PHASE NOISE CANCELLATION IN OFDM SYSTEMS

A PROJECT REPORT

Submitted by

FATHIMA FAIZAN FARASHATH.M KARTHIK.R

in partial fulfillment for the award of the degree of

BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING
IN

ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

B.S.ABDUR RAHMAN CRESCENT ENGINEERING COLLEGE

ANNA UNIVERSITY: CHENNAI 600 025

APRIL 2012

ANNA UNIVERSITY: CHENNAI 600 025

BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE
Certified that this project report, PHASE NOISE CANCELLATION IN OFDM SYSTEMS is the bonafide FARASHATH.M work of FATHIMA FAIZAN (40408106031), R.KARTHIK

(40408106032),

(40408106043) who carried out the project work under my supervision.

SIGNATURE

SIGNATURE

Dr.S.KAJA MOHIDEEN

Mrs.P.NALLATHAI Asst. Professor ( Senior Grade )

HEAD OF THE DEPARTMENT Electronics and Communication Engineering, B.S.A. Crescent Engineering College, Vandalur, Chennai-48.

SUPERVISOR Electronics and Communication Engineering B.S.A. Crescent Engineering College Vandalur, Chennai-48.

Submitted for the examination held on .

INTERNAL EXAMINER

EXTERNAL EXAMINER

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Project work is a phase of activity during our course of study in which we are expected to expose our creative thinking ability. We are highly obliged to express our sincere thanks and profound gratitude to our beloved principal Dr.V.M.PERIASAMY for his constant encouragement throughout the course of our studies. We extend our sincere thanks to our Head of the Department Prof. Dr.KAJA MOHIDEEN for his motivation and support during our studies. We have no words to express our gratitude and thanks to our Project Guide Mrs. Nallathai who helped us in all aspects with her constant guidance right from the beginning of the Project Work till the completion of the project work successfully. We would like to thank all our Staff members for their valuable advice and suggestions. We would like to thank all our non-teaching Staffs and friends who helped us throughout the Project Work. We take this opportunity to thank our Parents whose valuable support and moral guidance went a long way in helping us in accomplishing our objective.

TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER. NO. TITLE
ABSTRACT LIST OF TABLES AND FIGURES LIST OF ACRONYMS

PAGE NO.
i ii iii

INTRODUCTION
1.1 DIGITAL COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS 1.2 FOURTH GENERATION WIRELESS SYSTEMS 1.3 OBJECTIVE AND OUTLINE OF THE THESIS

1
2 3 4

PROPAGATION CHARACTERISTICS OF MOBILE RADIO CHANNELS 6

2.1 ATTENUATION 2.2 MULTIPATH EFFECTS 2.2.1 Rayleigh fading 2.2.2 Frequency Selective Fading 2.2.3 Delay Spread 2.2.4 Doppler Shift

6 7 7 9 9 11

DESCRIPTION OF OFDM SYSTEMS

12

3.1 INTRODUCTION OF OFDM 3.2 BASIC PRINCIPLE OF OFDM 3.3 BASIC BLOCK DIAGRAM

12 15 15

3.3.1 Series and Parallel Concepts 3.3.2 FFT and IFFT 3.3.3 Guard Interval and Cyclic Extension

16 17 19

CHANNEL ESTIMATION AND INTERPOLATION TECHNIQUES 20

4.1 CHANNEL ESTIMATION IN OFDM SYSTEMS 4.2 PILOT ARRANGEMENT IN OFDM SYSTEMS 4.3 COMB TYPE PILOT AIDED CHANNEL ESTIMATION 4.4 LEAST SQUARE ESTIMATION 4.4.1 Basic principle of LS Channel estimation 4.4.2 Least Square Algorithm 4.5 INTERPOLATION IN OFDM SYSTEMS 4.5.1 LI (Linear Interpolation) 4.5.2 SOI (Second Order Interpolation)

22 22 23 23 24 25 26 26 27

SIMULATION AND RESULTS

5.1 SIMULINK DESCRIPTION 5.2 SOME FEATURES 5.3 SIMULINK MODEL OF OFDM SYSTEMS 5.4 DESCRIPTION OF VARIOUS BLOCKS 5.4.1. Data Source 5.4.2 Modulator / IQ Mapper 5.4.3 OFDM Modulator 5.4.4 Transmission Channel 5.4.5 OFDM Demodulator 5.4.6 I-Q Demapper / Demodulator 5.4.7 Data Sink 5.4.8 Output 5.4.9 Estimation and Interpolation of Received Symbols

28 28 29 31 31 32 35 36 37 39 40 41 42

SIMULATION RESULTS 5.5 OFDM SYSTEM WITH 16-QAM MAPPING

5.5.1 UN-ESTIMATED OUTPUT 5.5.2 LS ESTIMATION WITH LINEAR INTERPOLATION

43
43 43

5.5.3 LS ESTIMATION WITH SECOND ORDER INTERPOLATION 44 5.5.4 16-QAM SPECTRUM PLOT 44

5.6 OFDM SYSTEM WITH 16-QAM MAPPING

5.6.1 UN-ESTIMATED OUTPUT 5.6.2 LS ESTIMATION WITH LINEAR INTERPOLATION

45
45 45

5.6.3 LS ESTIMATION WITH SECOND ORDER INTERPOLATION 46 5.6.4 64-QAM SPECTRUM PLOT 46

5.7 OFDM SYSTEM WITH QPSK MAPPING

5.7.1 UN-ESTIMATED OUTPUT 5.7.2 LS ESTIMATION WITH LINEAR INTERPOLATION

47
47 47

5.7.3 LS ESTIMATION WITH SECOND ORDER INTERPOLATION 48 5.7.4 QPSK-QAM SPECTRUM PLOT 48

5.8 OFDM SYSTEM WITH BPSK MAPPING

5.8.1 UN-ESTIMATED OUTPUT 5.8.2 LS ESTIMATION WITH LINEAR INTERPOLATION

49
49 49

5.8.3 LS ESTIMATION WITH SECOND ORDER INTERPOLATION 50 5.8.4 BPSK-QAM SPECTRUM PLOT 50

CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE WORKS 6.1 THESIS CONCLUSION 6.1.1 The simulation results gave the following conclusions 6.2 FUTURE WORKS

51 51 52 53

REFERENCES

55

ABSTRACT
Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing is a multi-carrier modulation scheme that is widely used in wireless broadband networks, and 4G mobile

communications. OFDM has better characteristics when compared to single carrier modulation. But there is degradation in Bit Error Rate performance of OFDM which can be attributed to loss of orthogonality between subcarriers due to the effect of phase noise. The phase noise is caused due to the shift in Doppler frequency. The main objective of this project is to mitigate the effect of phase noise i.e., cancellation of inter carrier interference between the sub carriers. The Comb type Pilot based Least Square (LS) channel estimation technique for the OFDM system is used to find the Channel State Information at the pilot sub carriers and the various interpolation techniques such as Linear and Second Order Interpolation methods are used to determine the data sub carriers. The Bit Error Rate performance of the OFDM systems is analysed using various mapping techniques such as 16-QAM, 64-QAM, QPSK and BPSK. The reduction in phase noise is shown by an improvement in Bit Error Rate.

LIST OF TABLES AND FIGURES

Figure 2.1 Table 2.1 Figure 2.2 Figure 2.3 Figure 3.1 Figure 3.2 Figure 3.3 Figure 3.4 Figure 3.5 Figure 4.1 Figure 4.1 Figure 4.2 Table 5.1 Figure 5.1 Figure 5.2(a) Figure 5.2(b) Figure 5.3(a) Figure 5.3(b) Figure 5.3(c) Figure 5.3(d) Figure 5.3(e) Figure 5.3(f) Figure 5.3(g) Figure 5.3(h) Figure 5.3(i) Figure 5.4(a) Figure 5.4(b) Figure 5.4(c) Figure 5.5(a) Figure 5.5(b) Figure 5.6(a) Figure 5.6(b) Figure 5.6(c) Figure 5.6(d) Figure 5.7(a) Figure 5.7(b) Attenuation of signals in Radio Environment Probability of Signals levels for Rayleigh distribution Rayleigh fading effect Delay Spread Spectrums of Subcarriers in OFDM (a) Conventional Multicarrier Technique (b) Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing Technique Serial to Parallel Converter OFDM generation by N-point IFFT Guard interval with cyclic extension (a) Block type (b) Comb type Estimation and Interpolation OFDM SIMULINK PARAMETERS Implemented Block diagram Block Used For Random Integer Generation. Block Used For Integer to Bit Conversion. Block used for Bit to Integer Conversion Block used for BPSK Mapping Constellation plot for BPSK Mapping Block used for QPSK Mapping Constellation plot for QPSK Mapping Block used for 16 Rectangular QAM Mapping Constellation plot for 16-QAM Mapping Block used for 64 Rectangular QAM Mapping Constellation plot for 64-QAM Mapping Block used for Inverse Fourier Transform. Block used for Multiport & Pilot Concatenation. Block used for Cyclic Prefix Insertion. Block used for Additive White Gaussian Noise. Block used for Rayleigh Fading. Block used for Removing Cyclic Prefix. Block used for Fast Fourier Transform. Block used for To Frame Conversion. Block used for removing zeros. Block used for QPSK Demodulator. Block used for BPSK Demodulator.
ii

7 8 8 10 13 13 16 18 19 22 22 25 29 30 31 31 32 32 33 33 33 34 34 34 35 35 36 36 37 37 37 38 38 38 39 39

Figure 5.7(c) Figure 5.7(d) Figure 5.7(e) Figure 5.9(a) Figure 5.9(b) Figure 5.9(c) Figure 5.8 Figure 5.10(a) Figure 5.10(b) Figure 5.10(c) Figure 5.11(a) Figure 5.11(b) Figure 5.11(c) Figure 5.11(d) Figure 5.11(e) Figure 5.11(f) Figure 5.11(g) Figure 5.12(a) Figure 5.12(b) Figure 5.12(c) Figure 5.12(d) Figure 5.12(e) Figure 5.12(f) Figure 5.12(g) Figure 5.13(a) Figure 5.13(b) Figure 5.13(c) Figure 5.13(d) Figure 5.13(e) Figure 5.13(f) Figure 5.13(g) Figure 5.14(a) Figure 5.14(b) Figure 5.14(c) Figure 5.14(d) Figure 5.14(e) Figure 5.14(f) Figure 5.14(g) Table 6.1

Block used for 16-QAM Demodulator. Block used for 64-QAM Demodulator. Block used for Integer to Bit Conversion. Block used for Bit Error Rate Calculation. Block used for Constellation Mapping. Block used for Spectrum plot. Block used for Integer to Bit Conversion. Block for LS estimation Block for Linear interpolation Block for Second Order interpolation 16-QAM Un-estimated Plot BER 16-Qam Unestimated 16-QAM Linear Interpolation BER 16-QAM LS and LI 16-QAM SOI BER 16-QAM LS and SOI 16-QAM spectrum plot with 10MHz Bandwidth 64-QAM Unestimated Plot BER 64-QAM Unestimated 64-QAM Linear Interpolation BER 64-QAM LS and LI 64-QAM SOI BER 64-QAM LS and SOI 64-QAM spectrum plot with 10MHz Bandwidth QPSK unestimated output BER QPSK Unestimated QPSK linear interpolation BER QPSK LS and LI QPSK with SOI BER QPSK LS and SOI QPSK spectrum plot with 10MHz Bandwidth BPSK unestimated plot Figure BER BPSK Unestimated BPSK Linear Interpolation BER LS and LI BPSK with SOI BER BPSK LS and SOI BPSK spectrum plot with 10MHz Bandwidth Performance Analysis
iii

39 40 40 40 41 41 41 42 42 42 43 43 43 43 44 44 44 45 45 45 45 46 46 46 47 47 47 47 48 48 48 49 49 49 49 50 50 50 52

LIST OF ACRONYMS

AWGN: BER: BPSK: FD: FFT: ICI: IDFT: IFFT: LI: LS: OFDM: PSA: QAM: QPSK: SNR: SOI: TD:

Additive White Gaussian Noise Bit Error Rate Binary Phase Shift Keying Frequency Domain Fast Fourier Transform Inter-Carrier Interference Inverse DFT Inverse FFT Linear Interpolation Least Square Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing Pilot Symbol Assisted Quadrature Amplitude Modulation Quadrature Phase Shift Keying Signal to Noise Ratio Second-Order Interpolation Time Domain

iv

CHAPTER-1
INTRODUCTION
During the past few years, there has been an explosion in wireless technology. This growth has opened a new dimension to future wireless communications whose ultimate goal is to provide universal personal and multimedia communication without regard to mobility or location with high data rates. To achieve such an objective, the next generation personal communication networks will need to be support a wide range of services which will include high quality voice, data, facsimile, still pictures and streaming video. These future services are likely to include applications which require high transmission rates of several Mega bits per seconds (Mbps).

When the data is transmitted at high bit rates, over mobile radio channels, the channel impulse response can extend over many symbol periods, which lead to Inter-symbol interference (ISI). Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM) is one of the promising candidates to mitigate the ISI. In an OFDM signal the bandwidth is divided into many narrow sub-channels which are transmitted in parallel. Each sub-channel is typically chosen narrow enough to eliminate the effect of delay spread. By combining OFDM with CDMA dispersive fading limitations of the cellular mobile radio environment can be overcome and the effects of co-channel interference can be reduced.

1.1 DIGITAL COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS

A digital communication system is often divided into several functional units. The task of the source encoder is to represent the digital or analog information by bits in an efficient way. The bits are then fed into the channel encoder, which adds bits in a structured way to enable detection and correction of transmission errors. The bits from the encoder are grouped and transformed to certain symbols, or waveforms by the modulator and waveforms are mixed with a carrier to get a signal suitable to be transmitted through the channel. At the receiver the reverse function takes place. The received signals are demodulated and soft or hard values of the corresponding bits are passed to the decoder. The decoder analyzes the structure of received bit pattern and tries to detect or correct errors. Finally, the corrected bits are fed to the source decoder that is used to reconstruct the analog speech signal or digital data input. The main question is how to design certain parts of the modulator and demodulator to achieve efficient and robust transmission through a mobile wireless channel. The wireless channel has some properties that make the design especially challenging: it introduces time varying echoes and phase shifts as well as a time varying attenuation of the amplitude (fade).

Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM) has proven to be a modulation technique well suited for high data rates on time dispersive channels. There are some specific requirements when designing wireless OFDM systems, for example, how to choose the bandwidth of the sub-channels used for transmission and how to achieve reliable synchronization. The latter is especially important in packet-based systems since synchronization has to be achieved within a few symbols. In order to achieve good performance the receiver has to know the
2

impact of the channel. The problem is how to extract this information in an efficient way. Conventionally, known symbols are multiplexed into the data sequence in order to estimate the channel. From these symbols, all channel attenuations are estimated with an interpolation filter.

For mobile or wireless applications, the channel is often described as a set of independent multipath components. Among the most important parameters when choosing the modulation scheme are the delay and the expected received power for different delays. Large delays for stronger paths mean that the interference between the different received signal parts can severe, especially when the symbol rate is high so that the delay exceeds several symbols. In that case one has to introduce an equalizer to mitigate the effects of inter-symbol interference (ISI). Another alternative is to use many parallel channels so that the symbol time on each of the channels is long. This means that only a small part of the symbol is affected by ISI and this is the idea behind orthogonal frequency division multiplexing (OFDM).

1.2 FOURTH GENERATION WIRELESS SYSTEMS

Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing OFDM is a multicarrier transmission technique, many carriers, each one being modulated by a low rate data stream share the transmission bandwidth. OFDM is similar to FDMA in that the multiple user access is achieved by subdividing the available bandwidth into multiple channels that are then allocated to users. However, OFDM uses the spectrum much more efficiently by spacing the channels much closer. This is achieved by making all the carriers orthogonal to one another, preventing interference between the closely spaced carriers.
3

OFDM overcomes most of the problems with both FDMA and TDMA. OFDM splits the available bandwidth into many narrow band channels (typically 100-8000 Hz). The carriers for each channel are made orthogonal to one another, allowing them to be spaced very close together, with no overhead. Because of this there is no great need for users to be time multiplexed as in TDMA, thus there is no overhead associated with switching between users. The orthogonality of the carriers means that each carrier has an integer number of cycles over a symbol period. Due to this, the spectrum of each carrier has a null at the location of each of the other carriers in the system. This results in no interference between the carriers, allowing them to be as close as theoretically possible. This overcomes the problem of overhead carrier spacing required in FDMA. Each carrier in an OFDM signal has a very narrow bandwidth (i.e.1kHz), thus the resulting symbol rate is low. This results in the signal having a high tolerance to multipath delay spread, as the delay spread must be very long to cause significant inter-symbol interference (e.g. 500 sec).

1.3 OBJECTIVE AND OUTLINE OF THESIS

The main objectives of this thesis are:

(1) Investigate OFDM as a modulation technique for wireless radio applications. Main factors affecting the performance of an OFDM system are multipath delay spread and Phase noise. The performance is assessed using computer simulations performed using Matlab. (2) Channel estimation, for wireless OFDM transmission using pilot carriers and implicit training sequence and compare the bit error rate performance.
4

This thesis is organized as follows:

In Chapter 2, Characteristics of mobile radio channels and the basics of OFDM are presented; In Chapter3, The description of OFDM system; In Chapter 4, The different approaches of Channel Estimation and Interpolation in OFDM systems is presented; Chapter 5, Demonstrates Simulations and Results; Chapter 6, Concludes the thesis and a future work is also suggested.

CHAPTER-2
PROPAGATION CHARACTERISTICS OF MOBILE RADIO CHANNELS
For an ideal radio channel, the received signal would consist of only a single direct path signal, which would be a perfect reconstruction of the transmitted signal. However in a real channel, the signal is modified during transmission in the channel. The received signal consists of a combination of attenuated, reflected, refracted, and diffracted replicas of the transmitted signal. On top of all this, the channel adds noise to the signal and can cause a shift in the carrier frequency if the transmitter or receiver is moving (Doppler Effect). Understanding of these effects on the signal is important because the performance of a radio system is dependent on the radio channel characteristics.

2.1 ATTENUATION

Attenuation is the drop in the signal power when transmitting from one point to another. It can be caused by the transmission path length, obstructions in the signal path and multipath effects. Any objects, which obstruct the line of sight signal from the transmitter to the receiver, can cause attenuation. Shadowing of the signal can occur whenever there is an obstruction between the transmitter and receiver. It is generally caused by buildings and hills, and is the most important environmental attenuation factor.

Shadowing is most severe in heavily built up areas, due to the shadowing from buildings. However, hills can cause a large problem due to the large shadow they produce. Radio signals diffract off the boundaries of obstructions, thus preventing total shadowing of the signals behind hills and buildings. However, the amount of diffraction is dependent on the radio frequency used, with low frequencies diffracting more than high frequency signals. Thus, high frequency signals, especially, Ultra High Frequencies (UHF), and microwave signals require line of sight for adequate signal strength. To overcome the problem of shadowing, transmitters are usually elevated as high as possible to minimize the number of obstructions.

Figure 2.1 Attenuation of Signal in Radio Environment

2.2 MULTIPATH EFFECTS 2.2.1. Rayleigh fading

In a radio link, the RF signal from the transmitter may be reflected from objects such as hills, buildings, or vehicles. This gives rise to multiple transmission paths at the receiver. The relative phase of multiple reflected signals can cause constructive or destructive interference at the receiver. This is
7

experienced over very short distances (typically at half wavelength distances), thus is given the term fast fading. These variations can vary from10-30dB over a short distance. Figure 2.2 shows the level of attenuation that can occur due to the fading.

Figure 2.2 Rayleigh Fading Effect

The Rayleigh distribution is commonly used to describe the statistical time varying nature of the received signal power. It describes the probability of the signal level being received due to fading. Table 2.1 shows the probability of the signal level for the Rayleigh distribution.

Table 2.1 Probability of the signal level for the Rayleigh distribution

2.2.2. Frequency Selective Fading

In any radio transmission, the channel spectral response is not flat. It has dips or fades in the response due to reflections causing cancellation of certain frequencies at the receiver. Reflections off near-by objects (e.g. ground, buildings, trees, etc) can lead to multipath signals of similar signal power as the direct signal. This can result in deep nulls in the received signal power due to destructive interference. For narrow bandwidth transmissions if the null in the frequency response occurs at the transmission frequency then the entire signal can be lost. This can be partly overcome in two ways. By transmitting a wide bandwidth signal or spread spectrum as CDMA, any dips in the spectrum only result in a small loss of signal power, rather than a complete loss. Another method is to split the transmission up into many small bandwidth carriers, as is done in a OFDM transmission. The original signal is spread over a wide bandwidth and thus, any nulls in the spectrum are unlikely to occur at all of the carrier frequencies. This will result in only some of the carriers being lost, rather than the entire signal. The information in the lost carriers can be recovered provided enough forward error corrections are sent.

2.2.3 Delay Spread

The received radio signal from a transmitter consists of typically a direct signal, plus reflections of object such as buildings, mountings, and other structures. The reflected signals arrive at a later time than the direct signal because of the extra path length, giving rise to a slightly different arrival time of the transmitted pulse, thus spreading the received energy. Delay spread is the time spread between the arrival of the first and last multipath signal seen by the
9

receiver. In a digital system, the delay spread can lead to inter-symbol interference. This is due to the delayed multipath signal overlapping with the following symbols. This can cause significant errors in high bit rate systems, especially when using time division multiplexing (TDMA). As the transmitted bit rate is increased the amount of inter symbol interference also increases. The effect starts to become very significant when the delay spread is greater than ~50% of the bit time.

Inter-symbol interference can be minimized in several ways. One method is to reduce the symbol rate by reducing the data rate for each channel (i.e. split the bandwidth into more channels using frequency division multiplexing). Another is to use a coding scheme, which is tolerant to inter symbol interference such as CDMA.

Direct Signal

Figure 2.3 Delay Spread Phenomena

10

2.2.4 Doppler Shift

When a wave source and a receiver are moving relative to one another the frequency of the received signal will not be the same as the source. When they are moving toward each other the frequency of the received signal is higher than the source, and when they are approaching each other the frequency decreases. This is called the Dopplers effect. An example of this is the change of pitch in a cars horn as it approaches then passes by. This effect becomes important when developing mobile radio systems. The amount the frequency changes due to the Doppler Effect depends on the relative motion between the source and receiver and on the speed of propagation of the wave. The Doppler shift in frequency can be written: 0

(2.1)

Where f is the change in frequency of the source seen at the receiver, fo is the frequency of the source, v is the speed difference between the source and transmitter, and c is the speed of light.

Doppler shift can cause significant problems if the transmission technique is sensitive to carrier frequency offsets or the relative speed is higher, which is the case for OFDM. If we consider now a link between to cars moving in opposite directions, each one with a speed of 80 km/hr, the Doppler shift will be double.

11

CHAPTER-3
DESCRIPTION OF OFDM SYSTEMS
3.1 INTRODUCTION TO OFDM

OFDM originated from the need of efficient communications through frequency-selective fading channels. OFDM can be simply defined as a form of multicarrier modulation (MCM). MCM is the principle of transmitting a high-rate serial data stream by splitting it into a set of parallel low rate sub-streams and modulating each of these data streams onto individual subcarriers, where carrier spacing is carefully selected to make each subcarrier orthogonal to the other subcarriers. It is possible to arrange the carriers in an OFDM signal so that the sideband of the individual carriers overlap and the signals can still be received without adjacent carrier interference. In OFDM signaling, the following orthogonality condition is satisfied,
2 2 . 0 2 ( ) 0

. =

. = 0,

(3.1)

The space between the frequencies of the subcarriers should be

= =

(3.2)

Where, m can be any positive integer. The smallest space for orthogonality is equal to the symbol rate l/r. With orthogonality, each subcarrier can be demodulated

12

independently without ICI. It should be noted that the pass bands of the subcarriers may overlap in OFDM, as shown in Figure 3.1

Figure 3.1 Spectrums of Subcarriers in OFDM

Figure 3.2

(a) Conventional Multicarrier Technique (b) Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing Technique
13

Compared with conventional non-overlapping multicarrier technique, OFDM can save almost 50% of bandwidth by using the overlapping multicarrier modulation technique, as shown in Figure 3.2

In digital communication Systems, the OFDM symbol is a sum of subcarriers that are individually modulated by using PSK or QAM. The expression for one OFDM symbol at t = ts as follows:
2 1

=
= 2

1+/2 . 2 < , > +

+ 0.5

, + (3.3)

= 0,

where, di are complex modulation symbols, Ns is the number of subcarriers, T is the symbol duration, and fc is the carrier frequency. The equivalent complex baseband notation is given by:

2 1

=
= 2

1+/2 . 2

, +

= 0,

< , > +

(3.4)

14

3.2 BASIC PRINCIPLE OF OFDM

At the transmission side, the binary information is first grouped and mapped into complex-valued symbols according to the modulation by different mapping schemes, such as BPSK, QPSK, 16QAM, and 64QAM. Then there is a series to parallel conversion to prepare different data groups for different OFDM subcarriers. The mapped signals are modulated onto N orthogonal subcarriers by the IFFT. A cyclic prefix (CP) is then added to the multiplexed IFFT output. Finally, the obtained signal is converted to a time continuous analog signal before it is transmitted through the channel. At the receiver side, an inverse operation is carried out and the information data is detected.

3.3 BASIC BLOCK DIAGRAM

15

3.3.1 Series and parallel concepts

The series and parallel converters are considered to realize the concept of parallel data transmission, as shown in Figure 3.2. In a conventional serial data System, the symbols are transmitted sequentially and the frequency spectrum of each data symbol is allowed to occupy the entire available bandwidth. When the data rate is sufficiently high, several adjacent symbols may be completely distorted over a frequency-selective fading or a multipath delay spread channel.

In an OFDM System, the entire channel bandwidth is divided into many narrow sub-bands and the spectrum of an individual data element occupies only a small part of the available bandwidth, so the frequency response over each individual sub-channel is relatively flat. Hence, the parallel data transmission can resist to frequency selective fading.

16

3.3.2 FFT and IFFT

The key components of an OFDM System are the IDFT at the transmitter and the DFT at the receiver. These operations perform linear mapping between M complex data symbols and N complex OFDM symbols, resulting in robustness against the multipath fading channel. The complex baseband OFDM signal is in fact nothing more than the inverse Fourier transform of Ns modulated input symbols. The use of DFT and IDFT to replace the sinusoidal generator and the demodulation significantly reduces the implementation complexity of OFDM modulator.

Then the discrete-time representation of the signal after IDFT is =

1 1 =0

. exp 2

, = 0,1,2, , 1

(3.5)

Where, X(k)

denotes the kth discrete spectral sample of N samples in the

Frequency Domain(FD).

At the receiver side, the data is recovered by performing a DFT on the received signal. =
1 1 =0

. exp 2

, = 0,1,2, , 1

(3.6)

Where the sequence {x(n)} contains N samples in the Time Domain(TD). The FFT/IFFT algorithm is well known and widely used in digital signal processing for its efficient evaluation of the DFT/IDFT. An N -point FFT

17

requires only N log(N) multiplications, which is more computationally efficient than an equivalent single carrier system with an equalizer in the TD.

The IFFT function block is also used to realize the zero forcing equalization to compensate the effective channel in the FD. An efficient OFDM implementation converts a serial symbol stream of modulated data into size M parallel streams. These M streams are then modulated onto M subcarriers via the use of a size N ( N > M ) IFFT. The N outputs of the IFFT are then serialized to form a data stream that can then be modulated by a single carrier. The N point IFFT can modulate up to N subcarriers. When M is less than N , the remaining NM subcarriers are not in the output stream. Essentially, these subcarriers have been modulated with zero amplitude (zero-padding). For example, the IEEE802.11a standard specifies that 52 (M = 52 ) out of 64 (N = 64) possible subcarriers are modulated by the transmitter, as shown in Figure 3.4

Figure 3.4 OFDM generation by N-point IFFT

18

3.3.3 Guard interval and cyclic extension

In the multipath fading channel environment, channel dispersion causes the consecutive blocks to overlap, creating ISI and intercarrier interference (ICI). To eliminate ISI almost completely, a GI is introduced for each OFDM symbol. The GI is chosen larger than the expected delay spread, such that multipath components from one symbol cannot interfere with the next symbol. The GI could consist of no signal at all. However, in this case, the problem of ICI would arise. ICI is crosstalk between different subcarriers, which means they are no longer orthogonal. In order to avoid ICI, a CP is used as GI. This is done by taking symbol period samples from the end of the period and appending them to the front of the period, as shown in Figure 2.4. The CP is equal or greater in length than the channel impulse response (CIR), or the maximum delay spread of the channel. This ensures that delayed replicas of the OFDM symbol always have an integer number of cyclic within the FFT interval.

Figure 3.5 Guard intervals with cyclic extension sdseprefixextension

19

CHAPTER-4
CHANNEL ESTIMATION AND INTERPOLATION TECHNIQUES

4.1 CHANNEL ESTIMATION IN OFDM SYSTEMS

Channel estimation is an important component of a communication System. With the information on the Channel Impulse Response or the parameters of a channel, one can perform optimal symbol detection, construct an equalizer or predict the channel.

In OFDM Systems, since the channel introduces amplitude and phase shifts due to the frequency selective and time-varying nature of the wireless channel, modulated bits are distorted during transmission through the channel. In order to acquire the original bits in the receiver, one needs to take into account these unknown changes. The receiver applies either coherent detection or noncoherent detection to recover the original bits. Coherent detection uses reference values that are transmitted along with data bits. The entire channel can then be estimated by using several interpolation techniques. Non-coherent detection, on the other hand, does not use any reference values but often uses differential modulation, where the information is transmitted in the difference of two successive symbols. The receiver uses two adjacent symbols in time or two adjacent subcarriers in frequency to compare one with the other to acquire the transmitted symbol. Non-coherent detection has the advantage that the channel estimation is not needed.

20

However, without channel estimation, OFDM Systems have to use differential PSK (DPSK), which has a 3 dB signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) loss compared with coherent PSK. DPSK is appropriate for relatively low data rates, such as the European DAB Systems. Moreover, the coherent detection achieves a better performance for higher order constellations than those used with noncoherent detection. Therefore, coherent detection is preferable for high data rate applications and is often used in OFDM Systems.

Accurate channel estimation algorithms can be applied in OFDM Systems to allow coherent detection, thereby improving System performance. Based upon whether the channel estimation algorithms apply training symbols, we can divide them into three categories: training (pilot) based algorithms, blind algorithms, and semi-blind algorithms. Training (pilot) based algorithms assume known symbols (training or pilot symbols) are inserted in the transmitted signals. It is then possible to identify the channel at the receiver by exploiting knowledge of these known symbols. Blind algorithms estimate the channel based on properties of the transmitted signals. Semi-blind algorithms can improve the performance of blind algorithms by exploiting the knowledge of both known symbols and properties of the transmitted signals. The objective of semi-blind channel estimation algorithms is to get better performance than blind algorithms while requiring fewer known symbols than training based channel estimation algorithms.

Therefore, for coherent detection of OFDM, it is preferable to estimate channel characteristics based on training (pilot) signal in each individual OFDM data block. The pilot symbol assisted (PSA) based channel estimation algorithm is a suitable method for OFDM coherent detection.

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4.2 PILOT ARRANGEMENT IN OFDM SYSTEMS

There are two different ways of arranging pilot tones in OFDM transmission: (a) Block-type pilot arrangement (b) Comb-type pilot arrangement, as shown in Figure 4.1.

Figure 4.1 (a) Block-type (b) Comb-type

Block type pilot arrangement is where the whole block of frequencies are sent as pilot symbols. The block type pilot is used in slow fading channels where the adjacent subcarriers are less prone to phase shifts.

Comb type pilot arrangement is where the pilots are placed are regular intervals, the pilots are inserted among the data subcarriers. This type of pilot arrangement is used in the fast fading channels where the subcarriers in one OFDM symbol are affected by the channel characteristics.

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4.3 COMB-TYPE PILOT-AIDED CHANNEL ESTIMATION

To achieve high data rates as well as good performances, coherent detection is commonly used in most existing OFDM Systems. Coherent detection relies on knowledge of channel state information. One simple approach to obtain channel state information is to send some pilot symbols at the transmitter. To this end, pilot subcarriers are often interlaced with data subcarriers. There are two different pilot arrangements for PSA channel estimation, namely block-type pilot arrangement and comb-type pilot arrangement. Comb-type pilot insertion has been shown to be suitable for channel estimation in fast fading channels.

The channel estimation algorithm based on comb-type pilot is divided into pilot signal estimation and channel interpolation. Pilot signal estimation is based on Least Square (LS) criteria and interpolation algorithms include Linear Interpolation (LI) and Second Order Interpolation (SOI). In this chapter, combtype PSA-OFDM channel estimation principle and algorithms are presented. Channel estimation strategies in OFDM Systems are also reviewed.

4.4 LEAST SQUARE ESTIMATION

Pilot Channel Estimation, where the channel estimation technique is performed only at the pilot subcarriers, followed by the interpolation at the data subcarriers. In this work, we only consider the frequency domain initial channel estimation techniques based on the block-type pilot arrangement.

In this chapter, the LS estimation technique is presented as it is needed by many estimation techniques as an initial estimation.
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4.4.1 Basic principle of LS channel estimation

Channel estimation and equalization method are used to compensate for fading loss. The basic idea of this approach is that there is a pilot (training sequence) known to both transmitter and receiver. This pilot signal is transmitted and tampered (convoluted) by the channel response, and based on the difference between received signal and known training sequence, the receiver can adjust the parameters (filter coefficients) of the equalizer. These parameters are quite helpful to extract the distorted 'unknown data' transmitted in the same channel or in an adjacent channel.

The received pilot signals Yp(k) are extracted from received signals Y(k) and the channel transfer function Hd(k) for the data sub channel can be obtained from the information carried by Hp{k). With the knowledge of the estimated channel response H(k), the estimated transmitted data sample Xd(k) can be recovered by simply dividing the received signal by the estimated channel response. =
( ) ( )

= 0, 1, , 1

(4.1)

Where ( ) is an estimate of H(k). Finally, the source binary information data are de-mapped and reconstructed at the receiver Generally, the process of comb-type pilot aided OFDM channel estimation has two major steps: (1) Pilot sub channel identification and (2) Data sub channel interpolation, as illustrated in Figure 4.2.

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Figure 4.2 Estimation and Interpolation

4.4.2 Least Square algorithm

When ICI is eliminated by the GI, the received signal in (3.6) can be modeled with the following equation: Y = XH + W (4.2)

where Y is the received signal vector, .X is a diagonal matrix of the transmitted signal, H is the CFR vector, and W is the noise vector in the Frequency Domain. Using the LS estimator developed in Appendix C, the LS estimator for an OFDM System is described as: = ( )1 Since X is a diagonal matrix, the estimate is reduced to
25

(4.3)

 = 1

(4.4)

This indicates that the LS estimate of the frequency response channel is simply the division of the received signal by the transmitted signal. In the combtype PSA OFDM channel estimation, the pilot sub channel is first identified by using the transmitted pilot channel Xp and received pilots Yp. The estimate of the channel at pilot subcarriers based on LS estimation is given by

= 0,1,2, . , 1

(4.5)

where Yp(m) and Xp(m) are the output and the input at mth pilot subcarrier respectively, and m denotes the index of the pilot sub channel.

4.5 INTERPOLATION IN OFDM SYSTEMS

4.5.1 Ll (Linear Interpolation)

In the linear interpolation algorithm, two successive pilot subcarriers are used to determine the CIR for data subcarriers which are located between pilots. Using linear interpolation, the channel estimation at the data carrier k, where mL <k< (m+1)L, by is given by

= +

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 = 1

+ + 1

= + 1 4.5.2 SOI (Second-Order Interpolation)

0 < (4.6)

Theoretically, using higher-order polynomial interpolation will fit better than LI. However; the computational complexity grows as the order is increased. Here, we consider second-order polynomial interpolation for its acceptable computational complexity. The interpolation algorithm is given by

= + = 1 1 + 0 + 1 + 1 Where, 1 = ( 1) 2

(4.7)

0 = 1 +1 , = 1 = ( +1) 2

The channel estimation at the data carrier k is calculated based on three channel estimates of the previous, present, and next pilot symbols. H (m -1) is the channel estimate of the previous pilot symbol at position m - 1, Hp (m) is the channel estimate of the present pilot symbol at position m and Hp(m + 1) is the channel estimate of the next pilot symbol at position m + 1 . So the channel estimation for the first four data symbols of the first OFDM symbol is obtained using two pilot symbols as for the LI method.

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CHAPTER-5
SIMULATION AND RESULTS
5.1 SIMULINK DESCRIPTION Simulink is a platform for multi-domain simulation and model-based design of dynamic systems. It provides an alternative graphical environment and a customizable set of block libraries that let you accurately design, simulate, implement, and test control, signal processing, communications, and other timevarying systems. Simulink is integrated with MATLAB, providing immediate access to an extensive range of tools for algorithm development, data visualization, data analysis and access and numerical computation. With Simulink, you can quickly create, model and maintain a detailed block diagram of your system using a comprehensive set of predefined blocks. Simulink is also practical. With thousands of engineers around the world using it to model and solve real time problems, knowledge of this tool will serve you well throughout your professional career. 5.2 SOME FEATURES Simulink has many interesting characteristics and now this section is going to explain some of them have been used in the development of this report: 1. Using of workspace allows you to store all the values in several variables and later you can see all these values just by writing the variables name that you have defined before.

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2. The callbacks pane lets you specify functions to be invoked by Simulink at specific points in the simulation of the model. You can enter the names of any callback functions you want to be invoked in the appropriate fields. 5.3 SIMULINK MODEL OF OFDM SYSTEMS This model implements a simple OFDM transmitter and receiver Following are the configuration parameters set for this model: Simulation time: 1000 seconds Solver type: Variable step, ode45 (Dormand-Prince) Relative tolerance: 1e-3 Number of consecutive zero crossings: 1000

Parameter FFT Size (Nfft) Number of Used Carriers (N) Number of Null Subcarriers (Nn) Number of Pilot Subcarriers (Np) Guard Length (Ng) Guard Type OFDM Symbol (Ns) Data Symbol Mapping Subcarrier Frequency ( f) System Bandwidth (B)

Specifications 64 52 ( 48 + 4 ) 12 4 16 Cyclic Extension 80 16-QAM, 64-QAM, QPSK, BPSK 0.15625 MHz (10MHz/64) 10 MHz

Table 5.1 OFDM SIMULINK PARAMETERS

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The SIMULINK model of OFDM system is shown in Figure 5.1

Figure 5.1 Implemented Block Diagram

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5.4 DESCRIPTION OF VARIOUS BLOCKS In the subsequent sections different components of Figure 5.1 is explained.

5.4.1. Data Source This block is used to generate frame based input data. It consists of two sub blocks asshown below:

1. Random integer generates a 4-ary number and outputs the data in a frame based form containing 48 samples per frame with a sampling time of 0.1sec. The output datatype is double.

Figure 5.2 (a) Block Used For Random Integer Generation.

2.

Integer to bit converter block is used to convert the integers to bits in order to facilitate the computation of BER.

Figure 5.2 (b) Block Used For Integer to Bit Conversion.

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5.4.2 MODULATOR / IQ MAPPER

1. This block is used to map the input data stream into various mapping techniques. A bit to integer converter is used to convert the bits back to integers. This is because the QAM blocks can operate only integers.

Figure 5.3 (a) Block used for Bit to Integer Conversion

2. The Rectangular QAM / BPSK / QPSK is used to map the constellation points by converting the integers into complex values i.e, into In-phase and Quadrature Components of the corresponding integer values.

Figure 5.3 (b) Block used for BPSK Mapping

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Figure 5.3(c) Constellation plot for BPSK Mapping

Figure 5.3(d) Block used for QPSK Mapping

Figure 5.3(e) Constellation plot for QPSK Mapping

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Figure 5.3(f) Block used for 16 Rectangular QAM Mapping

Figure 5.3(g) Constellation plot for 16-QAM Mapping

Figure 5.3(h) Block used for 64 Rectangular QAM Mapping

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Figure 5.3(i) Constellation plot for 64-QAM Mapping

5.4.3 OFDM MODULATOR This block basically consists of IFFT block that computes inverse fast Fourier transform of the input data. The IFFT operation is mathematically identical to OFDM operation. Hence it could be said that this is the block that actually implements OFDM.

Figure 5.4(a) Block used for Inverse Fourier Transform.

Before feeding the data samples to the IFFT block, the input data stream should be formatted so that the total number of input samples is a power of 2 as is required by the IFFT block.

35

In order to do this a multiport selector block is used to select the rows and then unit data samples are added in between to maintain uniformity and finally they are concatenated vertically to get the data in which number of input samples are a power of 2. For 48 data samples, 4 pilots are used.

Figure 5.4(b) Block used for Multiport & Pilot Concatenation.

Finally a cyclic prefix block is added to add cyclic prefix to the data.

Figure 5.4(c) Block used for Cyclic Prefix Insertion.

5.4.4 TRANSMISSION CHANNEL In order to model the actual transmission channel both the AWGN and Rayleigh fading channels are connected in series. The signal to noise ratio of the AWGN channel can be adjusted by varying the SNR parameter value.

36

Figure 5.5(a) Block used for Additive White Gaussian Noise.

The Rayleigh fading block provides additional parameters like Doppler shift, path delay gain etc., to make the channel resemble the actual channel as closely as possible.

Figure 5.5(b) Block used for Rayleigh Fading.

5.4.5 OFDM DEMODULATOR

The operation performed by this block is basically opposite to that performed by the OFDM modulator block. At first the cyclic prefix is removed by using a remove cyclic prefix block.

Figure 5.6(a) Block used for Removing Cyclic Prefix.

Then FFT block is used to find the fast Fourier transform of the data samples.

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Figure 5.6(b) Block used for Fast Fourier Transform.

The To Frame Block is used to convert the output obtained from FFT Block into Frame format.

Figure 5.6(c) Block used for To Frame Conversion.

The Remove Zero Padding and Select Rows Block is used to remove the Guard Bits and Pilots added and output the exact data samples.

Figure 5.6(d) Block used for removing zeros.

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5.4.6 I-Q DEMAPPER / DEMODULATION

This block demodulates the input data using demodulation blocks such as QPSK/BPSK/ 16-QAM/64-QAM demodulator.

Figure 5.7(a) Block used for QPSK Demodulator.

Figure 5.7(b) Block used for BPSK Demodulator.

Figure 5.7(c) Block used for 16-QAM Demodulator.

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Figure 5.7(d) Block used for 64-QAM Demodulator.

Finally the output integer samples are converted to bits using an integer to bit converter block to facilitate the computation of BER.

Figure 5.7(e) Block used for Integer to Bit Conversion.

5.4.7 DATA SINK The data is sent to a data sink. But in actual block this will be processed by the communication systems.

Figure 5.8 Block used for Integer to Bit Conversion.

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5.4.8 OUTPUT This block compares the transmitted bits and received bits and finds the number of error bits.

Figure 5.9(a) Block used for Bit Error Rate Calculation.

Discrete- Time Scatter Plot is used to plot the Constellation points in a graph.

Figure 5.9(b) Block used for Constellation Mapping.

Spectrum Scope is used to plot the Spectrum of the transmitted and received signal.

Figure 5.9(c) Block used for Spectrum plot.

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5.4.9 ESTIMATION AND INTERPOLATION OF RECEIVED SYMBOLS

This block will invoke the least square estimation program that is coded in the Matlab.

Figure 5.10(a) Block for LS estimation

This block will invoke the Linear Interpolation and Second Order Interpolation technique which is coded in Matlab.

Figure 5.10(b) Block for Linear interpolation

Figure 5.10(c) Block for Second Order interpolation

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SIMULATION RESULTS 5.5 OFDM SYSTEM WITH 16-QAM MAPPING 5.5.1 UN-ESTIMATED OUTPUT

BER Error Bits Total Bits

Figure 5.11(a) 16-QAM Un-estimated Plot

Figure 5.11(b) BER 16-Qam Unestimated

5.5.2 LS ESTIMATION WITH LINEAR INTERPOLATION

BER Error Bits Total Bits

Figure 5.11(c) 16-QAM Linear Interpolation

Figure 5.11(d) BER 16-QAM LS and LI

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5.5.3 LS ESTIMATION WITH SECOND ORDER INTERPOLATION

BER Error Bits Total Bits

Figure 5.11(e) 16-QAM SOI

Figure 5.11(f) BER 16-QAM LS and SOI

5.5.4 16-QAM SPECTRUM PLOT

Figure 5.11(g) 16-QAM spectrum plot with 10MHz Bandwidth

44

5.6 OFDM SYSTEM WITH 16-QAM MAPPING 5.6.1 UN-ESTIMATED OUTPUT

BER Error Bits Total Bits

Figure 5.12(a) 64-QAM Unestimated Plot

Figure 5.12(b)BER 64-QAM Unestimated

5.6.2 LS ESTIMATION WITH LINEAR INTERPOLATION

BER Error Bits Total Bits

Figure 5.12(c) 64-QAM Linear Interpolation

Figure 5.12(d) BER 64-QAM LS and LI

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5.6.3 LS ESTIMATION WITH SECOND ORDER INTERPOLATION

BER Error Bits Total Bits

Figure 5.12(e) 64-QAM SOI

Figure 5.12(f) BER 64-QAM LS and SOI

5.6.4 64-QAM SPECTRUM PLOT

Figure 5.12(g) 64-QAM spectrum plot with 10MHz Bandwidth

46

5.7 OFDM SYSTEM WITH QPSK MAPPING 5.7.1 UN-ESTIMATED OUTPUT

BER Error Bits Total Bits

Figure 5.13(a) QPSK unestimated output

Figure 5.13(b) BER QPSK Unestimated

5.7.2 LS ESTIMATION WITH LINEAR INTERPOLATION

BER Error Bits Total Bits

Figure 5.13(c) QPSK linear interpolation

Figure 5.13(d) BER QPSK LS and LI

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5.7.3 LS ESTIMATION WITH SECOND ORDER INTERPOLATION

BER Error Bits Total Bits

Figure 5.13(e) QPSK with SOI

Figure 5.13(f) BER QPSK LS and SOI

5.7.4 QPSK-QAM SPECTRUM PLOT

Figure 5.13(g) QPSK spectrum plot with 10MHz Bandwidth

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5.8 OFDM SYSTEM WITH BPSK MAPPING 5.8.1 UN-ESTIMATED OUTPUT

BER Error Bits Total Bits

Figure 5.14(a) BPSK unestimated plot Figure

Figure 5.14(b) BER BPSK Unestimated

5.8.2 LS ESTIMATION WITH LINEAR INTERPOLATION

BER Error Bits Total Bits

Figure 5.14(c) BPSK Linear Interpolation

Figure 5.14(d) BER LS and LI

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5.8.3 LS ESTIMATION WITH SECOND ORDER INTERPOLATION

BER Error Bits Total Bits

Figure 5.14(e) BPSK with SOI

Figure 5.14(f) BER BPSK LS and SOI

5.8.4 BPSK-QAM SPECTRUM PLOT

Figure 5.14(g) BPSK spectrum plot with 10MHz Bandwidth

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CHAPTER-6
CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE WORKS
6.1 Thesis conclusions

OFDM techniques applications in WLAN communications have attracted a lot of attentions in the last few years, because they make the System robust against frequency selective channels. Using the IEEE802.1 la/g OFDM System to construct an underground WLAN and to achieve a high data rate up to 54 Mbps is appealing. To achieve high data rates as well as good performances, coherent channel estimation has to be performed at the receiver. Most of OFDM coherent channel estimation methods are Pilot Symbol Assisted based (PSA) and in the frequency domain. The transmitter just inserts known symbols periodically, so there is no change in pulse shape or peak to average power ratio. These methods have low complexity and implementation should be easy. They require additional processing to estimate the CFR on the subcarriers other than the pilot ones. The channel estimation is performed using LS estimation, at pilot subcarriers and interpolation of the channel at data subcarriers.

In this thesis, some popular PSA channel estimation algorithms for OFDM Systems based on comb-type pilot arrangement were studied. The algorithms were tested using Matlab/Simulink to verify their functionalities. The OFDM System model with channel estimation was setup in Simulink. The System performance was tested under different situations, including different modulation schemes (such as 16 QAM, 64 QAM, QPSK, and BPSK), different channel models

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(such as AWGN model and RAYLEIGH model), different channel information and different channel estimation and interpolation algorithms.

In chapter 3, it was established that in PSA OFDM channel estimation based comb-type pilot arrangement is preferable over the frequency-selective channel estimation due to its simplicity. The main estimation schemes are LS for pilot frequency estimation and LI/SOI for channel estimation data frequencies. The simulations have been done over the Rayleigh fading.

6.1.1 The simulation results gave the following conclusions. 1. 2. 3. Complete synchronization between the transmitter and the receiver is assumed. Channel is assumed to be Additive White Gaussian Noise with SNR as 20 dB and Rayleigh fading channel with Doppler frequency shift as 0.1Hz. The bandwidth used for transmitting the data symbols is 10MHz. Constellation Mapping Un-estimated BER Least Square Channel Estimation with Linear Interpolation 0.2985 0.3703 0.3925 Least Square Channel Estimation with 2nd Order Interpolation 0.0995 0.2817 0.2983

BPSK QPSK 16-QAM

0.6789 0.6764 0.5294

64-QAM

0.4423

0.3983

0.3665

Table 6.1 Performance Analysis

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From the above obtained results we derive the following conclusions. 1. With the increase in bandwidth the multi path fading increases this result in an increase in bit error rate. On performing the least square channel estimation technique and comparing the results obtained by both interpolation techniques its the Second Order Interpolation that always shows a better BER result when compared to the linear interpolation for all the 4 cases of constellation mapping that is being taken into account. The BER of BPSK mapping shows a better result this is because it tends to transmit only 2 symbols compensating on the data rate. Following BPSK is the QPSK which transmits 4 symbols. Next to QPSK falls 16-QAM which transmits 16 symbols and followed by 64-QAM which transmits 64 symbols. 64-QAM gives a better data rate for a given bandwidth. BPSK < QPSK < 16-QAM < 64-QAM Increasing order of BER 6.2 FUTURE WORKS

2.

3.

Due to the limited time frame of this project, there are still some important issues that have not been dealt with. The following is a list of suggested future works that can be investigated. Improve the performance by using channel estimation in the time domain. Channel estimation in FD has low complexity and is easy to implement. However, it is very sensitive to deep fades. If the deep fades occur in the CFR at pilot frequencies, then the channel estimation may be compromised. Its applicability is restricted to fixed wireless scenarios. Moreover, the complexity of channel

53

estimators may significantly increase in high mobility scenarios, where channel tracing may be needed. Although methods in the TD usually have higher complexity than the FD approaches, channel tracing in TD is still preferable. Investigate channel estimation in fast-varying channels where the channel changes within an OFDM block. In this thesis, we have limited the time varying channel to change within an OFDM frame, but not within an OFDM block. When the channel changes within an OFDM block, ICI occurs. The effects of ICI on channel estimation should be studied. Study the effect of frequency offset on channel estimations. In our analysis, we have assumed perfect frequency synchronization; therefore, the negative effect of ICI has not been analyzed. Study the effect of time synchronization on channel estimations. In our project, we have assumed timing synchronization between the transmitter and the receiver, but whereas in the practical systems these timing synchronization needs to be undertaken. Timing synchronization deals with the generation of the pilots at the receiver using the Local Oscillator which is prone to phase noise effect that needs to be reduced.

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REFERENCES

[1] C. Nerguizian, M. Djadel, C. Despins, and S. Affes, "Narrowband and Wideband Radio Channel Characteristics in Underground Mining Environments at 2.4 GHz," Proc. of IEEE PIMRC'03, Beijing, China, Vol. 1, pp. 680-684, September 7-10, 2003. [2] T. S. Rappaport, Wireless Communications Principles and Practice , IEEE Press, New York, Prentice Hall, pp. 169-177, 1996. [3] J. Heiskala, J. Terry, OFDM Wireless LANs: A Theoretical and Practical Guide, Sams Publishing, 2002. [4] R. Prasad, OFDM for Wireless Communications Systems , Artech House, Boston-London, 2004. [5] S. Coleri, M. Ergen, A. Puri, and A. Bahai, "Channel Estimation Techniques Based on Pilot Arrangement in OFDM Systems ," IEEE Trans. on Broadcasting, Vol. 48, No. 3, pp. 223229, Sept. 2002. [6] C. H. Yeh and Y. Y. Lin, "Channel Estimation Using Pilot Tones in OFDM Systems," IEEE Transaction on broadcasting, Vol. 45, No. 4, pp. 400-405, Dec. 1999. [7] M. Morelli and U. Mengali, "A comparison of Pilot-Aided Channel Estimation Methods for OFDM Systems," IEEE Trans. on Signal Processing, Vol. 49, No. 12, pp. 3065-3073, Dec. 2001. [8] J.-J. van de Beek, O. Edfors, M. Sandell, and S. K. Wilson, "On Channel Estimation in OFDM Systems " Proc. 45th IEEE Vehicular Technology Conf., Chicago, IL, pp. 815-819, July 1995. [9] M. Hsieh and C. Wei, "Channel Estimation for OFDM Systems Based on Comb-Type Pilot Arrangement in Frequency Selective Fading Channels," IEEE Trans. on Consumer Electronics, Vol. 44, No.l, pp. 217-225, February 1998.

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[10] Y. Li, "Pilot-Symbol Aided Channel Estimation for OFDM in Wireless System" IEEE Trans. on Vehicular Technology, Vol. 49, No. 4, pp. 1207-1215, July 2000. [11] P.-Y. Tsai and T. -D. Chiueh, "Frequency-Domain Interpolation-Based Channel Estimation in Pilot-Aided OFDM Systems," IEEE 59th Vehicular Technology Confrence (VTC'04), Vol. 1, pp. 420-424, Milan, Italy, May 2004. [12] J. K. Moon and S. I. Chol, "Performance of Channel Estimation Methods for OFDM Systems in a Multipath Fading Channels " IEEE Trans. on Consumer Electronics, Vol. 46, No. l,pp. 161-170, Feb. 2000. [13] Sarada Prasanna Dash and Bikash Kumar Dora, CHANNEL ESTIMATION IN MULTICARRIER COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS thesis, NIT, 2005-2009 [14] Proakis, J., Digital Communications. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1998. [15] S. G. Kang, Y. M. Ha, and E. K. Joo, "A comparative investigation on channel estimation algorithms for OFDM in mobile communications " IEEE Trans. on Broadcasting, Vol. 49, No. 2, pp. 142-149, June 2003.

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