Andrew Voyles

IB Chemistry Assessment Statements

A.1.1: The need for analytical techniques has become increasingly

important in past years, due to the need to understand the
mechanisms and products of chemical reactions at a molecular level.
These techniques allow us to determine structure, reaction
mechanisms, substance composition, substance purity, and to identify
and separate substances.

A.1.2: None of the different analytical techniques can, by itself,

determine the structure of the compound. More than one must be
used in conjunction for this to be possible. UV spectroscopy is used in
identifying metal ions and conjugated pi bonds. Infrared spectroscopy
is used in determining organic structure of functional groups, as well as
bond length and strength. Mass spectrometry is used in determining
the % abundance of isotopes, as well as organic structure, through any
molecular groups that have been disassociated from the molecular ion.
Chromatography is used in separating the components of compounds.
Nuclear magnetic resonance is used in determining organic structure,
through carbon framework and proton environments.

A.2.1 The electromagnetic spectrum is a spectrum of all

electromagnetic radiation. EM radiation is the transfer of energy
through space through waves, which have an electric field and
magnetic field components.
Energy and frequency decrease with increasing wavelength. Visible
light is between 400 nm and 700 nm.

A.2.2: The emissions spectrum is formed when substances release light

of quantized wavelengths, after being provided sufficient energy. The
absorption spectrum is formed by the wavelengths of light which are
not absorbed by a substance when light is passed through it.

A.2.3: When UV and visible light is absorbed by a compound, the extra

energy and excite electrons the substance to jump to higher energy
levels. This is used determining the identity of metal complex ions.
Infrared radiation is absorbed by molecules when they undergo a
change in the dipole moment through vibration. The weak radio waves
are absorbed by molecules during rotational transitions.

A.3.1: Below is seen a schematic diagram of a simple double-beam

spectrometer.

A.3.2: Most organic molecules have dozens of different bond stretching

and bending motions, resulting in dozens of absorption and on an
infrared spectrum. Because functional groups have characteristic
infrared absorptions that do not change from one compound to
another, it is possible to identify compounds in terms of which
functional groups are or are not present.
A.3.3: In the absorption of infrared radiation by H2O, if the frequency of
radiation applied to the molecule matches one of the discrete energy
levels of bond vibration of the molecule, the applied radiation can
change the bond polarity, causing the bonds to stretch and bend.

A.3.4: Most organic molecules have dozens of different bond stretching

and bending motions, resulting in dozens of absorption and on an
infrared spectrum. Because functional groups have characteristic
infrared absorptions that do not change from one compound to
another, it is possible to identify compounds in terms of which
functional groups are or are not present. However, is important to
realize that it is not the functional group which produces the absorption
peak, but the bonds that make up that group.

A.4.1: When a sample is bombarded with electrons in a mass

spectrometer, it forms positive ions. The biggest molecular ion is called
M+. The detector in the mass spectrometer detects only cations. The
array of all the readings is called the fragmentation pattern. In a
fragmentation pattern, the peak of highest abundance is assigned the
name of base peak and the arbitrary abundance of 100. All the other
fragments are then represented as peaks with heights that give their
relative abundance. The molecular mass is the relative average of all
isotopes of the compound present in the sample.

A.4.2: As the sample is bombarded by electrons, groups of atoms can

be knocked off in the process, resulting in a other large peaks on the
fragmentation pattern. Based on the difference between the mass of
the fragment and the mass of the parent, it can be determined what
the fragment is. For a parent mass M,
(M-15)=lost CH3
(M-29)=lost C2H5 or CHO
(M-31)=lost CH3O
(M-45)=lost COOH

A.5.1: 1H NMR spectroscopy is performed using four basic procedures.

First, the number of different absorption peaks are counted. Each peak
corresponds to a different approach on environment in the compound.
By integrating the area under each peak, the lowest ratio of hydrogen
atoms in each electrical environment is obtained. By looking to see
where the peak occurs on the horizontal axis of chemicals shifts,
relative to the reference standard of zero chemical shift of Si(CH3)4, and
comparing to a list of standard chemicals shifts for each functional
group, it is possible to determine what functional group this proton
environment is part of. By analyzing how many individual smaller
peaks make up each a large peak, it can be determined how many
hydrogens are attached to the adjacent carbons.

A.5.2: Since protons in water, lipids, carbohydrates and proteins give

different signals, they are used to make a map of each plane of the
section of the body that was scanned. It is used to determine the
abnormalities of the tissues, for example to detect tumors. Since there
are no known side effects or damages to the body, the technique is
used regularly.

A.6.1: Atomic absorption spectroscopy is used to determine the

concentration of metals in water, blood, soils, oils, and food.

A.6.2: Atomic absorption is the reverse process of atomic emission

spectra. In AA, the energy absorbed by electrons as they are excited
to higher energy levels is measured. By measuring the intensity of the
light after passing through an aerosolized sample burning in a flame
cell relative to the intensity of the light before passing through the
sample, it is possible to determine the concentration of an element in a
particular sample. The light source is a sample of the metal being
measured, and this method produces extremely sensitive results.

A.6.3: In the spectrophotometer, the fuel is a liquid solution of the

compound containing the element in question, burning in a flame. It is
from this that the concentration of the element being measured can be
measured. The atomizer breaks the compounds making up the sample
are broken into free atoms. The monochromatic light source is a
sample of the metal being measured in an individual trial. Since the
emissions spectrum and the absorption spectrum of an element are
the same, this allows the absorption of just the sample to be accurately
measured. The monochromatic detector detects the amount of light
absorbed by the atoms and converts it into an electrical signal using a
photomultiplier.

A.6.4: Since the path length can be fixed and the molar absorpitivity
constant is constant, the absorbance is directly proportional to the
concentration. The absorbance of the unknown sample at a given
point is read and the concentration can be directly interpolated from
the calibration curve.
A.7.1: Chromatography is a separating technique. Substances
separated by chromatography are analyzed and identified by mass
spectroscopy. It is extensively used in drug and food testing and can
also be used as a technique to determine the purity of substances.

A.7.2: Components in a mixture have a different tendency to absorb

onto a surface or dissolve in a solvent. This provides a means of
separating the components, therefore all chromatographic techniques
require a mobile phase (the solvent in the case of paper
chromatography) and a stationary phase (the paper in the case of
paper chromatography). The mobile phase in a chromatographic
technique passes the sample over a stationary phase, which causes
different species of molecules in a sample to separate.

A.7.3: Paper chromatography: Stationary phase is paper, the mobile

phase is a solvent. The sample is placed on paper, the solvent then
separates the solvent by capillary action and absorption of the sample.

Thin-layer chromatography: Stationary phase is a thin layer of gel on a

hard surface, the mobile phase is a solvent. Similar functioning to
paper chromatography.

Column chromatography: Stationary phase is an inert gel soaked with

a solvent, mobile phase is a second solvent. The solvent is poured on
the solid, and left to soak. The second solvent with sample is poured
over and left to separate. Different components form different bands.

A.8.1: For d-block elements to behave as transition metals and form

complex ions, the d-orbital has to be partly filled. It is now believed
that the d-orbital is divided into five sub-orbitals. Three of them are
less energetic and two of them are more energetic. Ligands, including
NH3, H2O, and Cl-, act as Lewis bases, and donate a pair of non bonding
electrons to form a coordinate bond. As the ligands approach the metal
along the axes, they repel the two orbital oriented along the axes,
causing the five d orbitals to split, three to lower energy and two to
higher energy.

A.8.2: The electronic configuration of the transition element, its

oxidation state, the identity of the ligand, and the molecular geometry
of the complex all affect the color of the transition metal complex ion.

A.8.3: Organic molecules containing a double bond absorb ultraviolet

radiation.
A.8.4: Unsaturated compounds containing conjugation ( alternating
double single carbon-carbon bonds) require high energy to absorb. As
a result, many organic compounds containing conjugation absorb in
the ultraviolet range and thus appear colorless.

A.8.5: A particular molecule must absorb either ultraviolet or visible

radiation, as all matter has color, and color is the result of absorption.

A.8.6: Since the path length can be fixed and the molar absorpitivity
constant is constant, the absorbance is directly proportional to the
concentration. The absorbance of the unknown sample at a given
point is read and the concentration can be directly interpolated from
the calibration curve.

A.9.1: TMS is used as a reference standard, due to the fact that all the
protons are in the same environment, it is not toxic, it is very
unreactive, it absorbs well away from most other protons, and has a
low boiling point, making it easily removable from the sample.

A.9.2: 1H NMR spectroscopy is performed using four basic procedures.

First, the number of different absorption peaks are counted. Each peak
corresponds to a different approach on environment in the compound.
By integrating the area under each peak, the lowest ratio of hydrogen
atoms in each electrical environment is obtained. By looking to see
where the peak occurs on the horizontal axis of chemicals shifts,
relative to the reference standard of zero chemical shift of Si(CH3)4, and
comparing to a list of standard chemicals shifts for each functional
group, it is possible to determine what functional group this proton
environment is part of. By analyzing how many individual smaller
peaks make up each a large peak, it can be determined how many
hydrogens are attached to the adjacent carbons.

A.10.1: Gas-liquid chromatography: Stationary phase is a liquid, mobile

phase is a gas carrying the samThe ple. The gas is bubbled through the
liquid, different substance separate, are detected and condensed.

High-performance liquid chromatography: this method is similar to

column chromatography, but under high pressure. Stationary phase is
a grating, the mobile phase is a solvent, it is poured over the grid, and
then high pressures are applied to speed up the process.

A.10.2: If food or drugs are involved, Gas-Liquid chromatography

should be used. In the case of pigments, paper chromatography can be
applied. In a mixture of ions, ion exchange chromatography should be
used. In the case of molecules of different sizes present, high
performance liquid chromatography should be applied. In the case of
separation of Amino acids, thin layer chromatography should be used.