statements and assertions. Austin then elaborated these t o concepts saying that only performatives can denote actions, hereas constatives can be labeled as true or false. Levinson ,1.-702/;3 declares that 4performative sentences achieve their corresponding actions because there are specific conventions linking the ords to institutional procedures5. Austin states that it is necessary for the procedure and the performative to be e!ecuted in appropriate circumstances in order to be successful. He also listed all the conditions that performatives must meet in order to be performatives or 4happy5. %hat is hy they are called felicity conditions. %hey are the follo ing ,Austin, 1.=201>$1/30 1 a3 there must e!ist an accepted conventional procedure having a conventional effect, that procedure to include the uttering of certain ords by certain persons in certain circumstances 2 the particular persons and circumstances in a given case must be appropriate for the invocation of the particular procedure invoked 7 the procedure must be e!ecuted by all participants both completely and correctly > here, as often, the procedure is designed for use by persons having certain thoughts or feelings, or for the inauguration of certain conse6uential conduct on the part of any participant, then a person participating in and so invoking the

procedure must intend so to conduct themselves, and further must intend so to conduct themselves subse6uently %here are t o crucial points to be observed here0 13 performatives do certain actions by simply uttering them 23 the ords that are uttered are connected to institutional procedures by certain conventions A dramatic shift in developing this theory follo ed hen there as another classification of utterances as e!plicit and implicit performatives. An e!plicit performative is the one in hich the utterance inscription contains an e!pression that makes e!plicit hat kind of act is being performed ,Lyons, 1.-1011/3. An e!plicit performative includes a performative verb and mainly therefore, as %homas ,1../0>13 claims, it can be seen as a mechanism hich allo s the speaker to remove any possibility of misunderstanding the force behind an utterance. &bama0 B" 8romiseC #y 8lan "s %o Have ?nemployment Aelo ..1 8ercent, Dventually CCB "mplicit performatives, or primary performatives, according to Lyons5s stand are non$e!plicit, in terms of that there is no e!pression in the utterance$inscription itself hich makes e!plicit the intention of the speaker. Aasically, statements, if not all utterances, started to be looked upon as implicit performatives. Ho can e distinguish bet een real performatives and 4phony5 onesE "t is done by applying the 4hereby5 test. "n other ords, e can identify performative utterances hen they have the form of the first person indicative active in simple present of a performative verb as a main verb. :urther more, this verb is supposed to collocate ith the adverb here y."t is also called the performative hypothesis and the basic format of the underlying clause is the follo ing0 " ,hereby3 Fp you ,that3 ? I!d li"e to "now if the ?G and the ?S *ust ignore the ?H, *ust go ahead ith ar ithout a ?H resolution.

I would also li"e to as" your vie on the industry. " remember once you talked about the convergence of the industry and the divergence of artistic practice, hich " understood as a criti6ue of the industry. #ore direct e!amples include imperatives ith tell ,I here y as" you to tell#$% %ell me about your love affair ith He &rleans. Iou5ve become perhaps the city5s most effective booster. Ho did it happenE %ell us about hat you5re up to, your sho , and hat5s been going on in your life. %alk about some of your favorite things you did as a kid or teen that carried into your adult life. So tell me the story of ho this all ent do n. " read on your etsy page that it as you and a friend and Falentine5s Jay, or somethingE %ell me a little about your interest and background in Gorean culture. Como professor de teorKa cultural de la ?niversidad de #ancherster, "nglaterra, usted ha alcan(ado unas sorprendentes y sentimentales conclusiones en su nuevo libro, &'l significado de la (ida). Diganos, L6uM significa la vidaE Ho ever, nothing is so crude, so sharply determined here. What Austin proposes here is that e!plicit performatives are *ust ays of unambiguously determining hat is supposed to be communicated. Some cruder devices are mood, adverbs, particles or intonation. Austin5s final conclusion is that all utterances have t o basic features0 / = meaning performing of an action through having specific forces

%he e!plicit and implicit versions are not e6uivalent. ?ttering the e!plicit performative version of a command has much more serious impact then uttering the implicit version ,Iule, 1..=0/23. %homas adds to this that people therefore often avoid using an e!plicit performative since in many circumstances it seems to imply an une6ual po er relationship or particular set of rights on the part of the speaker ,1../0>-3. Compare0 )" hereby promise to run my hole campaign hidden in the Sean Hannity green room...<

and " ill my hole campaign hidden in the Sean Hannity green room... Austin said the follo ing0 )Aesides the 6uestion that has been very much studied in the past as to certain utterance *eans, there is a further 6uestion distinct from this as to hat a hat

as the force, as e call it, of the utterance. We may be 6uite clear hat !+hut the door! means, but not yet at all clear on the further point as to hether as uttered at a certain time it as an order, an entreaty. What e need besides the old doctrine about meanings in a ne to ards the discovery of doctrine about all the possible forces of utterances, hich our proposed list of e!plicit performative verbs

ould be a very great help.< ,Austin 1.1;a02/13 %his brought about the emergence of a general theory of illocutionary acts according to hich there are three aspects or three dimensions of an utterance that help a speech act to be e!ecuted properly0 Locutionary act ,locution30 %he basic act of an utterance +producing a meaningful linguistic e!pressionN determinate sense and reference ,the actual ords uttered3 Austin claims that to say anything is0 a3 al ays to perform the act of uttering certain noises ,a phonetic act3 b3 al ays to perform the act of uttering certain vocables or ords ,a phatic act3 c3 generally to perform the act of using that OsentenceP or its constituents ith a certain more or less definite 4sense5 and a more or less definite 4reference5 hich together are e6uivalent to meaning ,rhetic act3. %his distinction as often critici(ed by Austin follo ers. :or e!ample, Searle completely re*ects Austin5s division and gives his o n instead. Searle ,1.=-0>;/3 arns that Austin5s rhetic act is nothing else but a reformulated description of the illocutionary act and he therefore suggests another term, the so$called propositional act hich

e!presses the proposition ,a neutral phrase ithout illocutionary force3 as the content of an utterance. "t is thus e!pressed in the performance of an illocutionary act. Ho ever, not all illocutionary acts have propositions. Having defined proposition and propositional act, Searle modifies Austin5s ideas and states that there are utterance acts ,similar to Austin5s )phatic< and phonetic sub$acts, Searle ,1.1=02>3 defines them as mere uttering of morphemes, ords and sentences3, propositional acts and illocutionary acts. "llocutionary act ,illocution3 %he act of making a promise, offer, statement, etc. in a sentence by virtue of the conventional communicative force ,i.e. illocutionary force +the force or intension behind ords3 or its e!plicit performative phrase. Qradually, the term speech act started to mean only illocutionary act. Locution and illocution can be studied individually. "llocutionary force can be defined as a property of speech acts, hich results from the combination of the illocutionary point of an utterance and particular presuppositions and attitudes that accompany that point. %here are seven components of an illocutionary force0 13 illocutionary point0 characteristic aim of each type of speech act ,e.g. assertion describes ho things are, e.g. a promise commits oneself to a future course of action3 23 degree of strength of the illocution point 73 propositional content conditions0 e.g. for promise to be promise it has to be fulfilled in future and under the control of the speakerN apologi(e has to refer to the past and to be under the control of the speaker >3 preparatory conditions0 all other conditions that must be met for the speech act not to misfire, e.g. social status of the interlocutors /3 the mode of achievement0 the point in hich the illocutionary point of a speech act must be achieved ,e.g. testifying $asserting one@s capacity as a itness in comparison to simple assertingN commanding $the aspect of authority compared to a simple re6uest3 =3 sincerity conditions0 e!pression of a psychological state ,e.g. assertion e!presses a kind of a belief, apology regret, promise intention3 13 degree of strength of the sincerity conditions 0 e.g. cf. re6uest and imploring "n order to decode the illocutionary act correctly it is necessary that the hearer be familiar ith the conte!t in hich the speech act occurs. "f the speaker5s illocutionary

attention is not recogni(ed by the hearer than speech act is not communicatively successful. %he possible misunderstandings may lead to funny situations and is therefore the source of various *okes. Austin states that one illocutionary act can have more locutionary acts *ust like a locutionary act can have various illocutionary forces among hich some ould lead to direct and other to indirect speech acts. 8erlocutionary act ,perlocution3 %he effect of the illocution on the hearer ,or the one you hope the hearer ill recogni(e once you utter something3, i.e. perlocutionary effect. 8erlocutionary act is specific to the circumstances of issuance and therefore not conventionally achieved by uttering that specific utterance. Sometimes it may seem that perlocutionary acts do not differ from illocutionary acts very much, yet there is one important feature that tells them apart. %here are t o levels of success in performing illocutionary and perlocutionary acts0 the act is successful if the hearer recogni(es the intention of the speaker and, in other case if the speaker5s utterance change something ith the speaker ,he does something that the speaker told him to, or gives the re6uested information, etc.3. %he act is seen as an illocutionary if it can be turned into an e!plicit performative, and if it cannot, then it is a perlocutionary act. Qabriel Qarcia #ar6ue( has ritten some very nice things about you. " kno he5s an old man, but he sounds as if he5s a little in love ith you. Locution0 affirmative statements informing about the speaker5s impression "llocution0 a slight teasing 8erlocution0 an intention to make the hearer comment on this statement ,or even blush3 1.>. Searle@s speech act theory 9ohn Searle as a student of Austin ho held that speaking a language is actually using speech acts such as making statements, giving commands, asking 6uestions or making promises and that all linguistic communication is based on linguistic ,speech3 acts. %hey are, in other ords, basic ,minimal3 units of linguistic communication

,1.1=01=3. %hey are not simply artificial linguistic constructs. "n order to decode an utterance properly, e must understand them and their connection to the conte!t in hich they are. According to this speech act theory, communication is not connected ith intentions being recogni(ed, but ith the intentions to perform a particular type of speech act being recogni(ed. Searle5s contribution to the speech act theory is seen through further systemati(ation and connection to some other philosophical issues. Searle pays more attention to the analysis of the link bet een e!plicit performatives and other ":"Js. He sees felicity conditions as integral part of illocutionary forces, not as preconditions for a successful performative and makes a ne classification depending on ho they specify a3 general conditions b3 preparatory conditions c3 content conditions d3 conditions on sincerity and e3 essential condition According to Iule ,1..=0/;3, these felicity conditions cover e!pected or appropriate circumstances for the performance of a speech act to be recogni(ed as intended. Qeneral conditions presuppose participants5 kno ledge of the language being used and his non$playacting, content conditions concern the appropriate content of an utterance, preparatory conditions deal ith differences of various illocutionary acts ,e.g. those of promising and arning3, sincerity conditions count ith speaker5s intention to carry out a certain act and finally, essential conditions 4combine ith a specification of hat must be in the utterance content, the conte!t and the speakers intentions, in order for a specific act to be appropriately ,felicitously3 performed5. Hugh Qrant0 8rometo no hacer mas comedias romanticas. Fili*em J(. Glinton0 "(vin*avam se naci*i i svo*o* porodici (bog toga i obecavam da se ovo vise nikada nece ponoviti " have never promised anything but blood, tears, toil, and s eat. What e may conclude from previous e!amples about ho the illocutionary force of

promises orks is the follo ing0 "f the speaker S utters a sentence % in the presence of the hearer H, then, in the literal utterance of %, the speaker S sincerely and non$defectively promises p to H if0 1. Hormal input and output ,the terms input and output conditions refer to a large range of conditions that make possible understanding and communicating, respectively3 e.g. the environment is not too noisy, both S and H speak the same language, they are both conscious and not acting in a play etc. 8ropositional content conditions 2. S e!presses a proposition p in the utterance of % 7. "n e!pressing that 8, S predicates a future act A of SN this constraint tells us that a speaker cannot promise to have done something or that someone ill do somethingN " can only promise that " ill do something ,so the act must be true in the future3 and " can only promise that " ill do something ,so the act must be predicated of myself3. 8reparatory conditions >. H ould prefer S5s doing A to S5s not doing A, and S believes that H ould prefer his doing A to his not doing A %his is hat makes the distinction bet een promises and threats ,both of hich fulfill the propositional content conditionsC30 the speaker must intend the promise as the doing of something preferable for, or in the interest of, H /. "t is not obvious to both S and H that S ill do A in the normal course of eventsN this blocks pointless acts Sincerity conditions =. S intends to do AN this makes the distinction bet een sincere and insincere promises. "f " promise to bring you a book tomorro ithout having the intention to do that, " have performed an insincere ,ergo, defective3 promise. Dssential condition 1. S intends that the utterance of % ill place him under an obligation to do AN this distinguishes promises from other types of illocutionary act ,unlike rule >, hich distinguishes different acts ithin the same type3. A comparison of felicity conditions on re6uests and arnings Conditions 8ropositional content condition 'e6uest :uture act A of H 1. S believes H can do A 2. it is not obvious that H ould do A ithout being asked S ants H to do A Counts as an attempt to get H to do A Warnings :uture event D 1. S thinks D ill occur and is not in H5s interest 2. S thinks it is not obvious to H that D ill occur S believes D is not in H5s best interest Counts as an undertaking that D is not in H5s best interest

8reparatory condition

Sincerity condition Dssential condition

Asking about preconditions technically does not count as making a re6uest, but does allo the hearer to react @as if@ the re6uest had been made. Aecause a re6uest is an imposition by the speaker on the hearer, it is better, in most social circumstances, for the speaker to avoid a direct imposition via a direct re6uest. When the speaker asks about preconditions, no direct re6uest is made ,Iule 1..=0/13. %he follo ing situation may be interpreted as asking about preconditions ,e.g. hether it is fashionable in your country3 hich is follo ed by a direct 6uestion0

Ja li u tvo*o* (eml*i pevaRice ugraSu*u silikone (bog kari*ereE $ 8osledn*ih meseci po*avile su se i turbo$folk pevaRice ko*e se trude da kopira*u koleginice i( Srbi*e, iako *e preteTno (astupl*ena pop mu(ika. Silikonske grudi i usne su stereotip ko*i polako poRin*e da bude (astupl*en i u #akedoni*i, ali ne previUe. HaUe folkerke ima*u svo*u cil*nu grupu ko*o* se obraVa*u, ali one nisu velike (ve(de. Gada VeU ti da ugradiU silikoneE %here is another term that is supposed to be defined and that is a speech event. Iule defines a speech event as an activity in hich participants interact via language in some conventional ay to arrive at some outcome. "t may include an obvious central speech act and other utterances leading up to and subse6uently reacting to that central action. "n most cases an illocutionary act is not made using a single speech act suddenly. :or e!ample, BJo you have a minuteB can be counted as a @pre$re6uest@ allo ing the hearer to say that he is, for instance, busy. 8ositive ans er ould be understood as not only an ackno ledgement of having the time available, but also as illingness to perform the unstated action ,Iule, 1..=0/1, /-3. Searle@s ta!onomy of utterances as supposed to be based on felicity conditions according to some opinions, it failed to do so ,according to Levinson, this classification is not e!haustive and lacks principled basis3. %his ta!onomy of illocutionary ,speech3 acts includes0 representatives + are those kinds of speech acts that state hat the speaker

believes to be the case or not, i.e. the speaker makes ords fit the orld ,of belief3N commit the speaker to the truth of the e!pressed proposition ,e.g. asserting, concluding, describing, etc.3 %o conclude, " believe that Serbia ill be pleased eventually. directives + are those kinds of speech acts that speakers use to get someone else to do something, i.e. the speaker attempts to make the orld fit the ords ,via the hearer3N speaker attempts to get the addressee to do something ,e.g. re6uesting, 6uestioning, suggesting, commanding, etc.3 Let5s talk about your singing careerC Are you planning to release a ne album soonE commissives + are those kinds of speech acts that speakers use to commit the speaker to some future course of action ,e.g. promising, threatening, offering, etc.3, i.e. the speaker undertakes to make the orld fit the ords ,via the speaker3 &becavam vam da cete prvi sa(nati kada budemo odredili datum vencan*a. e!pressives + are those kinds of speech acts that state hat speaker feels, i.e. the speaker makes ords fit the orld ,of feeling3N e!press a psychological state ,e.g. *oy, sorro , pain, pleasure, likes, dislikes, etc.3N it can be caused by something that speaker does, or the hearer does, but they are all about speaker5s e!perience #e da mucha illusion ver a mis hi*os reali(ando sus suenos. declarations + are those kinds of speech acts that change the orld via utterance, i.e. the speaker changes the orld via ordsN effect immediate changes in the institutional state of affairs and tend to rely on elaborate e!tralinguistic institutions ,e.g. declaring ar, christening, marrying, etc.3 Fery often Qrice@s concept of communicative intentions is connected to Searle@s felicity conditions because, unlike Austin ho sa illocutions as conventional and culture$bound, focused on specific classes of communicative intention to be Bfundamental part of human communicationB. Searle mentiones some recurring linguistic categories, such as the three basic sentence types

interrogative imperative and declarative that are universals, i.e. all the languages seem to have these categories or at least t o of them. %hey are supposed to e!press the illocutions of 6uestioning, re6uesting ,ordering3 and stating, respectively and this bond represents a linguistic convention. "t is important to distinguish bet een imperative, interrogative and declarative, hich are linguistic categories that pertain to sentences, and are called sentence types, from orders ,or re6uests3, 6uestions and assertions ,or statements3 that represent utterances and utterance$ types, i.e. the use of sentences. Ho let@s dra some more parallels bet een Searle@ and Austin5s speech act theories. Austin sees the language as a means to e!press something and to do something. Searle analyses the dimensions of the speech act differently. Ws components of a propositional act ,i.e. an abstraction from the total illocutionary act in the sense that the speaker cannot simply e!press a proposition and do nothing more, e.g. that$clauses cannot stand on their o n3 he distinguishes a reference act and an act of predication. %he difference bet een these t o theories can also be traced back to their different concepts of an act. Searle sees it as a psycho$physical gesture on the part of an individual hereas Austin says that it brings about of a state of affairs. %o his credit, Searle ackno ledges at the conclusion of his ta!onomy of speech acts that B&ften, e do more than one of these Okinds of actsP at once in the same utteranceB. Speech act theory, like any other theory is selective in its attention to human behavior. 9ohn Searle specifically ackno ledges some simplifications0 B" am ignoring more comple! types of sub*ect e!pressions, relational predicate e!pressions, and molecular propositions. ?ntil e can get clear about simple cases e are hardly likely to get clear about the more complicated ones.B A very important feature of Searle5s theory is the fact that it concerns itself not only ith classification, but ith making some key distinctions among sentences, utterances and social commitments made using utterances. &n the other hand, a

disadvantage of this approach is deconte!tuali(ation and overlooking of the fact that conte!t is essential to meaning. 1./. 'oman 9akobson5s theory :inally, to conclude the story about speech act theories, e should mention 'oman 9akobson and his theory that one use of language has multiple purposeful dimensions. %hey are0 emotive0 it is hat a speaker reveals about his attitudes conative0 it represents the impact on recipients referential0 provides information about the orld poetic0 it is the ay the message touches itself ,e.g. rhythm and alliteration3 phatic0 it sho s ho communication e!presses and affects the social bond bet een speakers and hearers metalingual0 denotes hat speech reveals about language as a code "n comparison to Searle5s ta!onomy certain parallels could be dra n0 assertive referential directive conative commisive phatic e!pressive emotive Jifferent utterances can have various dimensions, e.g. declarations can have referential and phatic dimension. "t is precisely here e can find the difference bet een Searle and 9akobson +the fact that Searle ants a clean separation bet een different types hereas 9akobson emphasi(es the presence of multiple simultaneous functions for any speech act. 2. "ndirect speech act According to Searle, there are several cases of meaning0 13 cases in hich the speaker says hat he means and nothing more 23 cases in hich the speaker says hat he means and something more e.g. " ant you to do it +a re6uest made by means of making a statement.

73 cases in hich the speaker means hat he says, but also means another illocution ith different propositional content e.g. Can you reach the saltE +not merely a 6uestion but also a re6uest. "n the second group, the second illocution is the same as original proposition, but in the third group that is not the case. :or them, Searle suggests a pattern of analysis but does not lay out a full scale theory0 the utterance in these cases is meant as a re6uest , the speaker intends for the hearer to kno that, and intends to do so by getting the hearer to recogni(e the intention the utterance has t o illocutionary forces +one is performed by performing another :or a communication to be successful, it is often important to understand the motives that lie behind the utterance. Aut the bond bet een the utterance on the surface and its underlying purpose is not al ays straightfor ard. as Searle suggests ,1.1/01;30 e.g. Can you pass the saltE is an interrogative sentence and e!presses a 6uestion. Hormally, the speaker asks a 6uestion in order to get an ans er. Aut here the speaker@s 6uestion represents a re6uest and it represents an indirect speech act. Searle defines indirect speech act as an utterance in hich a speech act is performed indirectly by performing another or in other ords, an indirect speech act ,"SA3 carries Bt o illocutionary forcesB0 one of them is performed indirectly by performing another. Austin ,1.=23 claims something similar. He says that illocutionary acts are reali(ed in performing locutionary acts, i.e. making utterances. %his e!ample indicates the speaker re6uesting the hearer to pass him the salt indirectly by performing another communicative act $asking about the hearer@s ability to pass the salt. %here is also some evidence that these kinds of 6uestions behave linguistically as if they are orders. :or instance, they can have please, hich is impossible ith ordinary 6uestions ,Could you please pass me the saltE3. Aut they also behave linguistically as 6uestions since a direct ans er is a felicitous response. a0 Could you pass me the saltE A0 Ies.

but0 a0 8ass me the saltC X0Ies. Yuestions and orders are semantically incompatible. Whereas 6uestions denote a set of propositions, here direct ans ers, re6uests denote relation bet een orlds and actions ,Segerberg 1..;3. #any indirect speech acts behave linguistically as if they are @t o speech acts in one@ involving different kinds of incompatible semantic types. Some linguists claim that indirect speech acts are to a great e!tend conventionali(ed and these "SA$s can block their paraphrases from being interpreted as "SA$s. Do you have the physical a ility to pass *e the salt, is infelicitous as a re6uest comparing to Could you pass *e the salt, Some intervie e!amples ith could used like this are0 His Holiness the Z"F Jalai Lama ill be speaking at ?C" this eek, hich e can imagine is an ama(ing honor and e!perience for you and the rest of the center for Living 8eace Community. Could you tell us a bit about the Living 8eace Series, and hat they entailE We read that all of the programs for the month of #ay coincide ith His Holiness the Z"F Jalai Lama and the principles of Compassion and Qlobal Leadership. Could you give us a sneak peak at to hat kinds of activities and events that entailsE We sa )Qood Happens< mentioned several times on your site, could you e!plain to us the idea behind )Qood Happens< and hat it means to the publicE "t appears that the 9apanese aesthetic has also influences your life style in that your home and garden are in 9apanese style. Can you comment on thisE Iour interests are also philanthropic in that a significant part of your collection has been gifted to the Center. Can you give us some background as to ho the Center came aboutE %hat5s 6uite a startling figureC 9ust to finish off, Javid, perhaps He 'outes can help in a very small ay. " as *ust ondering if you could please teach our tens of thousands of readers a bit of Welsh. Could you *ust say, ith conviction, " mean not because " ant you to say it that you did do some covering up. We5re not talking legalistically no N " *ust ant the facts. Iou did do some covering up. %here as some time hen you ere over helmed by your

loyalties or hatever else, your protected friends, or maybe yourself. "n fact you ere, to put it as its most simple, part of a cover$up at times. Let me ask *ust start by asking you in your first fe eeks, your first couple of trips to Durope and Asia, ho you think you5re doing on the *ob of refurbishing ?S alliances and refurbishing those relations that ere strained a bit in the first term. Could you talk to me about ho and hen you made that decisionE Could you describe ho your thinking has evolved on this issue as you5ve sort of gotten and also at the time you defined success as universal coverage by the end of your first termE L8uede dar nombres de destacads masones espa[olesE "n an intervie the *ournalist asked young actress0 Planirate li da jednog dana upiete fakultetE) %his as not a straightfor ard askin for information but rather providing the readers ith the fact that she hasn5t been to university and also it represents a slight reproach. Another case is the 6uestion0 Ja li (nate da vas neki modni krugovi na(ivan*u butikaicom jer niste zavrili nikakvu dizajnersku kolu, odnosno fakultet? "t is not merely asking \Are you informed...) but it is more of asking hat is the attutude of the person asked to ards the accusations or is she threatened or hurt by them. Sometimes, the intervie ers use their 6uestions to comment on hat as previously said or to accuse their interlocutor or in some other ay e!press their attitude and thus 6uestion the attitude of their interlocutor for the purpose of giving their readers or listeners the clearest possible picture of the issue they ant to focus on. "t5s only you that thinks it5s rong like Qeorge Aush thinks that they5re doing that unreasonably.

Iou kno your defence intelligence assessment is that there is currently no link bet een Aaghdad and al$Yaeda. Iet, there5s a idespread lack of political engagement.

)"SAs arise once one has individuated the different illocutionary acts in the ta!onomy, and establish a theory hich aligns linguistic forms to these acts ,...3 an utterance e!emplifies an isa if the illocutionary act that is predicted by the linguistic form, according to the theory of alignment, is a distinct element in the ta!onomy from a further illocutionary act that has been performed. :or e!ample, the theory of alignment predicts for 6uestion the illocutionary force of a 6uestion, but if it is also a re6uest, it is distinct in the ta!onomy from asking a 6uestion< ,Asher, 2;;=0=3. 2.1. "ndirect speech act is a universal phenomenon in human language. Searle said about it0 B%he unit of linguistic communication is not as has generally been supposed, the symbol, ord or sentence... but rather the production of the symbol or ord or sentence in the performance of the speech act.B ,Searle, 1.=.3 %he idest usage of indirect speech acts is in situations hen people ant to be polite in order to diminish the unpleasant component of a message they are communicating. %hey use indirect speech acts so as not to threaten the hearer5s face because some direct speech acts ould be completely inappropriate and unacceptable ,this usage ill be discussed later3. &ther reasons for using indirect speech acts might be to make one5s speech more interesting, to reach some goal, to be ironic or to boost the force of the message that is communicated. there are various conditions on hich the indirect speech act depends. %hose are0 the structure the speaker@s ords and e!pressions the listener@s kno ledge frame ork, identity, background and *udgement

As the indicators of illocutionary force hich help the speaker provide the hearer ith the intention he ants to communicate through the proposition there are "llocutionary :orce "ndicating Jevices ,":"Js3, as Iule ,1..=0>.3, referring to previous Searle5s ork called them them. %hese can be defined as elements or aspects of linguistic devices hich indicate that the utterance is made ith a certain illocutionary force, or else that it constitutes the performance of a certain illocutionary act, e.g. interrogative mood indicates an utterance that is ,intended as3 a 6uestionN directive mood indicates an utterance that is ,intended as3 a directive illocutionary act ,an order, re6uest, etc.3. #ost fre6uent clues for indirect speech acts are0 ord order stress punctuation the mood of the verb part of the le!icon, i.e. performative verbs intonation tone of voice the presence of BpleaseB po er relationships situational conte!t I d-ga*e, ]es posible 6ue el pu*ante nacionalismo vasco sea producto de los delirios de un hombre, Sabino Arana al 6ue ?na mu^o calificaba como tontilocoE ,":"J +performative verb3 So, you5re optimisticE ,":"J +intonation3 LDl clip dispunta el vicio cinMfiloE ,":"J +intonation and punctuation3 Qive us a fe hints from the upcoming % ilight film, Dclipse. ,":"J + mood0imperative3 %he solution for the problem that pu((les linguists and that has to do ith the ay the hearer still gets the message the speaker ants to communicate using indirect speech acts is proposed by Qrice5s theory of implicature and cooperative principle.

2.2. %he theory of "mplicature. %he Cooperative 8rinciple and #a!ims 8aul Qrice, an Dnglish language philosopher managed to, through this theory, proves scientifically that the mutual understanding bet een the speaker and hearer lies in recogni(ing of common goals in conversation and specific ays of achieving these goals. "t is the study of processes of inferencing and negotioation of meaning here the role of the hearer emerges more forcefully as a crucial factor in processes of inferring meaning. Qrice posits t o levels of @meaning@ involved in any verbal utterance, hich can be summarised as the conventional denotative ,possibly also connotative3 meanings represented by the semantics of the language in hich the utterance is made, and the intention,s3 of the speaker in making the utterance. %he former type of meaning is close to hat is often called truth$conditional meaning or propositional meaning. %he latter is closely related to speech act notions such as illocutionary act and illocutionary force. Speaker@s intentions of course, ere an important component in speech act analysis. "n relation to Searle@s essential condition, cooperative principle and general considerations of rationality predict the felicity conditions of ma*or illocutionary acts. "mplicatures are the means hich Qrice used to e!plain in detail ho the hearer understands hat as meant to be said form the actual ords uttered. According to Qrice, there is a set of assumptions hich guide the behavior of the conversation arising form basic rational conversation. Levinson ,1.-701;13 added that these assumptions represent the guidelines leading the course of conversation. %hese assumptions are called ma!ims that are unstated assumptions in conversations. %hey form the cooperative principle0 B#ake your conversational contribution such as re6uired, at the stage at hich it occurs, by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk e!change in hich you are engaged.B ,taken from Iule 1..=0713 %here are four basic ma!ims0 13 the ma!im of 6uantity0 a3 make your contribution as informative as is re6uired ,for the current purposes

of e!change3 b3 do not make your contribution more informative than is re6uire 23 the ma!im of 6uality0 try to make your contribution one that is true0 a3 do not say hat you believe to be false b3 do not say for hich you lack ade6uate evidence 73 the ma!im of relation0 be relevant >3 the ma!im of manner0 be perspicuous0 a3 avoid obscurity of e!pression b3 avoid ambiguity c3 be brief ,avoid unnecessary proli!ity3 d3 be orderly ,Iule 1..=0713 "deally, speakers are supposed to include these ma!ims in their everyday conversation. Ho ever, ti is not the case since most often there can be0 flouting ,the speaker blatantly fails to observe a ma!im3 violating ,unostentatious non$observance of a ma!im3 infringing ,the speaker fails to observe a ma!im ithout any intentions3 suspending and opting out ,the speaker indicates un illingness to cooperate in the ay the ma!ims re6uires3 of a ma!im ,%homas 1../0=>3 %hese can cause the communication breakdo n hich is reflected in the hearer@s misunderstanding of the message the speaker intended to get across. :or instance, opting out of the ma!im by refusing to ans er the 6uestion asked is a clear violation of a ma!im but it is more informative than it could seem at first sight.

Ja li si nekada u seksi veUu spremala veReru (a svog deRkaE $ _o bih ipak saRuvala samo (a sebe. %hus, combined ith the conte!tual circumstances the cooperative principle is supposed to establish the actual meaning of the utterance. :or instance, in intervie s it is possible to have incoplete or eliptical 6uestions. %hese forms imply that something is either more

communicated than said or that there is no need to say everything because the hearer is already familiar ith the 6uestion the speaker ants to ask. Ali Milutin Mrkonji je ipak pre iveo rekonstrukci*u FladeE Ako !" pobedi i #adi $as predlo i za mandatara za sastav nove $lade? Ali (ato *e JS i( cele situacije oko %ikolievog trajka izvukao najveu politi&ku korist' A neostvarene elje? ( uz podrku porodice, oca? :rom the self$portraitsE Like the t o 8opesE :or the )?pfront< section of "ntervie perhapsE D!cept that "5m not accomplished enough. Aut you ouldn5t in this caseE And as for love ith #arc Anthony` any light you can shed on that topicE Any memorable fight scenes in the game, DddieE Ho more bog standard comprehensivesE Aut you5re gearing up for itE Aut you5ve been pretty interventionist as a Chancellor. Huclear po er plantsE %ambien en DspanaE Alguien en la orbita de la Asociacion de %eologos 9uan ZZ"""E Alguna ve( se ha planteado esto QH? o la :S:E Hoy un impedimiento financieroE %eatro por internet, teatroE Ds un mito 6ue sigue por ahi, vivo... Ho ever, there are certain kinds of e!pressions that the speakers use to alert that they may be in danger of not fully adhering to the principle. %hese e!pressions are called hedges. Dvery ma!im has a set of the most fre6uent and possible hedges. %hey sho that speakers are not only a are of the ma!ims but also of the fact that they endeavor to adhere to them, but it is not completely possible.

Cambiando del tema, la devolucian de los papeles de Salamanca la Qeneralitat saciar al nacionalismo catalnE ,ma!im of relation3 Folviendo a la era digital, realmente hoy se esta construyendo un Qran HermanoE ,ma!im of relation3 #oTda Ve neko reVi da sam glupa *er mislim da to ni*e moguVe, ali (aista veru*em da mi se to ne moTe desiti. ,ma!im of manner3 Fal*da mi se *avilo u snu. ,ma!im of 6uality3 Ies, " guess there is an idea of a romantic comedy, but my brain al ays thought of romantic comedy being like #eg 'yan or %om Hanks. ,ma!im of 6uality3 2.7. Some e!amples of indirect speech acts 2.7.1. Yuestion b statement %he 6uestions are not really designed to elicit information. )%he point of each utterance is to ensure that certain information is available for the interpretation of subse6uent utterances< ,Alakemore, 1..20..3 Ha "nternetu se &esto postavlja pitanje ko je !anica )adoji&i Hina. Gako biste odgovoriliE (zvetavali ste iz *ugoslavije, koji su vam utisci najupe&atljiviji? !obili ste ovu nagradu za knjigu +ajzer iz Amerike' *o jedan dokumnet iskorijskog seanja? !ugo se spekulisalo ko e doi na privla&no mesto umetni&kog direktora "rpskog kulturnog centra u Parizu' +ako je dolo do toga da $i pri,vatite ovu funkciju? Poznato je da "rpski kulturni centar ima odli&nu strateku poziciju -preko puta .obura, ali kao da svi, ovi, godina nije umeo da je iskoristi' +akva su vaa razmiljanja u ovom pravcu? Po&injete sa izlo bom )ae #anasijevia' /ta jo planirate? 0metnik ste, kako procenjujete svoje menad erske sposobnosti? "vojevremeno ste rekli da se ne priklanjate trendovima, ve da vam je va no zbog &ega neto radite' 1ime se trenutno baviteE 1ini se da ono to ne pro2e kroz maineriju advertajzinga kao da ne postoji' +ako se tzv'

ozbiljna umetni&ka ili klasi&na muzika snalazi u tome? Aktuelna sezona Ateljea 343 osmiljena je pod sloganom 56c%56# 70' *e l- to futuristi&ki ili aktuelni umetni&ki koncept? ( pored toga to ste zvani&no u penziji, i dalje neumorno radite? +ako je dolo do $ae saradnje sa beogradskim Ateljeom 343? $a upravni&ki mandat u )ijeci zavren je upravo postavkom komada 8ospoda 8lembajevi' 9ilozof %enad Mi&evi tada je kazao da je ta predstava dobra vest za pozorite, a loa za drutvo' :ato? $a ite za jednu od naj,valjeniji, i najosporavaniji, pozorini, li&nosti u ;rvatskoj' Pojedinci vas optu uju za estradizaciju i spektakularizaciju pozorita' !a li se i kako braniteE :alagali ste se protiv korupcije u pozoritu' +oliko, konkretno, ona vlada danas u pozoritima u okru enju? !obili ste nagradu grada .eograda, a ovaj grad je naao osobeno mesto i u $aoj prozi' +ako vidite njega i njegova stalne maneE "ti&e se utisak da ne postoji nikakva kulturna strategija' :ato? Mo ete li da mi objasnite zato se glavna radnja u $aim filmovima doga2a u ,otelima? #u osim ovog poslednjeg filma %igde i &uvenog (zgubljeni u prevodu, uklju&ujem i $a prvi scenario <ivot po :oi pa i Mariju Anoanetu jer je i $ersaj u ovom filmu neka vrsta luksuznog ,otela' (zgovor mogu da budu mali bud eti za kulturu, to nije problem sam "rbije, ali ima tu jo ne&ega? %edavno ste uspenost pregovora doveli u vezu s naim putem ka &lanstvu 50' !a li to oseate kao pritisak za dogovor po svaku cenu? 1esto se &uju primedbe da neadekvatno koristimo ve odobrena sredstva "vetske banke' !a li su one osnovane? :na&i vi ste ve spremni na kompromise' =d koji, za,teva ete odustati? dakon o nacionalnim savetima je naoj javnosti do sada predstavljan kao vrlo moderan i dobar' 0 &emu je problem? (z 5vrope nam &esto sti u kritike zbog polo aja )oma u "rbiji' +oliko su opravdane? "rbija i +ina imaju isti stav po pitanju +osova' Me2utim, Me2unarodni sud pravde doneo

je savetodavno miljenje da deklaracija o nezavisnosti +osova doneta 4>' februara 3??@' nije prekrila opte me2unarodno pravo jer me2unarodno pravo ne sadr i zabranu deklaracija o nezavisnosti' +ako to +ina komentarie? (pak o&ekujem da ete rei da biste opet otili u Pritinu' *esam li u pravu? Pritinska tampa komentarie da je nji,ova vlada potpuno inferiorna i da zbog #a&ijeve ranjivosti funkcionie sa dubokom dozom inferiornosti' !a li vi oseate tu inferiornost? Histe ni uklonili tragove kamenica sa auta, nego ste odma, otili u sloveniju' /ta su "lovenci imali da vam ka u? "ako ste rekli da JS kao datum i(bora ne nudi ni 1-. decembar, ali ni 1/. *anuar, pretpostavl*am da ste u stranci ra(govarali kad bi oni mogli da se odr e? Posetili ste "rbe u Aapljem "elu, ta vam oni ka u? Posetu ste dogovorili sa predstavnicima 50, ta ste im posle iskustva u Pritini rekli? Ja li ste u kontaktu sa nekim i( SHS$aE 8etog februara ste im ustupili vo( da preve(u svoje pristalice na miting, a za vreme %ikolievog trajka otro ste i, napali? %he A%A is your graduation pro*ect at the Lod( :ilm School. Aren5t you afraid ho it ill be received in the academic circlesE %he postulate of granting e6ual rights to lay interpretations of art can be considered rather subversive. Iou have said the challenge no facing the mainstream arts institutions is ho to enter the policy debate ithout feeling the arts are threatened by the changes. What can be done to support thisE Iou are also interested in the idea of augumented spaceN for e!mple, you use panorama in 6uite a fe of your orks. Ho do these augumented spaces contribute to e!perienceE Iour historical and autobiographical comics are approached ith a thin$lined loose feel and your )paint< comics are full$on minimalist. Jo you consciously approach your ork from a minimalist perspectiveE Iou5re probably best kno n for your comics poking fun at historical figures. What is the connection bet een history and comedyE " see, Javid, that you live in Holyhead in Wales. Were you born and bred there and do you speak WelshE Iou mentioned your ne book, hich has *ust been published by Cambridge ?niversity

8ress, called Language Death. What is language deathE &n some of them you have camouflage over the top of the images. Why is thatE "n America, you could be almost as famous as Charles #anson. "s there any similarity bet een you at the factory and 9esus at the Last SupperE Well, hat about these happier days at the present :actoryE Ho you5re a corporation president. Iou seem comfortable ith this genre. Why is thatE "n the film Amanda is smart so does that automatically mean that she5s going to have trouble ith romanceE %his is a story of a vacation that goes onderfully right. Have you had any bad vacation e!periencesE &n the flipside on this movie you could be a real bruiser. Were you icing each other do n after trainingE "n the film it5s the oman ith the commitment issue and not the guy. Joes that ring trueE All the ladies in the film said that you are the bet basketball player of the guys in /rown 0ps. Jid you gro up playingE %here are teen actors and younger kids in the film. Iour movies usually are pretty packed ith curse ords. %his film is 8Q$17 so as it hard holding that back around all the young peopleE Spanish is a romance languageN it e!presses love beautifully. What can you say about DnglishE Iou5ve been public about your political vie s so ho do you feel about the results and the recent electionsE Dddie, no that you are saving humanity on such epic scale, do you feel over$6ualified to go back on the road as a roadieE Where are you musicallyE " kno you come from a musical background. Ao , let5s get to the real itty gritty. Were you scared to stand in front of a microphone and play a rock starE %he ord is you did all your o n singing. 8rime #inister, for you to commit Aritish forces to ar there has to be a clear and imminent danger to this country. What is itE

Iou have been read as an idealist, as a nihilist, as a )ne philosopher<, an anti$#ar!ist, a ne conservative, and so on` Where do you standE Iou are the first certified conservative sent to the White House in more than /; years. Jo you think this represents a basic political change in the countryE Aut hence my 6uestion. " mean if you go to si! thousand ould that be enoughE although grammar is imortant, most teachers teach too much grammar and also give it too much priority ith the result that students don@t learn DnglishN they learn grammar. Why do you think this is so and hat, in your opinion are some good reasons for teaching grammarE #ike, you@ve no ritten 6uite a fe books on vocabulary and spoken language. do you think there@s a secret to vocabulary learningE Hay 6uien dice 6ue los factores 6ue desencadenaron la Querra civil se vuelven a dar hoy. ?sted, como estudisos de ese perKodo de la Historia, Lcomparte esa opinianE Dstos son factores 6ue *uegan en contra de un enfrentamiento.LI a favorE &tro fenameno 6ue Fd. ha estudiado a fondo es el de la masonerKa. Ds Msta una de las sociedades ocultas 6ue mes ha influido en la Historia de los fltimos siglos. LLo sigue haciendo ahoraE Antes ha hablado de la reaccian popular a la muerte del 8apa y de camo esa reaccian ha frenado a dapatero. Dl 1- de *unio hay convocada en #adrid una manifestacian en defensa de la familia. L%enemos los catalicos espa[oles motivos para salir a la calleE La detencian en su contra ha ocurrido despuMs de apenas dos meses de la firma de este acuerdo. L8iensan 6ue hay una relacian entre estos hechos, y de 6ue tipoE ?n a[o mes a6uellos 6ue deseen disfrutar de la mfsica en directo, al aire libre y gratis tienen una cita con el Cultura Yurnte de Caldas. LCuales son las principales novedades 6ue se encontraren este a[o los asistentes al festivalE ?na de las 6ue*as de los asistentes suele ser el cemping. LSe mantiene la locali(acian de la (ona de acampadaE A usted le acompa[a una sonrisa, 6ue parece formar parte de su personalidad no solamente en escena, y de una vo( 6ue a veces se ra*a para acentuar este o a6uel pasa*e en una cancian. LYuM papel ha *ugado en su vida la mfsica flamencaE LJe 6uM elementos se ha validoE LI a 6uM mfsicos mencionarKaE AhK esten 8aco de Lucia, Getama,

%omatito... Dl desamor parece ser amor a la larga. I de ambos hay bastante en su obra. )#i soledad y yo< es uno de los temas mes preferidas en sus seguidores. LYuM lugar ocupa la soledad en la vida Kntima, cotidiana de Ale*anro San(E Se mantiene la gratuidad le los conciertos, Lcamo es posible manener un evento de estas caracterKsticasE "n all these e!amples the first sentence bears information that is relevant for the other sentence. "n other ords, one act of communication is designed to help the hearer process the other. %hey can take place simultaneously or at different times. Ho ever, there are instances in hich one act is non$linguistic and the other one, linguistic, is *ust a commentary to the non$linguistic one. Jeclarative form of a sentence is information about its linguistic and not non$ linguistic properties. Assertion is something that cannot be determined independently from the conte!t. )Although it is true that OdeclarativeP sentences ,`3 may be used to perform something other than assertion, e can still say that there is a relationship bet een declarative form and assertive force or that sentences ith declarative form are standardly used to perform utterances ith assertive force< ,Alakemore 1..201;73. Yue escandaloC Alguien deberia detenerle. #noge tvo*e kolege sa 8inka prela(e na 8rvu poput #ilana GaliniVa. "t5s odd because you normally see *ust one 9esus at a time. Searle defines assertive utterance as one hich commits the speaker to the truth of the proposition it e!presses. Aut hat about metaphorical utterances, ironic utterances or indirect speechE %here is no speaker5s commitment to the truth of the proposition. 'ecanati ,1.-13 says that they demonstrate the need for a principle of literalness +a principle hich re6uires speakers to utter a sentence ith a certain illocutionary force potential. %he conclusion could be that assertive force is indicated, but it is not the actual illocutionary force.

Svo*evremeno ste i(*avili da se deavalo da puknete i ka ete da je kraj, da ne mo ete vie, ali da onda izbrojite do deset i ne bude nita od rastanka' D*mi Fa*nhaus0 #eni ni Aog ne mo e da pomogne' "urova istina poka e svoje lice jer joj neto daje enormnu snagu za to' 9ohnny Jepp said that all his characters are gay in the movies. Ho ever, classifying these utterances as deviant assertions does not 6uite e!plain hat they convey or ho hat they convey is recovered. "n metaphorical assertives the principle of literalness does not count. %he point there is to recover an interpretation that is consistent ith the principle of relevance +the most relevant interpretation is not necessarily the one ith literal interpretation. %he cases ith indirect speech here the speaker reports hat somebody else said are specific because those do not necessarily have to be the ords that person uttered +it may only resemble the actually uttered ords. Aut more important s the resemblance in content, the shared logical and conte!tual implication. Aut this notion of representation by resemblance departs from the more standard truth$conditional notion of descriptive representation in hich a proposition is used as a representation of the state of affairs hich makes it true. )A speaker ho intends his utterance to be understood as an interpretation cannot be

creating e!pectations of truthfulness since his utterance does not purport to be a description of a state of affairs. He can only be taken to be raising e!pectations of faithfulness. As e have seen the degree of faithfulness attempted varies from situation to situation.< ,Alakemore 1..201;/3 Also, that degree can be indicated implicitly or e!plicitly via le!ical devices. Alass,1..;0 .7$1273 adds that )the relevance of the utterance does not al ays lie simply in the speaker attributing the thought e!pressed to someone else. #ore often it lies in one speaker5s attitude to the fact that another speaker has e!pressed that thought.< 2.7.2 "mperatives "mperatives are associated ith the performance of directive speech acts, such as

ordering, commanding, re6uesting, entreating, insisting, advising, etc. hat they have in common is their attempt to make the hearer do something and they are differ among each other based on their strength, e.g. order is stronger than re6uest. Qive us a hint about your ne movieC "ma situaci*a u ko*ima po elim da odustanem i vratim se u "rbiju, ali onda ka em sebiB \StaniC "zdr i, proi eC He zaborai zato si ovde i zato ovo radiC) A hearer does not understand an utterance unless he can identify the type of speech act the speaker intended to perform, i.e. after identifying an utterance as a directive the hearer must then recover an appropriate description. "n order to establish the relevance of an utterance a hearer has to be able to decide0 hether the speaker as e!pressing the belief that a certain proposition as true hether he as echoing some other person5s belief or hether he as e!pressing the desirability of a proposition being true %here are many e!amples of imperative utterances that cannot be regarded as attempts to get the hearer to do something, such as utterances e!pressing advice, permission, threats and dares , hen they are attempts to get the hearer not to do something3, good ishes, audienceless cases, predetermined cases. "n the case of orders, re6uests, pleas, good ishes and hat Wilson and Sperber call the audienceless and predetermined e!amples the hearer ill understand the utterance as representing a state of affairs that is desirable from the speaker5s point of vie . %he various subcases are distinguished from each other by the different sorts of conte!tual assumptions that are brought to bear on the interpretation process. :or e!ample, if it is evident that the hearer is in a position to bring about the state of affairs

described, then the utterance may be understood as a re6uest, order or plea. &rders are distinguished from pleas and re6uests by conte!tual assumptions about the social relationship bet een speaker and hearer. %hus, if the speaker is evidently in a position of authority over hearer, the utterance ill be understood as an order. %he difference bet een re6uests and pleas is essentially a difference in the degree to hich the state of affairs described is presented as desirable. Qood ishes are distinguished from re6uests, orders and pleas by the fact that it is evident to the hearer that the speaker believes, first, that neither he nor the hearer is in a position to bring about the state of affairs described, and, second, that this state of affairs ould be beneficial to the hearer. %he audienceless and predetermined cases are distinguished from good ishes by the facts that, first, there need be no hearer present, and, second, the state of affairs is beneficial to the speaker. "f the hearer understands the speaker to be indicating the state of affairs is desirable from the hearer5s point of vie , then the utterance ill be understood as permission or advice. 2.7.> "nterrogatives Within the standard speech$act theory frame ork interrogatives are analy(ed as having the force of 6uestions hich are, in turn, analy(ed as re6uests for information. "n the case of yes$no 6uestions the information re6uested is essentially the truth value of its propositional content. Ho ever, in the case of h$6uestions the information re6uested corresponds to the value of a variable, e.g. hen +at some time. "n contrast ith yes$no 6uestions, h$6uestions do not e!press full propositions. %o provide a value for the variable is to give an ans er to the 6uestion. "n other ords, the speaker of a h$6uestion e!presses an incomplete proposition and indicates that its completion ould be a relevant ans er. %he problem is that many interrogative utterances cannot be analy(ed as re6uests for information. D!am 6uestions0 the e!aminer is not asking this 6uestion because he ants to kno the ans er but because he ants to asses the candidate5s attempt at an ans er D!pository 6uestions0 here the speaker goes on to ans er the 6uestion himself

'hetorical 6uestions0 the speaker is not e!pecting an ans er at all Speculative 6uestionscmusings0 nobody kno s the ans er at the time of utterance Quess 6uestions0 the speaker kno s the ans er, the hearer cannot possibly kno the ans er, so it can only be a guess. %he distinction e are dra ing here is analogous to the one e dre for imperatives. "n the case of an imperative, the hearer5s task is to make an assumption about the identity of a person to hom the speaker regards the state of affairs represented as being desirable. "n the case of an interrogative her task is to identify the individual to hom the speaker regards the thought represented as being desirable ,relevant3. "n the case of re6uests for information, e!am 6uestions, self$addressed and speculative 6uestions the speaker is indicating that the ans er is relevant to him. As ith imperatives, subtypes are distinguished by the different conte!tual assumptions that the hearer is e!pected to bring to bear on their interpretation. A representation hich is used to interpret another representation need not be identical to it. %hus, for e!ample, an utterance hich is used as an interpretation of the speaker5s thought may resemble that thought only in certain respects, e.g. metaphorical utterances. "n the case of yes$no 6uestion the proposition e!pressed is in fact identical to the proposition e!pressed by the ans er. Sperber and Wilson ,1.-/3 argue that the utterances that represent an interpretation are not only relevant in the sense of informing that someone said or thought something +it also represents the attitude a speaker may have to ards them. %hus there utterances are called echoic. We may add here the cases of intervie 6uestions hich the intervie ers ask in order to check if they have understood ell hat the intervie ee has said or to emphasi(e that his or her previous kno ledge and hat the intervie ee has been saying is not in accordance. Ja li ste bili u situaci*i da morate da (abavl*ate druge i kad vam ni*e bilo do smeha i (abaveE ,the intervie ith Hatasa Aekvalac, the intervie er tries ith these 6uestions to make her ans er something that he already kno s, but ants to hear it from her3

!a li je mogue odr ati plamen strasti posle vie godina veze? Dafter an affirmative ans er there as a 6uestion03 :ato onda u stanu koji ste nedavno sredili vi i suprug imate odvojene ulaze, spavae sobe, kupatila? Mnogi su to protuma&ili kao korak ka razvodu' "reu donosi samo crveni ve, nikako rajf''' Hi*e mala stvar biti 12. na svetu u skokovima u voduE $aa majka Ana va ila je za osobu velikog srca, bila je izuzetno voljena, uvek namejana i veoma posveena porodici? 8a imate stav. Sa novim albumom dosao *e i novi imid(. Histe vise Bslatka romanticarkaB, vec vamp (avodnicaE &sim ako Fel*ko ne povede svo*u devo*ku, pa ona dobi*e prvi pol*ubacE Aili ste svesni pre braka sa Hatasom da cete i(a(vati veliku pa(n*u medi*aE (zjavili ste da se vaa nova knjiga nee svideti <eljku Mitroviu' Pretio ti je i suprug *elene +arleue, !uko #oi koji je rekao da e ti polomiti noge? %vo*i komentari uvredili su i makedonskog oumena .okija 4E, koji te ovi, daa na sve strane blati? $aa knjiga Amna tako2e je izazvala veliku medijsku pa nju' Pri&a se da vam je u pisanju pomogla jedna poznata knji evnica' " (ato pisci poput vas preu(ima*u ulogu istori&ara, opisujui sudbine mali, ljudi? ? *avnosti se smatra da ste mu savetnikE "pomenuli ste da se svake godine kod nas dodeli blizu 4FF nagrada i da je veina dobitnika sporna po ideolokoj ili birokratskoj liniji? Albanska strana razgovorima uopte ne pridaje takav zna&aj? #adi je poslednji put video %ikolia kada ga je posetio u zgradi skuptine dok je trajkovao? " u svom dokumentu ustanovili ste 11 principa. Hal*ine protkane srebrom i kristalima... ,the continuation of the previous 6uestion in an intervie ith Ceca, here the intervie er indicates hat he e!pects from her to ear ath her concert3 +ao Pikaso, koji je &uvao &ak i tramvajske i cirkuske karte iz rane mladosti?

9ilmove koji su snimljeni na klasi&an na&in, bez letenja kamere, filmove sa 7/$mm kamerom, a ne digitalnomE Wait, e5re not going to see you on tour ith #iley CyrusE Iou@re mostly off of etsy thenE "t@s kinda more *ust you no . %hey ere all preparatoryE Iou@re trying to be transgressiveE "t ill be better for advertisingE Life is fantasyE #usic seems like a driving force for you both. Iou@ll do something for themE %hat@s a promiseE So you@re not concerned about a rapid rise of "slamic fundamentalism in many of these countries particularly Saudi Arabia or even as "ra6 that started outE So you are also orking ith the idea of open source and opening your orks for further modificationE So there ill be some surprising choicesE So they are like si!th graders thenE So Dnglish is for loversE So you@re looking to do somethingE So you@re taking time offE So you@re optimisticE So almost all artists are commercial artists, *ust to varying degreesE So it turned into something that everybody liked and you *ust started selling themE So you sell some cards out of that bike shopE And he blessed youE And that@s *ust ho it startedE And it@s not *ust a 6uestion of learning the ords, but kno ing ho to use them as ellE Aut then many parts of the orld here these languages are most seriously endangered don@t even have electricityE Aut you@re not going to be a sort of intimidated *unior partnerE

At the beginning of each Focabulary in use book there are some useful tips for both teachers and learners, aren5t thereE Speaking of travel you5ve been to a number of countries yourself to give presentations, haven5t youE Iou said you started that ith a friend of yours, rightE ,particle right here e!plicitly sho s that the speaker ants an affirmation from the hearer3 Ds decir, 6ue en un momento dado gl no le de*arha a Fd. por mentiroso. ]Yui(is gl esti planteando la recon6uista, la recuperacijn del cuerpo despugs de la e!pansijn sobre el mundoE Similar situation is in those 6uestions here by their statements the intervie ers are not only trying to get an affirmative or negative ans er but also they ant their interlocutors to comment their statement. "t may refer to something that is rumored about them or anything else that is someho connected ith them or their deeds. Sometimes these statements may include information necessary for the reader to understand hat the intervie er refers to in this 6uestion. Also, these 6uestions can have numerous syntactic forms. " druge strane imaete tekog i tvrdog pregovara&a, za 5ditu #a,iri ka u da je postavljena da ni u &emu ne bi popustili' 0 analizama ekonomije jugoisto&ne 5vrope, svetska banka i Me2unarodni monetarni fond prilike u "rbiji ocenjuju stabilnim, predvi2aju rast za iduu godinu od &ak G odsto' )azli&ita su tuma&enja $ae izjave da se #adi &etiri puta od februara sastao sa %ikoiem, a da se nije toliko sa nekim ljudima iz stranke' "vedoci smo da se u 9rancuskoj, %ema&koj i jo nekim zemljama 50 zaotrio odnos prema imigrantima? Feliko *e pitan*e kako uskladiti pravo i r6(li&itost, slobodu i taj drutveni okvir, jer stalno imam na umu 9rancusku i njen odnos prema druga&ijima' 0 vaem dokumentu sam videla da je evropska komisija konstatovoala da e se u naredni, G? godina iskazati manjak od H? do 4?? miliona radnika' =nda ba i nije razumno voditi klaustofobi&nu politiku prema imigrantima'

%e samo stranaka, nego i dr avaB bili smo svedoci kako 9rancuska raava problem sa )omima Inasilno i, deportujui' )askinuli ste pre pola godine, ali je va portparol to tek sad nedavno obelodanio. da nastavak te price ocekivali smo da necete nista pricati. 8o(nato *e da te ta*kuni obasipa*u poklonima. Hakon sniman*a filma unka, unka smu&io vam se seks, a zanimljivo je da ste intimne scene imali sa sadanjim suprugom? XSad bi vas neki novinar nedeljnika pitao da li ste izgubili veru u ljubav, da li biste se ponovo o enili''' ,this is a specific e!ample in hich the intervie er says that the 6uestion could be asked by another intervie er, hich may imply that it is, in his opinion a dumb or already a cliche 6uestion and that he on@t ask him, but it also, on a deeper level, implies that he is secretly interested in the ans er and hope that the intervie ee ould ans er any ay3 +a u da ste te ak &ovek''' #edi*i su ob*avili da putu*ete u Qanu, izme2u ostalog i zbog usvajanja deteta' %edavno si potka&io i vlasnika televizije Pink, <eljka Mitrovia' $a bivi suprug Aotar Mateus odao vam je potovanje pojavivi se na reviji, a izgledalo ,e da u njegovom pogledu ima i neto vie od potovanja' $a bivi suprug Miodrag +osti nedavno je izjavio da se vi i %ataa .ekvalac dru ite iza njegovi, le2a' Pa ipak su se u javnosti &uli neki mogui datumi izbora' Ha La*pciskom sa*mu govorili ste na promoci*i nemackog i(dan*a B"taka i komentariBE,at first sight it looks like asking for confirmation, but later e can see that it is possible to add to this the follo ing sentence0 Gakvi su vasi utisciE3 daniml*ivo *e Qra*sovo po(no pri(nan*e o pripadnosti nacistimaE 8rica se da *e ceo reklamni pano Srbi*e FasE ? *ednom od rani*ih interv*ua BAlicuB rekli ste da *e po(ici*a kulture problematicna i da stvari treba da se resetu*u. Ja se vratimo vasem CJ$u, danas ni*e lako doci do renomirane diskografske kuceE #arketinski slogan predstave BQlemba*eviB *e BJa li prepo(na*ete ove l*ude.B Hesto slicno vidimo i u filmu BHegdeB u odnosu i(med*u lika glumca J(oni*a #arka

in*egove kcerke Glio, ci*e on talente ne primecu*eE Sklonost ka teatarskom eksperimentu i politicko* provokaci*i tokom kari*ere donela vam *e mnoge bure u (ivotu. Sebe opisu*ete kratko0 (mi*a, macka, misica i korn*acaE Iou seem more comfortable. A lot of people sa the devastation in the lo er .th. Aut only you acted on rebuilding it. " heard you backpacked through 'omania. " noticed the other day that you ill break out singing and dancing at the slightest suggestion. Qabriel Qarcia #ar6ue( has ritten some very nice things about you. " kno he5s an old man, but he sounds as if he5s a little in love ith you. "n your recent orks, such as T1visionariu*, it seems there is a shift to a more temporal understanding of e!perience or even space. %o make it more e!plicit, in %$visionariu*, e see that there is a large dimension of e!perience that doesn@t come from outside but from inside. the vie er ceases to be a spectator, but has to make sense of hischer past and construct a narrative for the future. "t looks like the speed of innovation in computing in the past 7; to >; years has been rather slo . Something rather uni6ue about your dialogue is the lack of punctuation. :or the most part your characters@ dialogue is grammatically unadorned. another striking aspect of your ork is your totally uni6ue phasing. Iou completed Dnglish Focabulary in ?se ?pper$intermediate and Advanced back in 1..> $and you completed Dnglish Focabulary in ?se Dlementary. Iou are going to be sho ing your LAst Supper paintings in #ilan this year. "t@s very odd to see images like this one doubled. %he really big one is here there are images upside do n and the right ay up. "t@s not usual for business people to talk about these deals before they make them. " sa "lena ,Sonnabend3 today and asked her hat " should ask you, and she said, &h, " don@t kno . :or Andy everything is e6ual. Iou ere identified ith a fe artists a couple of years ago0 Genny Scharf, Geith Haring. Iou@re going to be audited soon for the audit Aureau of Circulations. And there@s going to be retrospective of your films at the Withney #useum.

Iou don@t do anything about itE %he hole appropriation epidemic comes do n to ho is responsible for art. "f indeed anyone can manufacture the pictures of those flo ers, the hole idea of the artist gets lost some here in the process. " remember a polaroid that you took of the 8ope. :red said he used to feel like the 8ope in the old :actory in ?nion S6uare. He used to go out on that balcony and ave at the passing masses underneath. "t@s a state sponsor of terrorism. We have flouted the ill of the ?H. 8eople talk about a more austere Aro n style, let me put it that ay. %here@s apart of you thinking Bthis still might not happenB. 'eallyC Aecause " think a lot of people ould BimagineB that you guys ould be in touch constantly. Iou@re rumoured to be planning a 1;;$day program of big policy initiatives as soon as you become 8rime #inister. " thought "@d talk to you a little bit about *ust sort of the hole degreeto hich this is really a test of leadership, health care is, as much as anything. And last year at the ne s conference, hen somebody asked you $it as almost a flip 6uestion $ hose *ob is this, you said, B"t@s my *ob, "@m the 8residentB. Aut the fact is that no 8resident has been able to pull off anything of this order of magnitude in >> years. "@ve noticed that you@re lately referring to it as health insurance reform. Jesde determinados poderes mediiticos muy beligerentes, cuando no fundamentalistas, el presidente del gobierno 9osg Luis 'odrigue( dapatero es atacadopor intentar imponer una polhtica anticlerical y socavar los cimientos cristianos de nuestro pahs. Ho hay mis 6ue escuchar o leer determinadosmediosde comunicacijn. Su kltimo libro La religi2n 3vaya ti*o4 es un instrumento intelectual por su planteamiento riguroso y desmitologi(ador de las religiones desde perspectivas diferentes.Sin embargo, su recepcijn ha 6uedado reducida a minorhas por su ausencia de divulgacijn y publicidad como otras propuestas intelectuales y polhticas. 8ero la mayorha de los 6ue hacen ciencia ficcijn o terror en la Argentina usan la berretada como recurso.

]Dl amor por una mascota constituye verdadero amor, en su definicionE ]Fd. ha encontrado 6ue tener hi*os e^ade sentido a la vidaE A diferencia de la mayorha de i(6uierdistas, vd. ha sido un campejn en religijn. . Lo 6ue es interesante es 6ue ni Fd. ni gl parecen escribir mucho sobre los libros actuales.

2.> "ndirect Speech acts according to 9ohn Searle Searle starts his elaboration on indirect speech acts in his 1.1/ paper by naming the cases of utterances here it is not easy to get a straightfor ard meaning including hints, insinuations, irony and metaphor. As he put it, here the speaker@s utterance meaning and the sentence meaning come apart. Aut the cases in hich the utterance has t o illocutionary forces are not the same as the situations in hich, for instance, the speaker tells the hearer that he ants him to do something and he does it even though any kind of re6uest as not made, meant or understood. Searle very e!plicitly states hat is the main issue in e!amining the notion of indirect speech acts0 B %he problem posed by indirect speech acts is the problem of ho it is possible for the speaker to say one thing and mean that but also to mean something else. And since meaning consists in part of that problem is that of ho it is possible for the hearerto understand the indirect speech act hen the sentence the indirect speech act hen the sentence he hears and understands means something else. %he problem is made more complicated by the fact that some sentences seem almost to be conventionally used in indirect re6uests.< ,Searle 1.1/0=;3 "n his previous study from 1.=. he touched upon the felicity conditions hen he tried to e!plain the indirect performance of some utterances. Also, very important is the background information that both the speaker and the hearer share and that can be linguistic and non$linguistic. :inally, the necessary feature for successful performance of a speech act is the hearer@s ability to make inferences. %he act of performing an indirect speech act, in hich the primary illocutionary

act performed in an utterance, i.e. its literal meaning by performing a secondary illocutionary act, i.e. the primary illocutionary act is not literal unlike the second one. $Let@s talk about your recent e!perience related to reality sho s. $ " am a oman ho al ays looks into the future. %he reconstructions of the steps of the derivation of the primary illocution from the literal illocution is the follo ing ,Searle, 1.1/0=730 Step 10 " have made a proposal to I, and in response he has made a statement to the effect that he did something ,facts about conversation3. Step 20 " assume that I is cooperating in the conversation and that therefore his remark is intended to be relevant ,principles of conversational cooperation3 Step 70 A relevant response must be one of acceptance, re*ection, counterproposal, further discussion, etc. ,theory of speech act3 Step >0 Aut his literal utterance as not one of these, and so as not a relevant response ,inference from Steps 1 and 73 Step /0 %herefore, he probably means more than he says. assuming that his remark is relevant, his primary illocutionary point must differ from his literal one ,inference from steps 2 and >3N the hearer must find the difference bet een primary illocutionary points and literal illocutionary pointaN other ise, indirect illocutionary acts cannot be understood. Step =0 ,factual background information3 Step 10 ,inference from step =3 Step -0 a preparatory condition on the acceptance of a proposal, or on any other commissive, is the ability to perform the act predicated in the propositional content condition ,theory of speech acts3 Step .0 therefor, " kno that he has said something that has the conse6uence that he probably cannot consistently accept the proposal ,inference from steps 1, 1, and -3 Step 1;0 %herefore, his primary illocutionary point is probably to re*ect the proposal ,inference from steps / and .3 Ho ever, the role of the assumption of sincerity is not taken into consideration here, and

also, it seems that the conclusion is probabilistic. Sentences that are @conventionally@ used in the performance of indirect directives may be classified in the follo ing groups0 group 10 sentences concerning H@s ability to perform a0 5o6ete li na* reci nesto vise o vase* anga6*anu u 7u6no8 9ore8i, group 20 Sentences concerning S@s ish or ant that H ti*e andspend *ore ti*e with *y children. group 70 Sentences concerning H@s doing a0 9oli"o dugo na*eravate da ostanete u +r i8i, group >0 Sentences concerning H@s desire or illingness to do a0 Da li iste porucili nesto nasi* citaoci*a "o8i planira8u da se ave sou1 o6niso*, group /0 Sentences concerning reasons for doing a0 : por;ue usted no ;uiere volver a estar con el cunado todo el *undo sa e ;ue el sigue ena*orado de usted, group =0 Sentences embedding one of these elements inside anotherN also, sentences embedding an e!plicit directive illocutionary verb inside of these conte!ts0 Le *olestaria si usted supiera ;ue su *arido esta a con otra *u8er, %here are some putative facts, i.e. hat Searle calls observations of the sentences in 6uestion or intuitions ,Searle, 1.1/0=1$1;30 :act 10 %he sentences in 6uestion do not have an imperative force as part of their meaning +it is possible ithout inconsistency to connect the literal utterance of one of these forms ith a denial of any imperative intend. :act 20 %he sentences in 6uestion are not ambiguous as bet een an imperative illocutionary force and a nonimperative illocutionary force. :act 70 Hot ithstanding :acts 1 and 2, these are standardly, ordinarily, normally +indeed, " shall argue, conventionally +used to issue directives ,if e use please, e mark the primary illocutionary point of the utterance as directive, even though the rest of the sentence is not such3. :act >0 %he sentences in 6uestion are not, in the ordinary sense, idioms. "n their use as indirect directives, they admit of literal responses that presuppose that they are uttered literally. Also, they can be literally translated unlike real idioms. :act /0 %o say that they are not idioms is not to say that they are not idiomatic. "f e used ill do a0 I wish I could turn ac"

their nonidiomatic e6uivalents, they ouldn5t have the same indirect illocutionary act potential. :act =0 %he sentences in 6uestion have literal utterances in hich they are not also indirect re6uests. "nterestingly enough, the intonation of these sentences is different hen they are used as indirect re6uests and ith only literal illocutionary force. :act 10 "n cases here these sentences are uttered as re6uests, they still have their literal meaning and are uttered ith and as having that literal meaning. "ndirect cases have only additional speaker meaning, but they keep their literal meaning ,as seen from the responses that can correspond to their indirect or literal meaning3. :act -0 "t is a conse6uence of :act 1 that hen one of these sentences is uttered ith the primary illocutionary point of a directive, the literal illocutionary act is also performed. "f e compare the list of felicity conditions on the directive class of illocutionary acts and si! groups of sentences used to e!press indirect directives, e ill see that those si! groups ill be reduced to three0 13 those having to do ith felicity conditions on the performance of a directive illocutionary act 23 those having to do ith reasons for doing the act 73 those embedding one element inside another one "t is easy to spot that the ability of H to perform A is preparatory condition, the desire of S that H perform A is the sincerity condition and the predication of A of H is the propositonal content condition, so they all refer to felicity conditions on directive illocutionary acts. Qroup > assimilates group = since both refer to the reasons for doing A. Searle, dra some conclusions presented in the form of four generali(ations ,Searle 1.1/01230 S can make an indirect re6uest ,or other directive3 by either asking hether or stating that a preparatory condition concerning H5s ability to do A obtains S can make an indirect directive by either asking hether or stating that the propositional content condition obtains S can make an indirect directive by stating that the sincerity condition obtains, but not by asking hether it obtains S can make an indirect directive by either stating that or asking hether there are

good or overriding reasons for doing A, e!cept here the reason is that H ants or ishes, etc. to do A, in hich case he can only ask hether H ants, ishes, etc. to do A %hese generali(ations are note rules but they describe the relation bet een the sentences in groups 1$= and directive class of illocutionary acts. %he theoretical task, as Searle stated ill be to ho these generali(ations can be conse6uences of the rules together ith certain other information +factual background information and the general principle of conversation. As the biggest problem here Searle sees the fact that some syntactical forms ork better in meaning and understanding indirect speech acts than others in spite of the mechanisms used to understand indirect speech acts. He tried to solve this pu((le by saying that )the theory of speech acts and the principles of conversational cooperation do, indeed, provide a frame ork ithin hich indirect illocutionary acts can be meant and understood. Ho ever, ithin this frame ork certain forms ill tend to become conventionally established as the standard idiomatic forms for indirect speech acts. While keeping their literal meanings, they ill ac6uire conventional uses as, e.g. polite forms for re6uests.< As e!amples Searle gives can you, could you, I want you to to sho that they are a sort of idioms or conventional ays of e!pressing re6uests but at the same time hat prevents them from being treated as idioms is the fact that they do not have an imperative meaning. Ho ever, this idiomatic feature is very important in some cases in hich not speaking idiomatically ould lead to some specific situations, deviations of the normal ay of speaking. "n addition to Qrice5s ma!ims Searle mentions another one calling it the ma!im of conversation0 +pea" idio*atically unless there is so*e special reason not to. "t also provides the ans er to the 6uestion hy some forms are more suitable than others to e!press certain meanings. %he ne!t problem here Searle mentions deals ith the asymmetry bet een felicity conditions, or to be more precise, the sincerity conditions and all others. %he solution ould have to do ith the 4normal behavior5 in given situations, i.e. any other behavior than the 4normal5 or conventional one ould be odd. :inally, syntactical peculiarities of the forms hich appear in indirect speech acts are discussed in the third problem. Among the e!amples he provides is hy not b verb

,the verb must be voluntaryN there must be a second$person direct ob*ect3, but still it is not imperative in meaning. "t *ust gives an assumption that the absence of reasons for not doing something is itself a reason for doing it and thus a suggestion to do it. Aut, since this suggestion is not part of the literal meaning of the utterance, it is possible to ans er to the literal utterance. And also, this kind of utterance may be reported ithout reporting any directive illocutionary forces. Another e!ample could be the occurrence of ould and could in indirect speech acts. Aoth can be used as indirect directives but are not e6uivalent, hich as proved by applying 4if " asked you to5 test. At the end of the chapter, Searle touches upon commisives ,especially offers and promises3 here he noticed the same patterns found in the study of directives. "f e ere to give a rule derived by Searle in this chapter that indirect directives and commissives have in common it ould be the one that refers to the elementary psychological states0 )&ne can perform an indirect illocutionary act by asserting, but not by 6uerying, one5s o n psychological statesN and one can perform an indirect illocutionary act by 6uerying, but not by asserting, the presence of psychological states in one5s hearer< ,Searle 1.1/0-13. He found five groups of sentences used to perform an indirect offer, or in some cases, a promise. 13 sentences concerning the preparatory conditions0 a3 that S is able to perform the act b3 that H ants S to perform the act 23 sentences concerning the sincerity conditions 73 sentences concerning the propositional content condition >3 sentences concerning S5s ish or illingness to do A /3 sentences concerning ,other3 reasons for S5s doing A "ndirect commissives include a lot of hypothetical sentences, here the antecedent concerns one of the preparatory conditions, or the presence of a reason for doing A. it leads to further generali(ations ,Searle, 1.1/0-130 Qenerali(ation /0 S can make an indirect commissive by either asking hether or stating

that the preparatory condition concerning his ability to do A obtains Qenerali(ation =0 S can make an indirect commissive by asking hether, though not by stating that, the preparatory condition concerning H5s ish or ant that S do A obtains. Qenerali(ation 10 S can make an indirect commissive by stating that, and in some forms by asking hether, the propositional content condition obtains. Qenerali(ation -0 S can make an indirect commissive by stating that, but not by asking hether, the sincerity condition obtains. Qenerali(ation .0 S can make an indirect commissive by stating that or by asking hether there are good or overriding reasons for doing A, e!cept here the reason is that S ants or desires to do A, in hich case he can only state but not ask hether he ants to do A. Searle gives the final conclusion to this paragraph saying that his approach does not fit either philosophical or linguistic paradigm +he sees it something more similar to )epistemological analysis of perception in hich one seeks to e!plain ho a perceiver recogni(es an ob*ect on the basis of imperfect sensory input< ,Searle, 1.1/0-23. 7. "ndirect speech Acts and 8oliteness Since a linguistic interaction is necessarily a social interaction, e may take into consideration various factors hich can relate to social distance or closeness and be relflected in a language. %hey can be divided into t o ma*or groups0 e!ternal ,e.g. social status of the participants based on age or po er +members of lo er classes hen addressing people form higher classes use titles or last name, but not the first name3 and internal ,e.g. amount of imposition or degree of friendliness, hich can change durng the conversation3. As a technical term face refers to public self$image of a person and his or her a areness of its e!istence. %hey also e!pect that other people be a are of that and sho it via politeness. D!pectations concerning public self$image can be defined as face ants. &n the other hand a face threatening act is defined as an utterance hich may be interpreted as a threat to somebody@s face and hatever a speaker does to lesen it is interpeted as a face saving act. Dvery person has a positive and negative face. Hegative face, doesn@t mean anything bad or evil, it@s simply a person@s need to be independent and free ?nlike

negative, positive face e!presses a ish to be accepted and liked by others. So, a face saving act hich is oriented to the person5s negative face ill tend to sho deference, emphasi(e the importance of the other5s time or concerns, and even include an apology for the imposition or interruption. %his is also called negative politeness. A face saving act hich is concerned ith the person5s positive face ill tend to sho solidarity, emphasi(e that both speakers ant the same thing, and that they have a common goal. %his is also called positive politeness. A positive politeness strategy is applied hen a person ants to be liked or maybe to get ne friends via certain e!pressions. %he on record e!pressions represent a greater risk for the speaker of suffering a refusal and may be preceded by some 5getting to kno you5 talk, designed to establish the necessary common gound for this strategy. Ho ever, a negative politeness strategy is more common hen it comes to face$saving acts. ?sing this strategy also results in forms hich contain e!pressions of apology for the imposition. "t is orth noting that negative politeness is typically e!pressed via 6uestions, even 6uestions that seem to ask for permission to ask a 6uestion. if a person ans ers negatively to this kind of 6uestion, the refusal on@t be te same as it ould be if it ould follo a direct, bald on record imperative. %he choice of a type of e!pression that is less direct, potentially less clear, generally longer, and ith a more comple! structure means that the speaker is making a greater effort, in terms of concern for face ,i.e. politeness3, than is needed simply to get the basic message across efficiently. also, the language used here emphasi(es the speaker5s and the hearer5s independence can be marked via an absence of personal claims. 8ositive politeness forms, i.e. solidarity strategy, are normally used to indicate the closeness bet een the speaker and the hearer. "t is linguistically marked by personal information, use of nicknames, sometimes even abusive terms ,especially among males3, and shared dialect or slang e!pressions.

"llustration0 a *ournalist asks a6uestion and the intervie ee hesitates to ans er not doing the face threatening act0 the *urnalist ill keep staring at the intervie ee and ait for the ans er or look at his atch doing the face threatening act off record0 "t@s scorching todayC ,indirectly sends the message to the intervie ee that he on@t proceede until he gets the ans er to this 6uestion3 doing the :ta on record0 " am still aiting for the ans er. bald on record0 Ans er the 6uestion bald on record ith mitigating devices0 Would you ,please3 ans er the 6uestionE face saving act ith positive politeness strategy0 Ho about ans ering my 6uestionEc Come on, "@m dying to hear your side of the storyC face saving act ith negative politeness strategy0 " really ould@t like you to cause you any inconvenience, but " ould be very grateful if you could possibly ans er the 6uestion " asked youE &f all these situations the most probable to be encountered in intervie s is the one ith mitigationg devices because it sounds most neutral. it has the strength of a direct re6uest so no other implications can the hearer dra , but also it sounds polite enough by means of these mitigating devices. all other cases seem fairly inappropriate because they are aither to familiar or too formal, although some of these direct ones may be traced in gossip intevie s hen *ournalists ant to make a provocative and daring intervie so they practucally play ith the celebrity in order to make them say something *uicy. on the

other hand, some milder e!amples of these formal casesmay be traced in intervie s ith diplomats or politicians or some other very important people. "f a *ournalist e!aggerates ith negative politeness strategy, any form of conversation is impossible because the participants are not on the same nor even appro!imately same level so they cannot have a normal conversation and the *ournalist probably on@t get may relevant information. %he basic assumption, from the perspective of politeness, is that face is typically at risk hen the self needs to accomplish something involving other. %he greatest risk appears to be hen the other is put in a difficult position. &ne ay of avoiding risk is to provide an opportunity for the other to halt the potentially risky act. :or e!ample, rather than simply make a re6uest, speaker ill often first produce hat can be described as a pre$re6uest. %he advantage of pre$re6uest element is that it can be ans ered either ith a 5go$ahead5 response or ith a 5stop5 response. %here is, ho ever, a general pattern of pre$ re6uests actually being treated as re6uests and being responded to ith the ,unstated, hoped for3 action being performed. %his 5short$cut5 process of going from pre$re6uest to granting of re6uests helps e!plain the literal oddness of a common pattern.Sometimes, e do not ans er a pre$re6uest but the unstated re6uest. 8re$se6uences are also used to ask pre$invitation 6uestion, or as pre$announcements, the latter usually by children.

8oliteness in linguistic pragmatics and sociolinguistics is relatively young subdiscipline in estern Durope and north America, dating back to the late 1.=;s and early 1.1;s.%he ma*or reason for the late appearance of politeness in the est is that those linguists ho ere interested in politeness phenomena in language had little or no theoretical basis to fall back on until speech act theory appeared in the 1.=;s. the insights of speech act theory ere then enriched and elaborated by researchers putting to use Drvin Qoffman@s notions of face and face ork, and ork on conversational implicatures by the ordinary language philosopher H. 8aul Qrice in the late 1.=;s and early 1.1;s. Qoffman@s indirect contribution to politeness research consisted of significant concepts such as @face@ ,or public self$image3, @ritual order@ and @the human individual as a sacred ob*ect@, hich found their ay into politensess theory in the 1.1;s. Qrice@s ground$ breaking ork on non$natural meaning, the Cooperative 8rinciple ,and its ma!ims3 and pragmatic implicatures had been kno n since the 1./;s and 1.=;s, but it as not until his William 9ames lectures came to be published individually after 1.1/, particulary @Logic and conversation@, that linguisitc pragmatices began to shake off the need to distinguish itself from semantics and to release itself from thhe attempt to apply speech act theory to generative theories of language. Studies of nativecnon$native Dnglish speakers@ *udgements of politensess in indirect speech acts have demonstrated that politeness rankings of differently formulated re6uests, for e!ample, are highly correlated for native and non$native speakers, although there is some evidence that learners perceive more politeness distinctions than do native speakers, suggesting that they may be over$sensitive to distinctions of grammatical form ,mood, modals, tense3 in different re6uest forms. other ork has e!amined the interaction of se! and age ith politeness factors in second language users, finding evidence of transfer from native pragmatic strategies into Dnglish. Sample0 a AAC intervie An intervie ith %ony Alair

ith Aritish e!$8rime #inister proved to be very useful for the analysis of

the indirect speech acts in the 6uestions asked but the *ournalist. %he intervie took place on =th :ebruary 2;;7. %he host as 9eremy 8a!man and also some other voters could ask Alair some 6uestions. %he topic as the "ra6 crisis. America as planning to attack this

Asian country and Aritain supported these plans even thou in the latter country there ere many ho thought there ere no reasons for that. %he host introduced the audience that the voters ere very hostile to ards the idea of the necessity of starting a ar. 8a!man starts by asking Alair for reasons for starting a ar and then says0 BAut right no there is no danger, it@s a danger some time in the future.B trying to correct his guest and convince him that his arguments are right. the argument is getting even harsher after 8a!man 6uotes some of the previous Alair@s statements, hich Alair denies and in one point says0 B%hey ere not put out of "ra6, 8rime #inister, that is *ust not true. %he eapons inspectors left "ra6 after being told by the American government that bombs ill be dropped on the country.B Alair@s ans er to this is again, contra argument0 \"5m sorry, that is simply not right. What happened is that the inspectors told us that they ere unable to carry out their ork, they couldn@t do their ork because they eren@t being allo ed access to the sites.B :urthermore, 8a!man asks Alair0 BAnd you believe American intelligenceEB hich may imply mocking, disbelief, sneering or maybe surprise or suspicion. And then he produces a disarming argument0 BAecause there are a lot of dead people in an aspirin factory in Sudan ho don@t.B Ho ever, Alair managed to find his ay out of this situation al ell, although in a vague ay. %he first voter ho as given a chance to speak to the 8rime #inister e!pressed his belief openly but underlying there as an accusation0 B" don@t think there@s sufficient evidence at the moment, like hen #r. Aush yesterday comes out ith this supposedly ne evidence " don@t think there as anything there.B %his statement as produced to make Alair comment on this and try to find an argument in his defense. Still, he only repeated hat he had been saying until that moment. Another voter as even more blatant0 \8rime #inister, you must see the evidence that as presented yesterday as laughableN it as #orecambe and Wise$es6ue $ the arhead sketch. "t as *ust absolutely laughable hat Colin 8o ell put in front of the ?H yesterday.B %his sounded as if he tried to open Alair@s eyes, to make him reali(e that he as being naive. Aut all that he says is0B Well " don@t think it as laughable at all.B another votes openly attacked the 8rime #inister by asking0 BHo can e possibly *ustify critici(ing "ra6 for developing nuclear eapons hen e@re doing so little to get rid of our o n. "sn@t it incredibly hypocriticalEB here, no further interpretation is necessary because no underlying meaning could be traced. &n the other hand, Alair tried

to defend himself by attacking Sadam Hussein5s the intervie progressed 8a!man changed the approach. He said0 B Will you give an undertaking to this audience, and indeed to the Aritish people that before any military action you ill seek another ?H 'esolution, specifically authori(ing the use of force.B , hich as more of plea or re6uest to make a saner decision in future. When he got the affirmative ans er he arned Alair about his mistakes in past via the follo ing statement0 B Aut you haven@t given an e!plicit commitment that those are the only circumstances under hich Aritish forces ill be used.B at one point he tries to make Alair reformulate hat he said by checking his ans ers and the understanding of his ans er0 BAre you saying there@s already an authori(ation for arEB the ne!t 6uestion B8rime #inister $ do you not think that this ar could cause even more conflict in the #iddle Dast in that this could cause other rogue states to actually go and sit behind Saddam and actually support him $ countries like Syria that 9eremy mentioned before. "ran, countries like thatEB as one of the most indirect, mostly for the reasons of politeness. :irst, the vote asks BJo you thinkB hich is a clear$cut case of asking for somebody@s opinion, but here it can refer not only to a certain attitude but also to 6uestioning the action undertaken by Alair and his allies. &ther thing is about the verb BcouldB. Here, it should e!press possibility, but the hole phrase can be paraphrased as Bdon@t you think ,or even stronger and more direct0 can@t you see3 that this ar ill cause...B for the purpose of being direct, hich is not hat the speaker intended to do here. A very interesting situation is the follo ing0 B%hese ere satellite photographs that ere taken before, and in one case during, and other cases after, ?H inspections. So they could have been made available to them at any time. Jid they lose themEB apparently, not even 8a!man himself believes that the 6uestion he asks could be true and this is his ay of finding the true ans er. %he attack to Alair continues ith a slight presence of insults, maybe0 B%he 6uestion referred to you by the ay, 8rime #inister, as Fice 8resident and Honorable #ember for %e!as Horth. Aut it@s not *ust him. " mean, hen a great orld figure like Helson #andela calls the Aritish 8rime #inister the American :oreign #inister $ don@t you feel embarrassedEB "t becomes even more visible0 BSo hen people say you@re a poodle...) %his is ho he is trying to strengthen his arguments, by giving more evidence that there are many other people ho think Alair@s rong. "n his defense, Alair says0 BLook, it depends hether you ant to deal ith this at

the level of humor and satire or hether you ant to try and make sense of hat are difficult issues.B When he asks0 B "f that danger that you and Qeorge Aush perceive apparently independently is as real as you suggest, here else are you prepared to follo him in actionEB 8a!man is a bit ironic or angry because he ants to kno here the limits to this loyalty are. %he statement0 B8rime #inister, you said of "ra6 that it as only the threat of force that got the ?H eapons inspectors back in there, and you@re not prepared to say the same about Horth Gorea hich has, as you kno , thro n out inspectors.B is not said for the purpose of repeating hat Alair said, but to highlight the inconsistency in his speech. hen 8a!man uttered the sentence0B %here have been == arrests in Durope in the past t o months, 2. of them have been in 8akistan, there have been something like 1= from Algeria, 1> from else here in Horth Africa, not one of them has been an "ra6i.B and Alair asked hat he meant by that, 8a!man as completely e!plicit0 B Well "@m *ust asking you about the connection bet een terrorism and the looming ar on "ra6.B by using the e!plicit performative construction ith the verb ask. Another plea against the ar comes in the form of , arning of3 the future conse6uences if the ar happens0 \Aut so many "ra6is, so many Aritish people, so many Americans are going to die. "nnocent blood is going to flo .B When Alair didn@t ans er the voter@s 6uestion, 8a!man reported her ords0 )She5s asked you about deaths of innocent people, " mean as a Christian ho you feel about innocent people dyingE As they al ays die in ar.B the 6uestion0 \Ies, " ould like to ask do you believe that the people of your country are behind you at the momentEB hich caps the hole intervie in an essential ay is *ust an indirect ay of saying BCan@t you see that virtually nobody supports youEB A brief analysis of the research "n creating the corpus necessary for this research " used e!amples form Serbian, Dnglish, American and Spanish ne spapers and maga(ines related to politics, culture and sho business. #y assumption proved rightN there are differences in the degree of presence of indirect speech act in different types of intervie s. Ho ever, the reason hy " decided to analy(e more than one language is my intention to sho that cultural and linguistic differences bet een languages of different origin are visible here, as ell. %o my surprise, the differences ere minor. Another thing that " ould like to pinpoint is

that " focused my attention to the 6uestions that intervie ers ask their intervie ees as a tool of attaining their goals or finding out something that their interlocutors might not have anted to reveal. "n other ords, they behave like cunning la yers in courtrooms hen they are pu((ling the accused. As e!pected, the greatest number of e!amples containing t o illocutionary forces or more as found in political intervie s. "t proves the fact that, in order to make an intervie interesting and to be on the same level as their intervie ees, *ournalists have to use some diplomatic tools0 to sho respect to ards their interlocutors, i.e. to indicate the social distance, but also to ask some provocative and delicate 6uestions. &n the other hand, celebrity intervie s contain the least of social distance. %he topics of personal life, habits and plans for future give ay to a closer attitude and direct 6uestions. "t seems that in this kind of intervie s the *ournalist don not aspire to reach the level of politeness to sho respect to ards their interlocutors but rather consider themselves e6ual or even more important then the people they are talking to. :or that reason, they allo themselves to ask provocative 6uestions, to confuse and sometimes even mock the celebrity. As far as the language is concerned, hat prevails are straightfor ard 6uestions, but also there are a lot of combinations of statements and 6uestions here a statement should serve as an introduction to the 6uestion or the *ournalist uses the information from the statement to focus on hat he is interested specifically. %here are a lot of 6uestions in the form of *ust a statement hich should be commented on by the intervie ee or the *ournalist uses it to sum up everything said previously. :urthermore, a certain number of statements consist of imperatives, a direct re6uest for the information. %he abundance of different ays of e!pressing one thing is best sho n in intervie s. Ho ever, the point here is that not only they are here to present the po er of language, but also to sho ho the role of these different tools, hat are their effects on the participants in communication. Gno ing that, people ill communicate more easily and appropriately.