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The Numeracy Continuum

Aspect 2:
Counting as a problem solving process
Early arithmetical strategies
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The Numeracy Continuum

Introduction
Students can use counting as the basis of a range of strategies to solve problems, such as determining how many objects are in a collection or various kinds of additions and subtractions. Within these strategies, counting refers to more than producing the sequence of number words, sometimes called rote counting. To continue the process of counting as a way of adding to the total, students need to know the sequence of number words well enough to continue counting from any number. If you ask a young student what number comes after nine, he or she will often initially count from one to find the answer. The need for facility with counting to solve problems far exceeds rote counting. A student cannot count on from seven if he or she does not know the number word that follows seven. In becoming effective users of mathematics, students develop and use a range of methods of solving problems. These solution strategies become more sophisticated as students develop better ways of determining the answer. Sometimes inefficient counting strategies persist in students repertoires well past the time when they may have provided a practical means of solving problems. For example, a student asked to find 8 + 3 can count out 8, then count out 3 and finally count all the objects to obtain an answer. If this strategy of counting from one three times persists in later years, the amount of mental effort needed to obtain the answer makes it difficult to achieve further learning. This Aspect of the continuum outlines a progression of efficient strategies. One of the challenges with inefficient strategies is that, although they are slower, they still work. This means that inefficient strategies can be very persistent.

Aspect 2: Counting as a problem solving process


Introduction Using counting as a problem solving process Nave and sophisticated counting strategies Emergent counters Perceptual counters Figurative stage Counting-on-and-back stage Flexible (or facile) stage References Acknowledgements

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The Numeracy Continuum

Using counting as a problem solving process


The progression of solution strategies where students make use of counting as a problem solving process can be outlined through an example. Teacher: How many jelly beans?

Aspect 2: Counting as a problem solving process


Introduction Using counting as a problem solving process Nave and sophisticated counting strategies Emergent counters Perceptual counters Figurative stage Counting-on-and-back stage Flexible (or facile) stage References Acknowledgements

The students response to this question where all of the items can be seen will give an indication of his or her current counting procedures. Children learn the forward sequence of number words initially in the same way as they learn the alphabet, as a continuous string. To find the answer to the teachers question, young students need to know the correct sequence of number words, to match the count with the objects and to recognise that the last number stated signifies the total. Teacher: Now I have added some more jelly beans. How many altogether?

A student who counts them all but starts again from one is using a less sophisticated strategy than a student who counts-on from nine. To count on from nine, students need to be able to start the forward sequence of number words from nine.

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The Numeracy Continuum

Aspect 2: Counting as a problem solving process


Introduction Using counting as a problem solving process Nave and sophisticated counting strategies Emergent counters Perceptual counters Figurative stage Counting-on-and-back stage Flexible (or facile) stage References Acknowledgements

Typically, students progress along a pathway that begins with developing knowledge of the sequence of number words, and moves to combining and counting all the objects where they can see the objects, then to counting objects that they cannot see or touch, next to countingon from the larger number and eventually to using addition facts. This sequence of development can also be described as a progression from counting by ones to a facility with using part-whole knowledge of numbers. When students count on, they no longer create the initial number as a count. A number word like nine is taken to stand in place of carrying out a count to nine. The process of counting to nine is taken as having been completed by saying the word nine.

Teacher: If I have nine jelly beans and I add some more to make twelve jelly beans, how many jelly beans did I add?

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Student: 9, 10, 11, 12 When approaching addition questions using a strategy of counting-on, an efficient approach is always to count on from the larger number. Alternatively, in answering 3 + 9, students can first build to ten saying, One plus nine is ten, and I have two more, making twelve. Separating three into one and two combined with recognising what is needed to form ten (sometimes called bridging to ten), shows a flexible part-whole knowledge of numbers that does not rely on counting by ones.

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The Numeracy Continuum

Nave and sophisticated counting strategies


When children add or subtract they initially make use of objects or replacements for the objects, such as fingers, combined with knowledge of counting sequences. To add or subtract it is possible to count from one, three times, to form each quantity. For example, to find 8 + 3 you can count from one to eight and then from one to three, combine the two quantities and then count from one to eleven to find the total. It is also possible to use a similar process to take away one quantity from another. Methods involving counting from one three times can be described as nave counting strategies. The number words, representing completed counts, can also be used themselves to make this process shorter. For example, if a student is told that some counters have been removed from a group of eleven counters and eight counters remain, the student can use the number word eleven as the end product of counting the objects. The student can then count down to eight to determine the number of counting words that have been removed from the sequence.

Aspect 2: Counting as a problem solving process


Introduction Using counting as a problem solving process Nave and sophisticated counting strategies Emergent counters Perceptual counters Figurative stage Counting-on-and-back stage Flexible (or facile) stage References Acknowledgements

Counting down to eight Of course there is more than one way to think about subtraction. If I take three away from eleven I can think about taking away the 11th item, then the 10th item and the 9th item so that eight items remain. Alternatively, I can say that there are eleven and when I count back one I am at ten, count back another one and I am at nine, and count back a third one and I am at eight. In this way I am working with the number words.

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The Numeracy Continuum

The progression of increasing sophistication in the use of counting strategies to solve a range of addition and subtraction problems is summarised in the following table.
0 Emergent
An emergent counter may have some isolated knowledge of number words or symbols but cannot match the forward sequence of counting words one-to-one with objects to determine the number of objects.

Aspect 2: Counting as a problem solving process


Introduction Using counting as a problem solving process Nave and sophisticated counting strategies Emergent counters Perceptual counters Figurative stage Counting-on-and-back stage Flexible (or facile) stage References Acknowledgements

1 Perceptual
The student is able to count perceived items within the limits of his or her knowledge of number word sequences. Perceptual counters can also build numbers by using materials or fingers as replacements for items. The student may also hear or feel the items when counting.

2 Figurative
The student is able to count concealed items and will typically visualise the items that he or she cannot see, but always starts counting from one. For example, when presented with two screened collections, told how many are in each part and asked how many altogether, the student will count from one to find the total. The student matches the count to figural items rather than perceptual ones. Counting from one appears to be necessary to give meaning to the numbers.

3 Counting-onand-back
The student counts-on rather than counting from one, to solve addition or missing addends tasks. The student may use a count-down-from strategy to solve removed items tasks (e.g. 17-3 as 16, 15, 14; answer 14) or count-down-to strategies to solve tasks where the subtrahend is missing (e.g. 17 remove some equals 14, and the student says 16, 15, 14; answer 3).

4 Flexible (or facile)


A student uses a range of non-count-by-one methods. The flexible stage is characterised by using number properties combined with number facts. Typically, flexible strategies can be described as using this to work out that. As a simple example, a student may use his or her knowledge of doubles to work out sums that are near doubles. 7 + 6 is 13 because double 6 is 12 (or double 7 is 14) and 7 + 6 is 1 more (or 1 less than double 7). Compensation is a sophisticated form of flexible strategy.

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The Numeracy Continuum

Emergent counters
A student who is an emergent counter may have some knowledge of numbers and counting but cannot correctly match the sequence of counting words with objects where each object is allocated a number in turn, with the final number word corresponding to the total.

Aspect 2: Counting as a problem solving process


Introduction Using counting as a problem solving process Nave and sophisticated counting strategies Emergent counters Perceptual counters Figurative stage Counting-on-and-back stage Flexible (or facile) stage References Acknowledgements

Emergent Counting

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The Numeracy Continuum

Perceptual counters
A student who is a perceptual counter can count items that he or she can perceive (see, hear or touch). A perceptual counter will demonstrate the one-to-one principle, generating terms in the sequence of number words as needed and matching one number word to one item, without skipping or double-counting items. A student who is at the perceptual counting stage needs to perceive the items to solve number problems.

Aspect 2: Counting as a problem solving process


Introduction Using counting as a problem solving process Nave and sophisticated counting strategies Emergent counters Perceptual counters Figurative stage Counting-on-and-back stage Flexible (or facile) stage References Acknowledgements

This student counts her fingers as things she can perceive. She doesnt read the pattern her fingers make but rather counts them one-by-one to determine the total. Perceptual counting In a thorough analysis of how children develop counting skills, Gelman and Gallistel (1978) described four basic logical principals that must be satisfied if an activity is to be classified as counting. These principles may be summarised as: (1) establishing a one-to-one correspondence between the things to be counted and the counting labels, (2) maintaining the counting labels in a fixed order, (3) recognising the irrelevance of the order in which the objects are counted, and (4) applying the cardinality principle, that is using the last label to represent the number of objects in the set. All of these principles associated with what it means to count are part of the perceptual counting stage.

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The Numeracy Continuum

Figurative stage
The figurative counting stage is characterised by students using a figurative representation of numbers. That is, students reconstruct numbers relying on imagined or figural items. The students match the sequence of counting words to figural items rather than perceptual ones. Counting from the number one appears to be necessary for the student to give meaning to the numbers. It can be difficult to identify students at the figurative counting stage because they frequently subvocalise their countingthat is, they count by moving their lips without making audible sounds.

Aspect 2: Counting as a problem solving process


Introduction Using counting as a problem solving process Nave and sophisticated counting strategies Emergent counters Perceptual counters Figurative stage Counting-on-and-back stage Flexible (or facile) stage References Acknowledgements

Figurative

Figurative (subvocal)

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The Numeracy Continuum

Counting-on-and-back stage
The counting-on-and-back stage involves students using the names of numbers as being equivalent to completed counts. That is, to find the total of six and three a student can take six as the result of a count that has already occurred and say: Six, seven, eight, nine, nine!. The essential feature of this strategy is that the student counts on from six. This way of counting on to find the total is sometimes described as counting up from a number. To successfully count up from a number the student needs a way of keeping track of the number of counts to know when to stop. This may involve sequentially raising three fingers in coordination with saying the number words from seven to nine. Alternatively the student may simply recognise saying seven, eight, nine is three words. Counting on can also be used to determine how many are missing with questions such as 6 plus some equals 9. How many? Here the student may say, Six, seven, eight, nine, three!. As before, the student counts on from six and keeps track of counts, but does not know in advance the number of counts. Rather, the student initially knows only the number to which he or she is counting. This strategy of counting up to a number to find the difference between two numbers is often used when solving questions where the addend is missing. The counting may be accompanied by the student sequentially raising three fingers (seven, eight, nine).

Aspect 2: Counting as a problem solving process


Introduction Using counting as a problem solving process Nave and sophisticated counting strategies Emergent counters Perceptual counters Figurative stage Counting-on-and-back stage Flexible (or facile) stage References Acknowledgements

Counting up to 11

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The Numeracy Continuum

Aspect 2: Counting as a problem solving process


Introduction Using counting as a problem solving process Nave and sophisticated counting strategies Emergent counters Perceptual counters Figurative stage Counting-on-and-back stage Flexible (or facile) stage References Acknowledgements

Counting down is also used at this stage. To answer a question such as, I have 9 and I remove 3, how many remain? the student says Nine, eight, seven, six, six!. This strategy is described as counting down from a number. A similar use of counting backwards, or counting down, often appears when students solve questions where the subtrahend (the number being taken away) is missing. When responding to the question, I have 9 and I remove some, 6 remain. How many did I remove? the student knows in advance the number to which he or she is counting. The student may say, Nine,eight, seven, six,three! This strategy requires keeping track of the backward counts and is described as counting down to a number.

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The Numeracy Continuum

Flexible (or facile) stage


The flexible or facile counting stage is characterised by using number properties combined with number facts. Typically, flexible strategies can be described as using this to work out that. A student may determine that 7 + 6 is 13 because double 6 is 12 (or double 7 is 14) and 7 + 6 is 1 more (or 1 less than double 7). However, recalling doubles alone is not sufficient to indicate that a student is able to use numbers flexibly. Flexible strategies make use of the properties of numbers and do not employ counting by ones. For example, compensation is a flexible arithmetical strategy.

Aspect 2: Counting as a problem solving process


Introduction Using counting as a problem solving process Nave and sophisticated counting strategies Emergent counters Perceptual counters Figurative stage Counting-on-and-back stage Flexible (or facile) stage References Acknowledgements

Flexible use of numbers

Compensation is based on the idea of making adjustments to numbers so as to maintain a common difference in subtraction and the same total in addition. That is, the difference between two numbers stays the same as long as we add or subtract the same quantity from both numbers.

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The Numeracy Continuum

Aspect 2: Counting as a problem solving process


Introduction Using counting as a problem solving process Nave and sophisticated counting strategies Emergent counters Perceptual counters Figurative stage Counting-on-and-back stage Flexible (or facile) stage References Acknowledgements

Compensation involving addition is different from compensation involving subtraction. Although it is possible to describe seven plus three as the same as eight plus two (7 + 3 = 8 + 2, adding one to the first and subtracting one from the second) as compensation, in practice this can also be thought of as an example of progressive accumulation. Compensation with addition involves redistributing the parts of the numbers in a way that is similar to balancing equations. While 38 + 17 = 40 + 15 can be thought of as compensation, this can also be described as resting on a multiple of ten using the jump strategy. Clearly, knowing combinations that make ten is part of the knowledge needed to carrying out the process of resting on tens. Compensation involving subtraction requires adjusting both numbers by the same amount to keep the difference the same. For example, 34 28 can be calculated by adding two to each number to make 36 30. Compensation involving subtraction is the basis of the equal addends method of teaching the subtraction algorithm, sometimes described as add ten, add ten.

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The Numeracy Continuum

References
Denvir, B., & Brown, M. (1986a). Understanding of number concepts in low attaining 7-9 year olds: Part 1. Development of descriptive framework and diagnostic instrument. Educational Studies in Mathematics, 17, 15-36. Denvir, B., & Brown, M. (1986b). Understanding of number concepts in low attaining 7-9 year olds: Part II. The teaching studies. Educational Studies in Mathematics, 17, 143-164. Fuson, K. C. (1992). Research on whole number addition and subtraction. In D. A. Grouws (Ed.), Handbook of research on mathematics teaching & learning. (pp. 243-275). New York: MacMillan. Gelman, R., & Gallistel, C. R. (1978). The child's understanding of number. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Steffe, L. P. (1992). Learning stages in the construction of the number sequence. In J. Bideaud, C. Meljac & J. Fischer (Eds.), Pathways to number: Children's developing numerical abilities. (pp. 83-88). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. Steffe, L. P., Cobb, P., & von Glaserfeld, E. (1988). Construction of arithmetical meanings and strategies. New York: Springer-Verlag. Steffe, L. P., von Glasersfeld, E., Richards, J., & Cobb, P. (1983). Children's counting types: Philosophy, theory, and application. New York: Praeger. Thompson, I. (1995). The role of counting in the idiosyncratic mental calculation algorithms of young children. European early childhood education research journal, 3(1), 5-16. Wright, R. J. (1991). The role of counting in childrens numerical development. The Australian Journal of Early Childhood, 16(2), 43-48. Wright, R. J. (1994). A study of the numerical development of 5-year-olds and 6-year-olds. Educational Studies in Mathematics, 26, 25-44.

Aspect 2: Counting as a problem solving process


Introduction Using counting as a problem solving process Nave and sophisticated counting strategies Emergent counters Perceptual counters Figurative stage Counting-on-and-back stage Flexible (or facile) stage References Acknowledgements

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The Numeracy Continuum

Acknowledgements
The descriptions of the counting stages used in solving addition and subtraction problems had its genesis in the work of Professor Les Steffe and Professor Paul Cobb. The current organisation of the early arithmetical strategies owes much to the initiative and ongoing contributions of Professor Bob Wright. Their contributions and the contributions of thousands of students and teachers to our current understanding of counting as a problem solving process are gratefully acknowledged.

Aspect 2: Counting as a problem solving process


Introduction Using counting as a problem solving process Nave and sophisticated counting strategies Emergent counters Perceptual counters Figurative stage Counting-on-and-back stage Flexible (or facile) stage References Acknowledgements

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