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) where x
) = x.
If X is a nite set, label by integers 1, 2, . . . , n. An element Perm(X) is a mapping k i
k
for
k = 1, 2, . . . , n. These integers are distincts (bijectivity).
Denition: The permutation group of n objects is called the symmetric group S
n
.
4
We can denote elements of S
n
by
_
1 2 n
i
1
i
2
i
n
_
. The product is easy to work out in this
notation.
S
3
has 6 elements: e the identity, a the shift to the right by one, b the inversion
_
1 2 3
3 2 1
_
,
and then the shift to the right by 2 (or equiv. to the left by 1) a
2
, the inversion plus shift to the
right by 1 ab and by 2 a
2
b. It is easy to see
a
3
= e, b
2
= e, ab = ba
2
, a
2
b = ba.
Hence, we have S
3
= {e, a, a
2
, b, ab, a
2
b} subject to these relations.
Note: S
3
is nonabelian.
3 Lecture 3
Right cosets
Let H be a subgroup of G, dene equivalence relation a b i ab
1
H. It is an equivalence
relation because:
reexive: a a
symmetric: a b b a
transitive: a b, b c a c.
(simple proofs omitted).
The equivalence class of a is denoted [a] := {b G : a b}.
Denition: The set of such classes is the set of right cosets of G with respect to H.
We have [a] = Ha. Clearly, by denition, if a b then [a] = [b].
Theorem 3.1
Two right cosets of G with respect to H are either disjoint or identical.
Proof. Let a, b G. If [a] and [b] have no element in common, then they are disjoint. If c [a]
and c [b], then then a c and b c, hence a b hence [a] = [b].
Note: the latter is true for equivalent classes in general, not just cosets of groups.
Theorem 3.2
All cosets of G w.r.t. H have the same number of elements.
5
Proof. Consider the map M
a
: Ha H dened by b ba
1
. It is a bijection. Indeed, if
M
a
(b) = h then b = ha is unique and exists.
Denition: the number of cosets of G wrt H is called the index of H in G, which we will denote
i(H, G).
Theorem 3.3
(Lagrange Theorem) Let H be a subgroup of G. The order of H divides the order of G. More
precisely, |G| = |H| i(H, G).
Proof. The right cosets of G w.r.t. H divide the group into i(H, G) disjoint sets with all exactly
|H| elements.
Denition: A proper subgroup of a group G is a subgroup H that is dierent from the trivial
group {e} and from G itself.
Denition: The order of an element a in a group G is the smallest positive integer k such that
a
k
= e.
Note: if H is a subgroup of G and |H| = |G|, then H = G.
Corollary (i): If |G| is prime, then the group G has no proper subgroup.
Proof. If H is a proper subgroup of G, then |H| divides |G| and |H| is a number not equal to 1
or |G|. Contradiction.
Corollary (ii): Let a G and let k be the order of a. Then k divides |G|.
Proof. Let us look at the cyclic subgroup < a > of G generated by a. This has order k. Hence
k divides |G|.
Corollary (iii): If |G| is prime then G is a cyclic group.
Proof. Given any a G, consider the subgroup < a >. Since |G| is prime, it has no proper
subgroup. Since the order of < a > is greater than 1, < a > must be G itself.
Note: a cyclic group is completely determined by its order, so if |G| is prime, then G is unique
(this is up to isomorphisms, more about these later).
Groups of low order
|G| = 1: G = {e}.
|G| = 2: G = {e, a} with a = e. It must be that a
2
= a or a
2
= e. In the former case,
a
2
a
1
= a so that e = a, a contradiction. Hence only the latter case is possible: a
2
= e.
The group is called Z
2
. Here, we could simply have used the results above: 2 is prime,
hence G must be cyclic, G =< a > with a
2
= e.
6
|G| = 3: since 3 is prime, G must be cyclic, so we can always write G = {e, a, a
2
} with
a
3
= e.
|G| = 4: G = {e, a, b, c} (all distinct). < a > is a subgroup, so its order divide 4. Hence
there are 2 or 4 elements in < a >. Hence a
2
= e or a
4
= e. In the latter case, < a >= G,
so G is cyclic. In the former case, we can then do the same for b and c, so we have
a
2
= b
2
= c
2
= e. Then consider ab, and check is associativity holds.
1. ab = a: (a
2
)b = b and a(ab) = a
2
= e contradiction.
2. ab = b: similarly, a = e contradition.
3. ab = e: a
2
b = a b = a contradiction.
Hence if group exists, must have ab = c. Similarly, must have ba = c, bc = cb = a and
ca = ac = b. To show existence of the group, must check associativity in all possible triple
products abc, a
2
b, etc. (left as exercise).
The above arguments show:
Theorem 3.4
Every group of order 4 is either cyclic, or has the rules (this is a Cayley table)
e a b c
e e a b c
a a e c b
b b c e a
c c b a e
Denition: The group with the rules above is denoted V
4
, and called Klein four-group (Vier-
ergruppe).
4 Lecture 4
Notes:
Both the cyclic group and the group V
4
are abelian. Hence there are no non-abelian groups
of order less then or equal to 4.
The group V
4
is the smallest non-cylic group.
V
4
is such that all elements dierent form e have order 2.
V
4
has 5 subgroups: the trivial one and V
4
itself, as well as the 3 proper subgroups < a >,
< b > and < c >.
7
V
4
can be seen as a subgroup of S
4
:
_
e,
_
1 2 3 4
2 1 4 3
_
,
_
1 2 3 4
3 4 1 2
_
,
_
1 2 3 4
4 3 2 1
__
.
V
4
can also be described using symbols and relation. It is generated by the symbols a, b,
with the relations a
2
= b
2
= e and ab = ba. We have V
4
=< a, b >= {e, a, b, ab}.
Example
Consider the 2 2 matrixes
e =
_
1 0
0 1
_
, a =
_
1 0
0 1
_
, b =
_
1 0
0 1
_
, c =
_
1 0
0 1
_
and the product rules on these matrices given by the usual matrix multiplication. These form
the group V
4
.
Example
Take V
4
= {e, a, b, ab} with the relations shown above. A (cyclic) subgroup is of course H =
{e, a} =< a >. One coset is H = Ha, the other is Hb = {b, ab}. They have no element in
common, and have the same number of elements. Lagrange thm holds.
Example
Consider S
3
= {e, a, a
2
, b, ab, a
2
b} with the relations as before. Consider the subgroup H =
{e, b} =< b >. We have Ha = {a, a
2
b}, Ha
2
= {a
2
, ab}. We have 3 cosets, each 2 elements,
total 6 elements.
_
1 2
2 1
_
. Also, f(1) =
_
1 2
1 2
_
hence
f maps identity to identity. This is sucient to verify that f is an isomorphism.
Let G
1
and G
2
be two groups. Then G = g
1
G
2
= {(g
1
, g
2
) : g
1
G
1
, g
2
G
2
} is a group,
with the multiplication law (g
1
, g
2
)(g
1
, g
2
) = (g
1
g
1
, g
2
g
2
). The axioms of a group are satised.
Note: if G
1
and G
2
are abelian, then so is G
1
G
2
. Also, G
1
{e
2
} = {(g
1
, e
2
) : g
1
G
1
}
(where e
2
is the identity in G
2
) is a subgroup of G
1
G
2
, which is isomorphic to G
1
. Likewise,
{e
1
} G
2
= G
2
.
Theorem 4.1
|G
1
G
2
| = |G
1
| |G
2
|
Proof. Trivial.
Consider G
1
= {e
1
, a
1
}, a
2
1
= e
1
and G
2
= {e
2
, a
2
}, a
2
2
= e
2
. That is, G
1
= Z
2
and G
2
= Z
2
.
Then G
1
G
2
has order 4. Hence it must be isomorphic to Z
4
or to V
4
. Which one? Since all
elements of G
1
G
2
dierent form (e
1
, e
2
) are of order 2, this cannot be Z
4
, which has element
of order 4. Hence it must be V
4
. That is, we have found
Z
2
Z
2
= V
4
.
Theorem 4.2
(without proof) A group of order 6 is isomorphic either to Z
6
(cyclic group of order 6) or to S
3
.
Consider the group Z
2
Z
3
. This has order 6. Is it isomorphic to Z
6
or to S
3
? We note that
Z
2
Z
3
is abelian. Also, Z
6
is abelian, but S
3
is not. Hence we must have
Z
2
Z
3
= Z
6
.
In which situations do we have Z
p
Z
q
= Z
pq
? The answer is
Theorem 4.3
Z
p
Z
q
= Z
pq
if and only if p and q are relatively prime (i.e. do not have prime factors in
common).
Proof. Let Z
p
=< a > and Z
q
=< b >. That is, a
p
= e and b
q
= e (and there are no smaller
positive integeres such that these are true). Then, consider (a, b) Z
p
Z
q
. We show that if p
9
and q are relatively prime, then (a, b) has order pq. Indeed, let n > 0 be such that (a, b)
n
= (e, e)
(the identity in Z
p
Z
q
). Then we must have both a
n
= e and b
n
= e. Hence, n = rp = tq where
r and t are positive integers. The smallest values for t and r are: t = all prime factors of p not
included in q, and r = all prime factors of q not included in p. If p and q are relatively prime,
then we nd t = p and r = q. Hence, n = pq. That is, the subgroup < (a, b) > of Z
p
Z
q
has
order pq = |Z
p
Z
q
|. Hence we have found Z
p
Z
q
=< (a, b) >: it is cyclic, hence isomorphic
to Z
pq
. For the opposite proposition, we show that if p and q are not relatively prime, then
Z
p
Z
q
is not isomorphic to Z
pq
. In the argument above, in place of (a, b) we take an arbitrary
element of the form c = (a
v
, b
w
) for v, w 0, and look for some n > 0 such that c
n
= e. Clearly,
(a
v
)
p
= e and (a
w
)
q
= e. Hence the argument above with a replaced by a
v
and b replaced by b
w
shows that we can take t < p and r < q, so that n < pq. This means that any element of Z
p
Z
q
has order less than pq. But in Z
pq
there is at least one element that has order pq. Hence, we do
not have an isomorphism.
Matrices and symmetry transformations
Let us consider the set of transformations of the Euclidean plane that preserve the length of
vectors and the origin. These are the rotations
A
=
_
cos sin
sin cos
_
and the reections, one of which being reection through the x axis (i.e. inversing the y coor-
dinate):
B =
_
1 0
0 1
_
.
Reections through any other axis can be obtained from these two transformations: if we want
reection through the axis that is at angle , we just need A
BA
= A
+
= A
2
= 1 and B
2
= 1. Also, A
B = BA
. These
are the relations describing the group V
4
: the set {1, A
, B, A
c(g
)
1
(for some g, g
G), hence a = gg
c(g
)
1
g
1
= gg
c(gg
)
1
.
Hence, the group G is divided into disjoint conjugacy classes, [a]
C
= {gag
1
: g G}. These
classes cover the whole group,
aG
[a]
C
= G, hence form a partition of G. Further remarks:
[e]
C
= {e}. Hence no other class is a subgroup (i.e. e [a]
C
for any a = e).
11
All elements of a conjugacy class have the same order. Because (gag
1
)
n
= gag
1
gag
1
gag
1
(n factors) = ga
n
g
1
(using g
1
g = e). Hence if a
n
= e (i.e. a has order n), then
(gag
1
)
n
= geg
1
= e. Hence also gag
1
has order n.
If G is abelian, then [a]
C
= {a} for all a G.
Denition: A subgroup H is called normal or invariant if gHg
1
H for all g G. (note: as
usual, gHg
1
= {ghg
1
: h H}). That is, H is normal if for every h H and every g G, we
have ghg
1
H.
Notes:
Let H be a normal subgroup. If h H then [h] H. That is, H is composed of entire
conjugacy classes.
{e} is a normal subgroup.
Every subgroup of an abelian group is normal.
Denition: A group is simple if it has no proper normal subgroup. A group is semi-simple if
it has no proper abelian normal subgroup.
Denition: The center Z(G) of a group G is the set of all elements which commute with all
elements of G:
Z(G) = {a G : ag = ga g G}
Theorem 5.2
The center Z(G) of a group is a normal subgroup.
Proof. Subgroup: closure: let a, b Z(G) and g G then abg = agb = gab hence ab Z(G).
identity: e Z(G). inverse: let a Z(G) and g G then ag
1
= g
1
a hence ga
1
= a
1
g
hence a
1
Z(G). Normal: let a Z(G) and g G then gag
1
= gg
1
a = a Z(G).
Note: If G is simple, then Z(G) = {e} or Z(G) = G.
Quotients
Let G be a group and H a subgroup of G.
Denition: A left-coset of G with respect to H is a class [a]
L
= {b G : a
1
b H} for a G.
That is, [a]
L
= aH. (Compare with right-cosets same principle: a
1
b H is an equivalence
relation between a and b).
Hence we have two types of cosets (right and left), with two types of equivalence relations. We
will denote the equivalence relations respectively by
R
and
L
, and the classes by [a]
R
= Ha
and [a]
L
= aH.
12
Denition: The quotient G/H = {[a]
L
: a G} is the set of all left-cosets; that is, the set of
equivalence classes under
L
. The quotient H\G = {[a]
R
] : a G} is the set of all right-cosets;
that is, the set of equivalence classes under
R
.
We only discuss G/H, but a similar discussion hold for H\G.
Given two subsets A and B of G, we dene the multiplication law AB = {ab : a A, b B}.
Theorem 5.3
If H is normal, then the quotient G/H, with the multiplication law on subsets, is a group.
Proof. We need to check 4 things.
Closure: We have [g
1
]
L
[g
2
]
L
= g
1
Hg
2
H = g
1
g
2
g
1
2
Hg
2
H = g
1
g
2
QH where Q = g
1
2
Hg
2
H. Since e Q (because take e H in g
1
2
Hg
2
), we have that QH H. But also,
since Q H and H is a subgroup, we have QH H. Hence QH = H. Hence we nd
[g
1
]
L
[g
2
]
L
= g
1
g
2
H so that
[g
1
]
L
[g
2
]
L
= [g
1
g
2
]
L
.
Associativity: This follows immediately from associativity of G and the relation found in
the previous point.
Identity: Similarly it follows that [e]
L
is an identity.
Inverse: Similarly it follows that [g
1
]
L
is the inverse of [g]
L
.
We call G/H the (left-)quotient group of G with respect to H.
6 Lecture 6
Example
Take S
3
= {e, a, a
2
, b, ab, a
2
b} (with the usual relations). Choose H = {e, a, a
2
}. Check that
it is a normal subgroup. Clearly it is a subgroup, as it is H =< a >. We need to check that
gHg
1
H; it is sucient to check for g = b, ab, a
2
b (i.e. g H). We have bab
1
= bab =
a
2
bb = a
2
H, and ab a (ab)
1
= abab
1
a
1
= ababa
2
= aa
2
bba
2
= a
3
a
2
= a
2
H and
a
2
b a (a
2
b)
1
= a
2
bab
1
(a
2
)
1
= a
2
baba = a
2
a
2
bba = a
4
a = a
5
= a
2
H. Using these results,
the rest follows: ba
2
b
1
= (bab
1
)
2
= a
4
= a H, etc. Hence H is normal. Interestingly,
we also obtain from these calculations the conjugacy classes of a and a
2
(because the other
things to calculate are trivial since H is abelian: aaa
1
= a, etc.): we have [a]
C
= {a, a
2
} and
[a
2
]
C
= {a, a
2
}. Along with [e]
C
= {e}, we see indeed that H = [e]
C
[a]
C
so it contains whole
conjugacy classes.
13
We have two left-cosets: H = [e]
L
and bH = [b]
L
= {b, ab, a
2
b}. Hence, S
3
/H has two elements,
[e]
L
and [b]
L
. Explicitly multiplying these subsets we nd:
[e]
L
[e]
L
= [e]
L
, [e]
L
[b]
L
= [b]
L
, [b]
L
[b]
L
= [e]
L
Indeed, this forms a group, and is in agreement with the relation found (using b
2
= e). We
have [e]
L
= [a]
L
= [a
2
]
L
and [b]
L
= [ab]
L
= [a
2
b]
L
. The multiplication law is also in agreement
with other choices of representatives, because e.g. [a]
L
[ab]
L
= [a
2
b]
L
and [ab]
L
[ab]
L
= [abab]
L
=
[a
3
b
2
]
L
= [e]
L
, etc. In the end, we nd that the multiplication law is that of Z
2
, i.e.
S
3
/H
= Z
2
Homomorphisms
Denition: Let G
1
and G
2
be groups. A map : G
1
G
2
is a homomorphism if (g
1
g
2
) =
(g
1
)(g
2
) for all g
1
G
1
and g
2
G
2
.
Note:
(e
1
) = e
2
(g
1
) = (g)
1
Example
Homomorphism S
2
S
3
:
_
1 2
1 2
_
_
1 2 3
1 2 3
_
,
_
1 2
2 1
_
_
1 2 3
2 1 3
_
Note: this is not an isomorphism though S
2
and S
3
are not isomorphic (in particular, they
dont even have the same number of elements).
and (e) = e
hence (g
1
)(g
1
2
) = e
hence (g
1
g
1
2
) = e
hence
g
1
g
1
2
= e by using ker = {e}. Hence g
1
= g
2
and we have injectivity.
Theorem 6.2
The kernel is a normal subgroup.
Proof. Let : G G
= e
hence h
1
h
2
H; 2) (e) = e
hence e H; 3) if h H then (h
1
) =
(h)
1
= e hence h
1
H. Hence H is a subgroup. Also: if h G and g G then
(ghg
1
) = (g)(h)(g
1
) = (gg
1
) = (e) = e hence ghg
1
H. Hence H is normal.
The homomorphism theorem
Example
Let R
R
+
(onto) by (x) = |x|. This is a homomorphism: (xx
) = |xx
| = |x| |x
| = (x)(x
). Its kernel
is ker = {x R
: |x| = 1} = {1, 1} = Z
2
. Hence Z
2
is a normal subgroup of R
. Further,
let us calculate R
/Z
2
. This is the set {xZ
2
: x R
} = {{x, x} : x R
} = {{x, x} :
x R
+
}. That is, it is the set of pairs of number and its negative, and each pair can be
completely characterised by a positive real number. These pairs form a group (the quotient
group): {x, x} {x
, x
} = {xx
, xx
}.
We note that there is an isomorphism between R
/Z
2
and R
+
. Indeed, dene : R
/Z
2
R
+
as the bijective map ({x, x}) = |x| (for x R
, x
}) = ({xx
, xx
}) = |xx
| = |x| |x
| = ({x, x} {x
, x
/Z
2
= R
+
, that is,
R
/ker
= im
(where im = (G) is the image of ).
Example
Consider the example of S
3
and H discussed at the beginning of lecture 6. We have the fol-
lowing homomorphism: : S
3
= {e, a, a
2
, b, ab, a
2
b} Z
2
= {e, b} given by (a
n
) = e and
(a
n
b) = b. This is a homomorphism: (a
n
a
m
) = e = (a
n
)(a
m
), (a
n
ba
m
b) = (a
nm
b
2
) =
(a
nm
) = e = b
2
= (a
n
b)(a
m
b), (a
n
ba
m
) = (a
nm
b) = b = be = (a
n
b)(a
m
) and likewise
(a
n
a
m
b) = b = (a
n
)(a
m
b). We see the following: given the group H, we have found a homo-
15
morphism : S
3
S
3
/H (onto) such that ker = H. (And put dierently, we also see that, as
in the previous example, S
3
/ker = im.)
, i.e. im = G
.
Dene
(gH) = (g). This is well dened because if g
1
H = g
2
H (recall, g
1
H and g
2
H are
either equal or disjoint) then g
1
L
g
2
hence g
1
= g
2
h for some h H hence (g
1
) = (g
2
h) =
(g
2
)(h) = (g
2
) because H is the kernel of . Also,
is a homomorphism:
(gHg
H) =
(gg
H) = (gg
) = (g)(g
) =
(gH)
(g
H).
Second, we show that
is bijective. It is clearly surjective (onto G
), because is onto G
:
the set of all left-cosets is the set of all gH for all g G, and
({gH : g G}) = (G) = G
.
Hence we only need to show injectivity. Suppose
(gH) =
(g
). Hence
(g)
1
(g
) = e hence (g)
1
(g
) = e hence (g
1
g
) = e hence g
1
g
H hence g
= gh for
some h H, hence g
L
g
, so that gH = g
H.
Theorem 6.4
Given a group G and a normal subgroup H, there exists a homomorphism : G G/H (onto)
such that ker = H.
Proof. If g G, let (g) = gH. This is a homomorphism: (gg
) = gg
H = gHg
H = (g)(g
).
Its kernel is ker = {g G : gH = H} = {g G : g
L
e} = H.
7 Lecture 7
Another example of all that:
Example
Consider the group
K
2
=
__
1
0
_
: C, C
_
L
2
=
__
1 0
1
_
: C
_
We can check that K
2
is a group, and that L
2
is a normal subgroup of K
2
.
16
K
2
is a group: 1) closure:
_
1
0
__
1
0
_
=
_
(
)
1
0
1
+
_
2) associativity: immediate from matrix multiplication;
3) identity: choose = 1 and = 0;
4) inverse:
_
1
0
_
1
=
_
0
1
_
(just check from the multiplication law above).
L
2
is a subgroup: just choose = 1, this is a subset that is preserve under multiplication (check
multiplication law above), that contains the identity ( = 0) and that contain inverse of every
element (check form of inverse above).
L
2
is a normal subgroup: the argument is simple: under the multiplication rule, elements of
the diagonal get multiplied directly. Hence, with element g =
_
1
0
_
K
2
and h =
_
1 0
1
_
L
2
, we have that ghg
1
is a matrix with on the diagonal 1
1
= 1 and
1
1 = 1, hence matrix of the form
_
1 0
1
_
L
2
.
So, we can form the quotient group K
2
/L
2
: this is the group of left-cosets, under element-wise
multiplication of left-cosets. The set of left cosets is
{gL
2
: g K
2
} =
__
1
0
___
1 0
1
_
: C
_
: , C; = 0
_
=
___
1
0
+
_
: C
_
: , C; = 0
_
=
___
1
0
_
: C
_
: , C; = 0
_
=
__
1
0
C
_
: , C; = 0
_
(1)
where in the third step, we changed variable to
to ) which
preserves C, i.e. { + : C} = C, because = 0. That is, a left-coset is a subset
_
1
0
C
_
.
17
The multiplication law is
_
1
0
C
__
1
0
C
_
=
_
(
)
1
0
C
1
+C
_
=
_
(
)
1
0
C
_
hence clearly the identity in the quotient group is
_
1 0
C 1
_
= L
2
There exists a bijective map : K
2
/L
2
C
= { C : = 0}, given by
__
1
0
C
__
=
This is bijective. Indeed, it is surjective: given C
1
=
2
= , hence
_
1
1
0
C
1
_
=
_
1
2
0
C
2
_
.
The map is also a homomorphism, hence it is an isomorphism. Indeed, using the multiplication
law of the quotient group above, we see that
(
_
1
0
C
__
1
0
C
_
) = (
_
(
)
1
0
C
_
) =
= (
_
1
0
C
_
)(
_
1
0
C
_
).
Hence, we have shown that K
2
/L
2
= C
).
Let us now consider the homomorphism : K
2
C
given by
(
_
1
0
_
) =
This is onto C
, C : (
_
1
0
_
) = 1
_
=
__
1
0
_
: = 1, C
_
=
__
1 0
1
_
: C
_
= L
2
(2)
18
Hence by the homomorphism theorem we have that K
2
/L
2
= C
G such that
a
(g
= a
1
ga.
ker
a
= {e}: indeed if
a
(g) = e then aga
1
= e then g = a
1
ea = e.
Example
Consider G = Z
2
Z
2
, with Z
2
= {e, a}, a
2
= e. Dene : G G by ((g
1
, g
2
)) = (g
2
, g
1
).
This is an nontrivial (i.e. dierent from identity map) automorphism. Indeed: 1) it is bi-
jective, 2) it is nontrivial: ((e, a)) = (a, e) = (e, a), 3) it is a homomorphism: (g)(g
) =
((g
1
, g
2
))((g
1
, g
2
)) = (g
2
, g
1
)(g
2
, g
1
) = (g
2
g
2
, g
1
g
1
) = ((g
1
g
1
, g
2
g
2
)) = (gg
). But there is no
g Z
2
Z
2
such that =
g
. Indeed, we would have
g
((e, a)) = (g
1
, g
2
)(e, a)(g
1
1
, g
1
2
) =
(e, g
2
ag
1
2
) = (a, e) for any g
2
.
Denition: An inner automorphism is an automorphism such that =
a
for some a G.
If is not inner, it is called outer. The set of inner automorphisms of a group G is denoted
Inn(G).
Denition: the set of all automorphisms of a group G is denoted Aut(H).
Note: If G is abelian, then every inner automorphism is the identity map.
Theorem 7.1
The set of all autmomorphisms Aut(G) is a group under composition. The subset Inn(G) is a
normal subgroup.
Proof. First, we know that composing bijective maps we get a bijective map, that composition
is associative, and that there is an identity and an inverse which are also bijective. Hence
we need to check 3 things: composition is homomorphism, identity is homomorphism, and
inverse is homomorphism. Let
1
,
2
Aut(G). Closure: (
1
2
)(gg
) =
1
(
2
(gg
)) =
1
(
2
(g)
2
(g
)) =
1
(
2
(g))
1
(
2
(g
)) = (
1
2
)(g)(
1
2
)(g
1
, then g
1
is the unique one such that
this is true, and the inverse map is dened by
1
(g
1
) = g
1
. Let also (g
2
) = g
2
. Then,
19
1
(g
1
g
2
) =
1
((g
1
)(g
2
)) =
1
((g
1
g
2
)) = g
1
g
2
=
1
(g
1
)
1
(g
2
) so that indeed
1
is
homomorphism (hence, again, automorphism).
Second, the subset of inner automorphisms is a subgroup. Indeed,
a
b
=
ab
because
a
(
b
(g)) = abgb
1
a
1
= (ab)g(ab)
1
. Also, the identity automorphism is
e
and the inverse of
a
is
a
1.
Third, the subset of inner automorphisms is normal. Let be any automorphism. Then
a
1
=
(a)
, so it is indeed an inner automorphism. This is shown as follows:
a
1
(g) =
(
a
(
1
(g))) = (a
1
(g)a
1
) = (a)g(a
1
) = (a)g(a)
1
.
8 Lecture 8
Theorem 8.1
G/Z(G)
= Inn(G).
Proof. We only have to realise that the map : G Aut(G) given by (g) =
g
is a homomor-
phism. Indeed, the calculation above have showed that (g
1
g
2
) =
g
1
g
2
=
g
1
g
2
= (g
1
)(g
2
).
Hence, we can use the homomorphism theorem, G/ker
= im. Clearly, by denition, im =
Inn(G). Let us calculate the kernel. We look for all g G such that (g) = id. That is, all g
such that
g
(h) = h h G. That is, ghg
1
= h h G so that gh = hg h G. Hence,
g Z(G), so that indeed ker = Z(G).
Basics of matrices
We denote by M
N
(C) and M
N
(R) the set of all N N matrices with elements in C and R resp.
We may:
add matrices C = A+B
multiply matrices by scalars C = A, C or R,
multiply matrices C = AB
The identity matrix is I with elements I
jk
=
jk
= 1(j = k), 0(j = k). Note: 1) IA = AI; 2)
matrix multiplication is associative.
Given any matrix A, we may
Take its complex conjugate
A : (
A)
jk
= A
jk
Take its transpose A
T
: (A
T
)
jk
= A
kj
Take its adjoint A
=
A
T
= A
T
.
20
Denition: A matrix A is
self-adjoint if A
= A
symmetric if A
T
= A
unitary if A
= A
1
diagonal if A
jk
= 0 for j = k
Denition: The trace of a matrix is Tr(A) =
N
j=1
A
jj
.
Note: Tr(A
1
A
2
A
k
) = Tr(A
k
A
1
A
k1
), Tr(I) = N (simple proofs omitted).
Denition: A matrix A is invertible if there exists a matrix A
1
such that AA
1
= A
1
A = I.
Denition: The determinant of a matrix is det(A) =
N
j
1
=1
N
j
N
=1
j
1
j
N
A
1j
1
A
Nj
N
where
123N
= 1 and
j
1
j
N
is completely anti-symmetric: it changes its sign if two indices are
interchanged. Example:
12
= 1,
21
= 1,
11
=
22
= 0.
Properties:
det(AB) = det(A) det(B) (hence, in particular, if A
1
exists, then det(A
1
) = 1/ det(A))
det(A) = 0 if and only if A is invertible (recall Kramers rule for evaluating the inverse of
a matrix)
det(I) = 1
det(
A) = det(A)
det(A
T
) = det(A)
det(A) =
N
det(A)
if A is diagonal, then det(A) =
N
j=1
A
jj
.
Note: det(SAS
1
) = det(A), and also Tr(SAS
1
) = Tr(A), by the properties above.
Note: the determinant can also be written as det(A) =
S
N
par()
N
k=1
A
k,(k)
. Here, par()
is the parity of a permutation element. The parity of a permutation is dened as the number
of times one needs to exchange two elements in order to obtain the result of the permutation.
More precisely, let A
N
be the set of two- element exchanges, i.e. permutations of the form
_
1 j k . . . N
1 k j N
_
for some 1 j < k N. We can always write S
N
as a
product =
1
with
j
A
N
j. This is easy to see by induction. Further, although
there are many ways of writing as such products, it turns out that if =
1
21
then =
mod 2. Hence, the parity of is only a function of , and this is what we dene
as par(). It is important that the parity be only a function of for the symbol
j
1
j
N
to be
nonzero if its indices are all dierent otherwise, we could exchange indices an odd number of
times and get back to the same set of indices, getting the negative of what we had, concluding
that the value must be 0.
The classical groups: the matrix groups
These are groups where the group elements are matrices, and the multiplication law is the usual
matrix multiplication.
Below we see C
and R
.
Proof. Suppose AB = BA for all B GL(N, C). That is,
k
A
jk
B
kl
=
k
B
jk
A
kl
.
Since this holds for all B, choose B diagonal with diagonal entries all dierent from each
other. Then we have
A
jl
B
ll
= B
jj
A
jl
(B
ll
B
jj
)A
jl
= 0
hence A
jl
= 0 for j = l. Hence, we nd that A must be diagonal. Further, consider
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
0 1 0 0
1 0 0 0
0 0 1 0
.
.
.
.
.
.
0 0 0 1
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
22
Check that det(B) = 1, so B GL(N, C). The equation with j = 1 and l = 2 then gives
us A
11
B
12
= B
12
A
22
hence A
11
= A
22
. Similarly, A
jj
= A
11
for all j. So A = I for
C
is a homomorphism onto C
is a
homomorphism onto R
.
Proof. It is onto because for any C
.
2. Special linear group
SL(N, C) = {A M
N
(C) : det(A) = 1}
Theorem 8.4
SL(N, C) is a normal subgroup of GL(N, C).
Proof. By denition, we have SL(N, C) = ker det, where by det we mean the map det :
GL(N, C) C
.
Proof. Again, consider the homomorphism det : GL(N, C) C
= A
1
}
Note: the conditon A
= A
1
automatically implies that A
1
exists, because of course
A
exists for any matrix A; hence it implies that det(A) = 0. The condition can also be
written A
A = AA
= I.
23
Group: 1) closure: if A
1
, A
2
U(N) then (A
1
A
2
)
= A
2
A
1
= A
1
2
A
1
1
= (A
1
A
2
)
1
hence
A
1
A
2
U(N). 2) associativity: from matrix multiplication. 3) identity: I
= I = I
1
hence I U(N). 4) inverse: if A
= A
1
then using (A
= A we nd (A
1
)
= A =
(A
1
)
1
, hence that A
1
U(N).
Note: U(1) = {z C : z z = 1}. Writing z = e
i
we see that the condition z z implies
R; we may restrict to [0, 2). In terms of , the group is addition modulo 2.
Theorem 8.7
The map det : U(N) U(1) is onto and is a group homomorphism.
Proof. Onto: for z C with |z| = 1, we can construct A diagonal with A
11
= z and
A
jj
= 1 for j > 1. Homomorphism: because of property of det as before.
4. Special unitary group
SU(N) = {A U(N) : det(A) = 1}
Clearly SU(N) is a subgroup of U(N). It is SU(N) = ker det, hence it is a normal
subgroup. Since det : U(N) U(1) maps onto U(1), we nd that
U(N)/SU(N)
= U(1)
5. Orthogonal group
O(N) = {A M
N
(R) : A
T
= A
1
}
This is the group of orthogonal matrices. Note: O(N) U(N). If A O(N) then
det(A) = 1. Hence, here det : O(N) Z
2
is onto.
6. Special orthogonal group
SO(N) = {A O(N) : det(A) = 1}
As before, SO(N) = ker det for det : O(N) Z
2
. Hence as we have again
O(N)/SO(N)
= Z
2
9 Lecture 9
Theorem 9.1
If N is odd, O(N)
= Z
2
SO(N).
Proof. Let us construct an isomorphism that does the job. We dene it as
: O(N) Z
2
SO(N)
A (A) =
_
det(A),
A
det(A)
_
24
All we have to show is that this maps into the right space as specied (because this is not
immediately obvious), and then that it is indeed an isomorphism.
First: that it maps into Z
2
SO(N) is shown as follows. 1) Clearly det(A) Z
2
by the discussion
above. 2) Also (A/ det(A))
T
= A
T
/ det(A) = A
1
/ det(A) and (A/ det(A))
1
= det(A)A
1
=
det(A)
2
A
1
/ det(A) = (1)
2
A
1
/ det(A) = A
1
/ det(A). Hence indeed A/ det(A) O(N). 3)
Further, det(A/ det(A)) = det(A)/ det(A)
N
= det(A)
1N
= (1)
1N
so if N is odd, then N 1
is even, so (1)
1N
= 1. Hence indeed det(A/ det(A)) = 1 so A/ det(A) SO(N).
Second: that it is a homomorphism:
(AB) =
_
det(AB),
AB
det(AB)
_
=
_
det(A) det(B),
A
det(A)
B
det(B)
_
=
_
det(A),
A
det(A)
__
det(B),
B
det(B)
_
= (A)(B)
Third: that it is bijective. Injectivity: if (A
1
) = (A
2
) then det(A
1
) = det(A
2
) and A
1
/ det(A
1
) =
A
2
/ det(A
2
) hence A
1
= A
2
so indeed it is injective. Surjectivity: take a Z
2
and B SO(N).
We can always nd a matrix A O(N) such that (A) = (a, B). Indeed, just take A = aB.
This has determinant det(A) = det(aB) = a
N
det(B) = a det(B) (since N is odd) = a (since
B SO(N)). Hence, (A) = (a, A/a) = (a, B) as it should.
We see that the inverse map is
1
(a, B) = aB: simply multiply the SO(N) matrix by the sign
a. But of course this only works for N odd. For N even, there is the concept of semi-direct
product that would work...
Semi-direct products
The semi-direct product is a generalisation of the direct product. Take two groups G and H, and
consider the Cartesian product of these sets, GH = {g, h) : g G, h H}. This new set can
be give the structure of a groups simply by taking the multiplication law (g, h)(g
, h
) = (gg
, hh
).
But there is another way of dening the multiplication law.
Denition: Given a homomorphism : G Aut(H), where we denote (g) =:
g
, g G, we
dene the semi-direct product G
, h
) = (gg
, h
g
(h
)).
To check that this denes a group, we must check associativity,
(g, h)((g
, h
)(g
, h
)) = (g, h)(g
, h
g
(h
)) = (gg
, h
g
(h
g
(h
)))
25
where the second member in the last term can be written h
g
(h
)
g
(
g
(h
)) = h
g
(h
)
gg
(h
).
On the other hand,
((g, h)(g
, h
))(g
, h
) = (gg
, h
g
(h
))(g
, h
) = (gg
, h
g
(h
)
gg
(h
)
which is in agreement with the previous result. We must also check the presence of an iden-
tity, id = (id, id) (obvious using
id
= id and
g
(id) = id, recall the general properties of
homomorphisms). Finally, we must check that an inverse exists. It is given by
(g, h)
1
= (g
1
,
g
1(h
1
))
because we have
(g, h)
1
(g, h) = (id,
g
1(h
1
)
g
1(h)) = (id, id)
and
(g, h)(g, h)
1
= (id, h
g
(
g
1(h
1
))) = (id, h
id
(h
1
)) = (id, id).
10 Lecture 10
Theorem 10.1
Consider Z
2
= {+1, 1} and the isomorphism : Z
2
{I, a}, R = diag(1, 1, 1, . . . , 1), given
by (1) = e and (1) = R. If N is even, then
O(N)
= Z
2
SO(N),
where (s) =
s
is given by
s
(g) = (s)g(s) for s Z
2
and g SO(N).
Proof. 1) We rst check that : Z
2
Aut(SO(N)) is a homomorphism.
a) We check that
s
is an automorphism of SO(N) for any s. This is clear, using (s)
2
= I:
we have
s
(gg
) = (s)gg
(s) = (s)g(s)(s)g
(s) =
s
(g)
s
(g
) =
s
s
which acts as
(
s
s
)(g) = (s)(s
)g(s
)(s) = (ss
)g(s
s) = (ss
)g(ss
) =
ss
(g).
2) Second, we construct an isomorphism that maps O(N) onto Z
2
SO(N). We dene it as
: O(N) Z
2
SO(N)
A (A) = (det(A), A(det(A)))
Again all we have to show is that this maps into the right space as specied (because this is not
immediately obvious), and then that it is indeed an isomorphism.
26
First: that it maps into Z
2
SO(N) is shown as follows. a) Clearly det(A) Z
2
. b) Also
((det(A))A)
T
= A
T
(det(A))
T
= A
1
(det(A)) and ((det(A))A)
1
= A
1
(det(A))
1
=
A
1
(det(A)
1
) = A
1
(det(A)). Hence indeed A(det(A)) O(N). c) Further, det(A(det(A))) =
det(A) det((det(A))) = det(A)
2
= 1. Hence indeedA(det(A)) SO(N).
Second: that it is a homomorphism:
(AB) = (det(AB), AB(det(AB)))
= (det(A) det(B), AB(det(A) det(B)))
= (det(A) det(B), AB(det(A))(det(B)))
= (det(A) det(B), A(det(A))(det(A))B(det(A))(det(B)))
= (det(A) det(B), A(det(A))(det(A))B(det(B))(det(A)))
=
_
det(A) det(B), A(det(A))
det(A)
(B(det(B)))
_
= (det(A), A(det(A))) (det(B), B(det(B)))
= (A)(B)
Third: that it is bijective. Injectivity: if (A
1
) = (A
2
) then det(A
1
) = det(A
2
) and A
1
(det(A
1
)) =
A
2
(det(A
2
)) hence A
1
= A
2
so indeed it is injective. Surjectivity: take s Z
2
and B SO(N).
We can always nd a matrix A O(N) such that (A) = (s, B). Indeed, just take A = B(s).
This has determinant det(A) = s det(B) = s (since B SO(N)). Further, A(s) = B(s)
2
=
B. Hence, (A) = (det(A), A(s)) = (s, B) as it should.
The semi-direct product decomposition makes very clear the structures involved in the quotient,
e.g. O(N)/SO(N)
= Z
2
.
Theorem 10.2
The subset {(e, h) : h H} GH is a subgroup of G
H that is isomorphic to G.
Proof. For the rst statement: it is a subgroup because it contains the identity, it is closed
(e, h)(e, h
) = (e, h
e
(h
)) = (e, hh
)(g, h) = (g
1
,
g
1(h
1
h
))(g, h) = (id,
g
1(h
1
h
h)).
For the second statement, the subset contains the identity, is closed (g, e)(g
, e) = (gg
,
g
(e)) =
(gg
, e), and by this multiplication law, it contains the inverse. Clearly again, it is isomorphic
to G.
A special case of the semi-direct product is the direct product, where
g
= id for all g G (that
is, : G Aut(H) is trivial, (g) = id). In this case, both G and H are normal subgroups.
27
Note: we usually denote simply by G and H the subgroups {(g, e) : g G} and {(e, h) : h H}
of GH (as we did for the direct product).
Theorem 10.3
The left cosets of GH with respect to the normal subgroup H are the subsets {(g, h) : h H}
for all g G. Also, (GH)/H
= G.
Proof. For the rst statement: the left cosets are (g, h)(e, H) = (g, h
g
(H)) = (g, hH) = (g, H)
since
g
is an automorphism. For the second statement: the isomorphism is (g, H) g. This is
clearly bijective, and it is a homomorphism, because (g, H)(g
, H) = (gg
, H
g
(H)) = (gg
, H).
Note also that the right cosets are the same: (e, H)(g, h) = (g, H
e
(h)) = (g, Hh) = (g, H).
Hence we also have H\(GH)
= G.
In general, if H is a normal subgroup of a group J, it is not necessarily true that J is isomorphic
to a semi-direct product G H with G
= J/H. But this is true in the case where 1) H is
the kernel of some homomorphism , and 2) there is a subgroup G in J on which is an
isomorphism.
Coming back to our example: SO(N) is indeed a normal subgroup of O(N)
= Z
2
SO(N),
but the Z
2
of this decomposition, although it is a subgroup, is not normal. The Z
2
of this
decomposition can be obtained as an explicit subgroup of O(N) by the inverse map
1
of
Theorem 10.1:
1
((s, I)) = (s) for s = 1. Hence the subgroup is {I, diag(1, 1, . . . , 1)}.
Here, we indeed have that SO(N) is the kernel of det, and that {I, R} is a subgroup on which
det is an isomorphism.
Note: Clearly, there are many Z
2
subgroups, for instance {I, I}; this one is normal. But it
does not take part into any decomposition of O(N) into Z
2
and SO(N).
Continuous groups
S
N
: nite number of elements. Z: innite number of elements, but countable. But other
groups have innitely many elements forming a continuum. Ex: C
: 2 dimensions.
GL(N, R): N
2
dimensions.
SL(N, R): N
2
1 dimensions due to the one condition det(A) = 1.
SO(N): N(N 1)/2 dimensions. Indeed: there are N N real matrices so there are N
2
parameters. There is the condition A
T
A = I. This is a condition on the matrix A
T
A,
which contains N
2
elements. But this matrix is symmetric no matter what A is, because
(A
T
A)
T
= A
T
A. Hence, the constraint A
T
A = I in fact has 1 + 2 + ... + N constraints
only (looking at the top row with N elements, then the second row with N 1 elements,
etc.). That is, N(N + 1)/2 constraints. These are independent constraints. Hence, the
dimension is N
2
N(N + 1)/2 = N(N 1)/2.
) = A( +
), A()
1
= A()
In particular, SO(2) is abelian.
Here, the group manifold is the circle S
1
. Indeed, we have one parameter , and the matrix
elements vary continuously for [0, 2) and also going back to 0 instead of 2. Every point
on S
1
corresponds to a unique group element A(), and all group elements are covered in
this way. Note: geometrically, the manifold is indeed S
1
rather than the interval [0, 2) (which
strictly speaking wouldnt be a manifold anyway) because of periodicity, i.e. continuity from
the endpoint 2 back to the starting point 0.
The interpretation of SO(2) is that of rotations about the origin: we act with SO(2) on the
plane R
2
by
v
= Av, A SO(2), v =
_
x
y
_
, (x, y) R
2
.
This gives
x
= xcos y sin, y
= xsin +y cos
All this makes it clear that SO(2)
= U(1). Indeed, just put the points x, y into the complex
plane via x +iy, and consider action of U(1) as e
i
. Hence the isomorphism is
SO(2) U(1) : A() e
i
30
The group O(2)
Two disconnected sets: O(2) = SO(2) C where C = orthogonal matrices with determinant -1.
Note: C is not a group. The condition of det = -1 implies from the previous analysis that
C =
_
B() :=
_
cos sin
sin cos
_
, [0, 2)
_
Note that, with R =
_
1 0
0 1
_
, we have
A()R = B()
for all . Note also that R O(2), in fact R C. The group element R is the reection w.r.t.
the y axis, and we have
O(2)
= {group generated by rotations about origin and reections about y axis}
O(2) is not abelian, in particular A()R = RA() in general.
Clearly, then, O(2) cannot be isomorphic to Z
2
SO(2) because both Z
2
and SO(2) are abelian.
The semi-direct product Z
2
SO(2), however, is not abelian. We see that the subgroup Z
2
in
Z
2
SO(2) corresponds to the group composed of the identity and the reection, {I, R}. We
see also that det is the isomorphism of this subgroup onto Z
2
.
12 Lecture 12
Note: we have the following relation:
RA()R = A()
But then,
A()RA() = A()RA()RR = A()
2
R = A(2)R = B(2)
The quantity A()RA() has a nice geometric meaning: reection w.r.t. axis rotated by angle
from y axis. In order to cover all B() for [0, 2), we only need A()RA() for [0, ).
This indeed gives all possible axes passing by the origin. Hence:
O(2)
= {group of all rotations about origin and all reections about all dierent axes passing by the origin}.
Inner product
Let V be a nite-dimensional vector space over C. A map V V C, x, y (x, y) is an inner
product if it has the properties:
(x, y)
= z is the complex conjugate). This makes V into a Hilbert space. Note that the rst and
second property imply
(ay +bz, x) = a
(y, x) +b
(z, x).
This along with the second property is called sesquilinearity. The restriction over the real-vector
space (real restriction: C
N
becomes R
N
; same basis, but only consider real coecients) then
gives
(x, y) = (y, x), (ay +bz, x) = a(y, x) +b(z, x).
This restriction is bilinear and symmetric. The only example we will use is:
(x, y) =
i
x
i
y
i
.
In particular, using matrix and column vector notation, this is
(x, y) = x
y.
This implies that if A is a linear operator, then
(x, Ay) = (A
x, y).
The norm of a vector is dened by
||x|| =
_
(x, x)
(positive square-root).
Structure of O(N)
Theorem 12.1
A real-linear transformation A of R
N
is such that ||Ax|| = ||x|| for all x R
N
i A O(N).
Proof. If A O(N), then A
T
= A
1
so that
||Ax||
2
= (Ax, Ax)
= (Ax)
T
Ax
= x
T
A
T
Ax
= x
T
x
= ||x||
2
(3)
where in the 2nd step we use reality, so that
=
T
. Also: if ||Ax|| = ||x||, then replace x by
x +y and use bilinearity and symmetry:
(A(x+y), A(x+y)) = (x+y, x+y) (Ax, Ax)+(Ay, Ay)+2(Ax, Ay) = (x, x)+(y, y)+2(x, y).
Using ||Ax|| = ||x|| and ||Ay|| = ||y||, the rst and last terms cancel out, so
(Ax, Ay) = (x, y).
32
Hence (A
T
Ax, y) = (x, y) so that (A
T
Ax x, y) = 0. This holds for all y, hence it must be
that A
T
Ax x = 0 (obtained by choosing y = A
T
Ax x, so that A
T
Ax = x. This holds for
all x, hence A
T
A = I. Hence A O(N).
Note: the same hold if we say A R
N
and ask for ||Ax|| = ||x|| for all x C
N
. Indeed,
this includes x R
N
, so in one direction this is obvious; in the other direction we use again
(Ax, Ax) = (A
T
Ax, x) which holds for x C
N
as well.
Theorem 12.2
If x C
N
is an eigenvector of A O(N) with eigenvalue , then || = 1.
Proof. Ax = x with x = 0, hence (Ax, Ax) = (x, x) hence (x, x) = ||
2
(x, x) hence ||
2
= 1
since x = 0.
Theorem 12.3
If A SO(3) then there exists a vector n R
3
such that An = n (i.e. with eigenvalue 1).
Proof. Consider P() = det(A I). We know that P(0) = 1 because A SO(3). Also,
P() =
3
+ . . . + 1 because the only order-3 term is from the I part. Hence, P() =
(
1
)(
2
)(
3
) with
1
3
= 1.
There are 2 possibilities: First, at least one of these, say
1
, is complex. It must be a pure
phase:
1
= e
i
for (0, 2) {}. If x is the associated eigenvector, then Ax = e
i
x hence
A
= e
i
x
so that x
3
= 1, it must be that
3
= 1.
Second, all
i
are real, so are 1. Since
1
3
= 1, not the three are 1, hence at least one is
1.
Finally, if An = n, and if n is not real, then n
Ax = x
x = (x, x) = ||x||
2
hence
||Ax|| = ||x||.
2) Consider x = y + az. We have ||Ax||
2
= (Ay + aAz, Ay + aAz) = ||Ay||
2
+ |a|
2
||Az||
2
+
a(Ay, Az) + a
(z, y).
Choosing a = 1 this is (Ay, Az)+(Az, Ay) = (y, z)+(z, y) and choosing a = i this is (Ay, Az)
(Az, Ay) = (y, z) (z, y). Combining these two equations, we nd (Ay, Az) = (y, z), for all
y, z C
N
. Then we can use similar techniques as before: using (Ay, Az) = (A
Ay, z) we get
((A
A = I.
13 Lecture 13
We now concentrate on SU(2). We will use the Pauli matrices: along with the identity I, the
Pauli matrices form a basis (over C) for the linear space M
2
(C).
1
=
x
:=
_
0 1
1 0
_
,
2
=
y
:=
_
0 i
i 0
_
,
3
=
z
:=
_
1 0
0 1
_
.
We will denote a general complex 2 by 2 matrix by
A = aI +b
where we understand as a vector of Pauli matrices, so that b = b
x
x
+b
y
y
+b
z
z
. Some
properties:
2
i
= I,
i
j
=
j
i
(i = j),
x
y
= i
z
,
y
z
= i
x
,
z
x
= i
y
,
i
=
i
, det(A) = a
2
||b||
2
.
From these, we nd:
x y = (x y)I +i(x y)
where x y is the vector product. We also nd
(aI +b )(aI b ) = a
2
I (b b)I i(b b) = (a
2
||b||
2
)I = det(A)I.
Hence,
(aI +b )
1
=
aI b
det(A)
Parenthesis
All these properties point to a nice analogy with complex numbers. Dene, instead of one, three
imaginary numbers, = i
x
, = i
y
,
k = i
z
. They satisfy
2
=
2
=
k
2
= 1.
35
Denition: The division algebra H of quaternions is the non-commutative eld of all real linear
combinations z = a +b
x
+b
y
+b
z
k (a, b
x
, b
y
, b
z
R), with the relations
2
=
2
=
k
2
= 1 and
= =
k and cyclic permutations. It is associative.
We dene the quaternion conjugate by z = a b
x
b
y
b
z
), and we have z z = zz = a
2
+||b||
2
0, with equality i z = 0. Hence
we can dene |z| =
z z. We also have z
1
= z/|z|
2
, as for complex numbers. An important
identity is |z
1
z
2
| = |z
1
| |z
2
| for any z
1
, z
2
H, which follows from |z
1
z
2
|
2
= z
1
z
2
z
2
z
1
= z
2
z
2
z
1
z
1
where we used the fact that z
2
z
2
R H hence commutes with everything. Any quaternion z
has a unique inverse, except for 0. This is what makes the quaternions a division algebra: we
have the addition and the multiplication, with distributivity and with two particular numbers,
0 and 1, having the usual properties, and we have that only 0 doesnt have a multiplicative
inverse. Note that there are no other division algebras that satisfy associativity, besides the
real numbers, the complex numbers and the quaternions. There is one more division algebra,
which is not associative in addition to not being commutative: the octonions, with 7 imaginary
numbers.
End of parenthesis
Group SU(2): with A = aI +x , we require det(A) = 1 hence a
2
||x||
2
= 1, and A
= A
1
hence a
I + x
= aI x , so that a R and x
= x. Writing x = ib we have b R
3
.
That is,
SU(2) = {A = aI +ib : a R, b R
3
, a
2
+||b||
2
= 1}
Note that, in terms of quaternions, this is:
SU(2) = {z H : |z| = 1}.
Note the similarity with
U(1) = {z C : |z| = 1}
Note that in both cases we have a group because in both cases |z
1
z
2
| = |z
1
| |z
2
|, so the condition
|z| = 1 is preserved under multiplication.
Geometrically, the condition |z| = 1 for quaternions is the condition for a 3-sphere in R
4
. This
is the manifold of SU(2).
A 3-sphere in R
4
can be imagined by enumerating its slices, starting from a pole (a point on the
3-sphere. The slices are 2-spheres, much like the slices of a 2-sphere are 1-sphere (i.e. circles).
Starting from a point on the 3-sphere, we enumerate growing 2-spheres until we reach the single
one with the maximal radius (this is the radius of the 3-sphere, i.e. 1 in our case), then we
enumerate shortening 2-spheres back to a point. Putting all these objects together, we see that
the set is a double-cover of an open unit ball in R
3
plus a single unit 2-sphere. This looks very
similar to the manifold of SO(3), but there we had exactly half of that (an open ball plus half
of a 2-sphere). There is a group structure behind this:
36
14 Lecture 14
Theorem 14.1
SU(2)/Z
2
= SO(3)
Proof. This proof is not complete, but the main ingredients are there. The idea of the proof is
to use the homomorphism theorem, with a homomorphism : SU(2) SO(3) that is onto,
such that ker
= Z
2
.
Proposition: There exists a linear bijective map : R
3
between the real-linear space of
self-adjoint traceless 2 by 2 matrices, and the real-linear space R
3
.
Proof. Note that the Pauli matrices are self-adjoint traceless 2 by 2 matrices. Take a general 2
by 2 matrix A = aI + b for a, b
x
, b
y
, b
z
C. The condition of tracelessness imposes a = 0.
The condition of self-adjointness imposes b
= b hence b R
3
. Hence, the real-linear space
of self-adjoint traceless 2 by 2 matrices is the space of real linear combinations A = b . Given
A such a matrix, we have a unique (A) = b R
3
, hence we have injectivity. On the other
hand, given any b R
3
, we can form A = b , hence we have surjectivity. Finally, it is clear
that given A, A
) = (b + b
) =
((b +b
) ) = b +b
= (A) + (A
), so is linear.
Given any U SU(2), we can form a linear bijective map
U
: as follows:
U
(A) = UAU
.
This maps into because if A , then 1) Tr(
U
(A)) = Tr(UAU
) = Tr(U
UA) = Tr(A) = 0,
and 2) (UAU
= UA
= UAU
. Hence,
U
(A) . Moreover, it is bijective because 1)
injectivity: if UAU
= UA
then U
UAU
U = U
UA
U hence A = A
, and 2) surjectivity:
for any B , we have that U
U
(U
BU) = UU
BU
U = B so we have found a A = U
) = det(
1
(b)) = ||b||
2
.
37
That is, R
U
is a real-linear map on R
3
that preserves lengths of vectors. By the previous
theorems, it must be that R
U
O(3).
2) Further, the map g : SU(2) R given by g(U) = det(R
U
) (where we see the linear map R
U
as a 3 by 3 real orthogonal matrix). This is continuous as a function of the matrix elements
of U. Indeed, we can calculate any matrix element of R
U
by choosing two basis vectors x and
y in R
3
and by computing x R
U
(y). This is x (U
1
(y)U
). The operation U U
and the operations of matrix multiplications are continuous in the matrix elements, hence the
map U U
1
(y)U
1
(R
U
1
U
2
(b)) =
U
1
U
2
(
1
(b)) = U
1
U
2
1
(b)U
2
U
1
=
U
1
(
U
2
(
1
(b)))
hence
(U
1
U
2
) = R
U
1
U
2
=
1
R
U
1
U
2
=
U
1
U
2
1
=
U
1
U
2
1
= R
U
1
R
U
2
which is the homomorphism property.
Then, we would have to prove that is onto this requires more precise calculation of what
is as function of the matrix elements of U. We will omit this step.
Finally, we can use the homomorphism theorem. We must calculate ker . The identity in O(3)
is the identity matrix. We have (U) = I O(3) i (
U
(
1
(b))) = b for all b R
3
, which
is true i
U
(b ) = b for all b R
3
, which is true i Ub U
= b Ub =
b U U
i
=
i
U
R
N
where : O(N) Aut(R
N
), (A) =
A
is a homomorphism, with
A
dened by
A
(b) = Ab.
To make sure this is a good denition: we must show that is a homomorphism and that that
is an automorphism. First the latter.
A
is clearly bijective because the matrix A is invertible
(work out injectivity and surjectivity from this). Further, it is a homomorphism because
A
(x+
y) = A(x+y) = Ax+Ay =
A
(x) +
A
(y). Second, is a homomorphism because
AA
(b) =
AA
b = A(A
b) =
A
(
A
(b)) = (
A
A
)(b) so that (AA
) = (A)(A
) (the multiplication
in automorphisms is the composition of maps). Hence, this is a good denition of semidirect
product.
Explicitly, the multiplication law is
(A, b)(A
, b
) = (AA
, b +Ab
).
16 Lecture 16
Geometric meaning
Consider the space of all translations in R
N
. This is the space of all maps x x+b for b R
N
:
maps that take each point x to x+b in R
N
. Denote a translation by T
b
, so that T
b
(x) = x+b.
The composition law is obtained from
(T
b
T
b
)(x) = T
b
(T
b
(x)) = T
b
(x +b
) = x +b +b
= T
b+b
(x).
Hence, T
b
T
b
= T
b+b
, so that compositions of translations are translations. Further, there is
a translation that does nothing (choosing b = 0), one can always undo a translation, T
b
T
b
=
T
0
= id. Hence, the set of all translations, with multiplication law the composition, is a group
39
T
N
. Note also that T
b
= T
b
if b = b
, T
b
))(x) = A(A
x +b
) +b = AA
x +Ab
+b = (AA
, T
Ab
+b
)(x).
That is, we obtain a transformation that can be described by rst an orthogonal transformation
AA
= T
b
T
b
AA
. We rather have T
b
AT
b
A
= T
b
AT
b
A
1
AA
,
and we nd the conjugation law
A T
b
A
1
(x) = A(A
1
x +b
) = x +Ab
= T
Ab
(x)
That is: the conjugation of a translation by a rotation is again a translation, but by the rotated
vector, and this is what gives rise to the semi-direct product law. This is true generally: if two
type of transformations dont commute, but the conjugation of one by another is again of the
rst type, then we have a semi-direct product. Recall also examples of SO(2) and Z
2
in their
geometric interpretation as rotations and reections.
There is more. We could decide to try to do translations and rotations in any order that is,
we can look at all transformations of R
N
that are obtained by doing rotations and translations
in any order and of any kind. A general transformation will look like A
1
A
2
T
b
1
T
b
2
40
A
1
A
2
etc. But since orthogonal transformations and translations independently form
groups, we can multiply successive orthogonal transformations to get a single one, and like wise
for translations, so we get something of the form AT
b
A
, T
b
) .
Hence, we recover a Euclidean transformation. Hence, the Euclidean group is the one generated
by translations and orthogonal transformations. We have proved:
Theorem 16.1
The Euclidean group E
N
is the group generated by translations and orthogonal transformations
of R
N
.
Particular elements are of more geometric interest, in 3 dimensions (and also in 2) for simplicity:
rotations or reections about an axis passing by a translated point b. These are described by,
for A O(3) (or A O(2)),
R
A,b
(x) := T
b
A T
b
(x) = Ax Ab +b.
Indeed, they preserve the point b: with x = b we obtain back b. Moreover, they preserve the
length of vectors starting at b and ending at x: ||R
A,b
(x) R
A,b
(b)|| = ||Ax Ab +b b|| =
||A(x b)|| = ||x b||. (More generally, of course, this is an orthogonal transformation with
respect to the point b.) Take A SO(3): this is a rotation, and there is a vector n such that
An = n (this is the vector in the axis of rotation). We could modify b by a vector in the
direction of n without modifying R
A,b
. That is R
A,b+cn
(x) = Ax A(b + cn) + b + cn =
Ax Ab +b = R
A,b
(x).
17 Lecture 17
Invariance
The Euclidean group is the one that keeps invariant a certain mathematical object and this is
what gives it its name. Consider R
N
as a metric space: a space where a distance between points
is dened. The Euclidean N-dimensional space is R
N
with the distance function given by
D(x, y) = ||x y||
Theorem 17.1
The set of transformations Q : R
3
R
3
such that D(Q(x), Q(y)) = D(x, y) is the set of
Euclidean transformations.
Proof. First in the opposite direction: if Q is a Euclidean transformation, Q = (A, T
b
), then
||Q(x) Q(y)|| = ||Ax +b Ay bb|| = ||A(x y)|| = ||x y||
41
so indeed it preserves the distance function.
Second the opposite direction: assume Q preserves the distance function. Let b = Q(0). Dene
Q
= T
b
Q. Hence, we have Q
preserves lengths
of vectors: ||Q
(x)|| = ||Q
(x) Q
also preserves
the inner product:
(Q
(x), Q
(y)) =
1
2
(Q
(x), Q
(x)) +
1
2
(Q
(y), Q
(y))
1
2
(Q
(x) Q
(y), Q
(x) Q
(y))
=
1
2
||Q
(x)||
2
+
1
2
||Q
(y)||
2
1
2
||Q
(x) Q
(y)||
2
=
1
2
||x||
2
+
1
2
||y||
2
1
2
||x y||
2
= (x, y)
Now we show that Q
is linear. Consider e
i
, i = 1, 2, . . . , N the unit vectors in orthogonal
directions (standard basis for R
N
as a vector space). Let e
i
:= Q
(e
i
). Then, (e
i
, e
j
) = (e
i
, e
j
) =
i,j
. Hence e
i
, i = 1, 2, . . . , N also form an orthonormal basis. Now let x =
i
x
i
e
i
for x
i
R,
and write Q
(x) =
i
x
i
e
i
(this can be done because e
i
form a basis). We can nd x
i
by taking
inner products with e
i
: x
i
= (Q
(x), e
i
). But then x
i
= (Q
(x), e
i
) = (Q
(x), Q
(e
i
)) = (x, e
i
) =
x
i
. Hence, Q
(x) =
i
x
i
e
i
, which means that Q
(t)
dt
2
+GmM
x
(t) y
(t)
||x
(t) y
(t)||
3
= A
_
d
2
dt
2
x(t) +GmM
x(t) y(t)
||x(t) y(t)||
3
_
= 0
The transformations (x, y) (Ax+b, Ay +b) satisfy the rules of the Euclidean group: hence,
Newtonss equations are invariant under the Euclidean group.
Let us concentrate on the O(3) transformations for a while, forgetting about the translations.
Denition: An object V that transforms like V
x
i
=
j
x
j
x
i
j
=
j,k
A
jk
x
k
x
i
j
=
j
A
ji
j
43
so that (using the vector notation)
x
= A
T
x
= A
x
where we used A
T
= A
1
.
Another example that can be worked out: if x and y are vectors, then also is x y (the vector
product).
An interesting further example is the following. Suppose we look at SU(2) transformations,
and we decide to transform not 2-component vectors, but rather unitary matrices X as X
X
:=
UAU
i
X, i = 1, 2, 3.
How does this vector transform? We have
x
= (X
= XU
UX.
But, for any xed vector y, we found y U
U = R
U
(y) . Since R
U
is an O(3) transformation,
we may write R
U
(y) = A
T
y (we use A
T
instead of A for convenience) for A O(3). Then
y x
= X(A
T
y) X = (A
T
y) x
or in other word,
(Ay) x
= y x.
Since this must hold for all y, we nd that x