Mass No Sub-atomic Relative Relative E = hf Energy = Plancks constant x fre uency E(element) Atomic No particle charge mass Atomic

number Proton number Mass number Proton number plus the number of neutrons in the Proton "# # nucleus of its atom Electron -# negligible !eutron $ # Hydration %hemical combination of &ater an' another substance Solvent Substance in &hich other substances are 'issolve' Solute Substance 'issolve' in another substance(solvent)to form a solution Empirical formula Ratio of atoms of 'ifferent elements present in a molecule of a compoun'( in their lo&est terms as &hole numbers (%)*) has %* empirical formula) Molecular formula +ctual number of atoms of each element in a molecule of a compoun' Dibasic acid ,ne &hich has - replaceable * atoms per molecule Isotopes +toms having the same atomic number but 'ifferent mass numbers - +s the number of protons increases( the number of neutrons increases relatively faster( so small atoms have proton an' neutron numbers &hich are comparable &hereas large atoms have more neutrons than protons - !eutrons re'uce repulsive forces bet&een positive protons - .eparture from optimum range of ratio of protons to neutrons &ill lea' to nuclear instability(ra'ioactivity) - !o of electrons in outer(valence)shell(an' sometimes the shell next to the outer shell)an' the /Es 0 E+s for an atom &ill 'etermine the chemistry of the element - ,uter shell electrons 'etermine the chemistry of an element as they can get close to the outer shell electrons of other atoms( so can be transferre' or share'1 2he inner shell electrons are tightly hel' an' shiel'e' from the electrons in other atoms3molecules - /sotopes 'ont affect the electron number or structure so 'ont affect the chemistry of the element( but have varying rates of reaction - #-% is the only atom &ith relative atomic mass &hich is an exact &hole number because #-% is chosen as a stan'ar' an' given a relative atomic mass of exactly #Nuclide + nuclear species of given mass number an' atomic number Radionuclide Ra'ioactive nucli'e Relative atomic mass Average mass of an atom of an element compare' &ith #3#- of the mass of an atom of carbon-#- isotope Relative isotopic mass Mass of an atom of an isotope of an element compare' &ith #3#- of the mass of an atom of carbon-#- isotope Relative molecular mass Sum of relative atomic masses # Electrons are emitte' from the filament( accelerate' an' use' to bombar' the gaseous sample &hich is at very lo& pressure - Sample molecules have electrons knocke' off them by bombar'ing electrons forming positive ions1 2he molecules can also fragment or rearrange giving 'ifferent positive ions 4 Positive ions accelerate' by an electric fiel' ) Positive ions 'eflecte' by a magnetic fiel' in a circular path &hose ra'ius 'epen's on mass3charge ratio an' strength of the fiel'1 2he machine s&eeps over the chosen mass range by altering the magnetic fiel' an' hence ions reaching the 'etector are separate' accor'ing to their mass 5 Positive ions(Species6 ra'ical cation3molecular ion3fragment ion) 'etecte' an' relative amounts calculate' by the machine - %hamber vacuume' to prevent air molecules obstructing the passage of particles through the mass spectrometer - 7ikelihoo' of -" ions being pro'uce' in the mass spectrometer is small( because the chance of a molecule being ionise' by electron impact is alrea'y uite small1 8hen it has been ionise' it is pulle' a&ay by the potential gra'ient lea'ing to the magnet &hich also helps to re'uce the possibility of a secon' impact - /mportant to use minimum possible energy to ionise a sample in a mass spectrometer to prevent formation of 'ouble positive ions rather than single positive ions(or to prevent fragmentation of molecular substances) ( Abundance ! Mass" # ( Abundance ! Mass" #$%% &otal composition = Relative atomic mass RAM Molecular ion pea' (2he molecular ion peak is not al&ays the most intense an' maybe absent) *ighest significant peak &here the molecule has lost # electron but has not broken up (ase pea' *ighest peak in the mass spectrum - /f the sample is an element each line represents an isotope of the element - 9olecules broken up into fragments make fragmentation patterns on the mass spectrum(use' to i'entify molecules an' structure) - Relative masses are :ust numbers( no units - !o element in the perio'ic table has a relative atomic mass that is a &hole number because relative atomic mass is an average so its not usually a &hole number - 9ass spectrometer &ith gas-li ui' chromatography use' in forensic &ork for analysis of complex mixtures( samples intro'uce' to gas li ui' chromatograph an' various constituents separate'( output gases then le' to mass spectrometer( fragmentation patterns compare' &ith large 'atabase of patterns from kno&n substances - ,nce the electron has passe' the final ano'e( it 'oesnt 'ecelerate an' go back to the ano'e because it has either colli'e' &ith a gaseous molecule or passe' on to earth(groun')at the other en' of the chamber - /t is a goo' approx to consi'er that relative atomic mass of ;7i" 'etermine' in a mass spectrometer is the same as that of ;7i because mass of the electron lost from ;7i to form ;7i" is negligible (#) %alculate R+9 from these isotopes an' their < compositions 5)=e 51><( 5;=e ?#1;<( 5@=e -1-<( 5>=e $144< (#) (5)x51>) " (5;x?#1;) " (5@x-1-) " (5>x$144)

51> " ?#1; " -1- " $144 = 551?#(-'p) )st Ionisation ener*y M(*" M#(*" # e+ Energy3enthalpy change per mole to remove an electron from each atom in the gas phase to form a singly positive ion ,nd Ionisation ener*y Energy3enthalpy change per mole for the process( M#(*" M,#(*" # e+ )st Electron affinity -(*" # e+ -+(*" Energy3enthalpy change per mole for each atom in the gas phase to gain an electron to form a singly negative ion - !egative(exothermic)( since the electron is attracte' by the positive charge on the atoms nucleus ,nd Electron affinity Energy3enthalpy change per mole for the process( -+(*" # e+ -,+(*" - Positive(en'othermic)( since energy nee'e' to overcome repulsion bet&een the electron an' negative ions

Ener*y level Electrons in atoms can only have certain amounts of energy( groups of electrons can exist &ith roughly the same amount of energy( these positions of roughly similar amounts of energy are calle' energy levels SiAe of /E 'epen's on B Nuclear char*e B Atomic radius B Electron shieldin*. ener*y level Successive IE/s increase because electrons are being remove' from increasingly positive ions an' so the attractive forces are greater - 7arge :umps in /Es arise from a large increase in attraction( correspon'ing to an electron being remove' from a ne& energy level significantly closer to the nucleus(proving that electrons are arrange' in shells) IE/s increase across periods(left to right) B !umber of protons increasing( meaning stronger nuclear attraction B Extra electrons are at roughly the same energy level( even if the outer electrons are in 'ifferent orbital types B 7ittle extra shiel'ing effect( little extra 'istance to lessen the attraction from the nucleus IE/s decrease do0n *roups B Each element 'o&n a group has an extra electron shell B Extra inner shells means extra 'istance of outer electrons from the nucleus( an' greater shiel'ing from the attraction of the nucleus( overall re'ucing nuclear attraction Atomic radius decreases across period 1(left to right) !uclear charge increases( electrons pulle' closer to the nucleus( electrons are all a''e' to the same outer shell Subshell #s -s -p 4s 4p 4' )s )p )' )f n Subshell Number of electrons 9ax number of electrons ; ; #$ ; #$ #) 2rincipal 3uantum number(n" shell numbers Subshell #st shell has no subshell 4rbital s subshell has # orbital( p has 4( ' has 5 5Aufbau/ 5build up/ principle B Electrons are a''e' to the lo&est energy orbital available B ,ne at a time B 8ith no more than - electrons occupying one orbital B /f there are several orbitals of the same energy available then electrons enter these orbitals singly so as to be as far apart as possible B *alogens have high /Es so they 'ont form positive ions but negative ions because they have one electron less than a full shell B +nomalously lo& E+ for = 'ue to repulsion of the incoming electron from a concentrate' electric fiel' of a small atom

6uantum mechanics 2he electron in an atom behaves as a &ave &hich is a mathematical construction( not a particle Atomic orbital /S the electron3pair of electrons( the volume in &hich the electron has a ?5< probability of being foun'(no such thing as an empty orbital) Spin is a property of an electron1 2he - electrons in an orbital have opposite spins( helping to counteract the repulsion bet&een their negative charges(spin pairing)

C # 4 ) 5 ; @ > ? #$ ## ##4 #) #5 #; #@ #> #? -$ -# --4 -) -5 -; -@ -> -? 4$ 4# 444 4) 45 4;

Symbol * *e 7i De D % ! , = !e !a 9g +l Si P S %l +r E %a Sc 2i F %r 9n =e %o !i %u Cn Ga Ge +s E Dr Er

#s # -

-s

-p

4s

4p

4'

)s

)p

# -

# 4 ) 5 ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ;

Group // Group /// Group F Group F/ ! -s -p

De D ! ,

#s--s#s--s--px# #s--s--px#-py#-pA# #s--s--px--py#-pA# , -s

#st /E = ?$$ kHmolI# #st /E = @?? kHmolI# #st /E = #)$$ kHmolI# #st /E = #4#$ kHmolI# -p

# # 4 ) 5 ; ; # ( ) +n atom contains 5 protons an' 5 neutrons( give the symbol for ; this atom inclu'ing the mass number (a) D ; # ( ) =ormula of the compoun' forme' bet&een this element an' ; chlorine (a) D%l4 ; 4 ; 5 # ; 5 ; ; ; @ ; > ; #$ # ; #$ ; #$ # ; #$ ; #$ 4 ; #$ ) ; #$ 5 ; #$ ; (#)(i)9ass spectrum of *%l( peak at mass 4; is molecular ion (* 45%l)" %hlorine has only isotopes 45%l( 4@%l 8hat particle is responsible for peak mass 4>J (#)(i) (* 4@%l)" (ii)*o& 'o you explain the fact that the height of the peaks at mass 4; is 4 times as high than the peak at mass 4> (ii)2here is 4 times as much 45%l to 4@%l an' therefore 4 times as much *45%l to *4@%l (-)(a)9ass spectrum of methane( peak at mass #; is molecular ion(%*)" Explain peaks of relative mass #( -( #-( #4( #)( #5( #@ Relative mass # ##4 #) #5 #@ (#*)" (-*)" (#-%)" (#-%#*)" (#-%#*-)" (#-%#*4)" (#-%#*4-*)"

B /n D the -p electron easier to remove than the -s electron from De because subshells that are full are more stable B /n D the -p orbital is further from the nucleus B 2he -p orbital is screened not only by the #s- electrons but also partially by the -s- electrons - 2hese factors are strong enough to overri'e the effect of the increase' nuclear charge resulting in the /E to 'rop slightly B Screenin* identical an' electron being remove' is from an i'entical orbital B ! structure is symmetrical an' more stable than that in , B Repulsion bet0een , electrons in the same orbital means an electron in the -px- pair is easier to remove

(-)(a)Dromine consists of - isotopes( mass numbers @? an' >#1 + sample of Dr -(g) &as examine' in a mass spectrometer1 /'entify the species responsible for the peak at m/e = #;$ (-)( @?Dr>#Dr)" (-)(b)=or a particular sample of copper t&o peaks &ere obtaine' in the mass spectrum Peak at m/e Relative abun'ance ;4 ;?1# ;5 4$1? (i)Give the formula of the species responsible for the peak at m/e = 65 (i);5%u" (ii)State &hy t&o peaks( at m/e values of ;4 an' ;5( &ere obtaine' in the mass spectrum (ii)- 'ifferent isotopes (4)*o& &oul' accelerating fiel' an' magnetic fiel' 'iffer in its affect on K" an' K-" J (4)2he accelerating force an' 'eflecting fiel' on K" &ill be t&ice that on K" ())- reasons &hy particles must be ionise' before being analyse' in a mass spectrometerJ ())*ave to be accelerate'( then 'eflecte' (5)Doron( relative atomic mass #$1> gives - peak mass spectrum( m3A=#$ an' m3A=## %alculate the ratio of the heights of the - peaks (5)#$x " ##(# I x) = #$1>( x = $1-( y =# I x = $1> ratio of heights = #6) (@)Explain &hy E has lo&er #st /E than !a (@)B Electron being remove' is further from the nucleus B 9ore shiel'ing B Re'uces attraction of the nucleus

; (>)8hat force causes the scattering of L particles by nucleiJ (>)L particles an' nuclei both positively charge' thus electrostatic forces of repulsion 5 (?)Explain &hy all isotopes of 9g have the same chemical properties (?)B Same number of electrons in all 9g isotopes B ,uter electron structure ) 'etermines chemical properties (#$)Msing subshell notation( give electronic configuration of E atom an' E" ion 4 (#$)E #s--s--p;4s-4p;)s# E" #s--s--p;4s-4p; (##)State &hy - peaks at m3e values of ;4 an' ;5 &ere obtaine' in a mass spectrum of an element (##)- 'ifferent isotopes # (#-)8rite e uation for 5th ionisation of !a (#-)!a)"(g) !a5" (g) " eI (#))2he logarithm of successive /Es for 9g across the page $ Explain &hat this graph tells you about the electron arrangement in the 9g atom $ # - 4 ) 5 ; @ > ? #$ ## #(#))2&o3big :umps sho& 4 'ifferent shells present. sho&s -1>1! u m b e r o f e le c tro n re m o v e ' =in' the empirical formula of the compoun' containing % --1$-< * )15?< Dr @414?< by mass +tomic ratio Simplifie' atomic ratio % --1$-3#-= #1>45 #1>453$1?#@ = * )15?3#= )15? #1>456)15?6$1?#@ )15?3$1?#@ = 5 Dr @414?3>$= $1?#@ $1?#@3$1?#@ = # Empirical formula is thus %-*5Dr (#)%ompoun' K contains only D an' *( < by mass of D in K is >#1-< /n mass spectrum of K the largest value peak of m3A is at 5) %alculate empirical an' molecular formula (#)D6* = >#1-3#$1> 6 #>1>3#( @15#6#>1>( #6-15( -65 Empirical formula is D-*5 9r(D-*5) = -;1; 9olecular formula = D)*#$ (-)*y'raAine(empirical formula !*-)mass spectrum of this compoun' sho&s a molecular ion peak at m/e 4-( sho& the molecular formula of hy'raAine is !-*) (-)Relative 9olar 9ass = 4- n(! " -*)= 4- n(#) " -)= 4- n= - 9olecular formula = - N !*- = !-*) E uations are6 B /nternationally un'erstoo' B Ouantitative B Shorter than the same information given in &or's E3uations balance for mass and total char*e 7*S 0 R*S have the same number of each type of atom( if there are - positives on 7*S there must be - on R*S /onic e uations6 ) 8rite soluble ionic compoun's &ith the ions separate' , 8rite insoluble ionic an' covalent compoun's as usual 1 %ross out spectator ions(ions &hich appear on both si'es of the e uation) !a%l(a ) " +g!,4(a ) !a!,4(a ) " +g%l(s) Silver nitrate silver chlori'e(&hite ppt) Ions: !a"(a ) " %lI(a ) " +g"(a ) " !,4I(a ) !a"(a ) " !,4I(a ) " +g%l(s) Deleting spectator ions: +g"(a ) " %lI(a ) +g%l(s) -E9n,)(a ) " >*-S,)(a ) " #$=eS,)(a ) -9nS,)(a ) " 5=e-(S,))4(a ) " E-S,)(a ) " >*-,(l) potassium manganate(F//) iron(//)sulphate Ions: -E"(a ) " -9n,)I(a ) " #;*"(a ) " #>S,)-I(a ) " #$=e-"(a ) -9n-"(a ) " #$=e4"(a ) " #>S,)-I(a ) " -E"(a ) " >*-,(l) Deleting spectator ions: 9n,)I(a ) " >*"(a ) " 5=e-"(a ) 9n-"(a ) " 5=e4"(a ) " )*-,(l) 7 o g io n is a tio n e n e r g y 3k H m o l I #

Avo*adro constant NA is ;1$- x #$-4molI#(7( 7oschmi'ts number) - +t R2P( -?>E( #$$kPa( # mol of gas occupies -)'m4 - Folumes of all gases are e ual un'er the same con'itions an' contain the same number of particles - # mol of any substance B is ;1$- x#$-4 particles of it B is its relative molecular3atomic mass in g(molar mass( gmolI#) - =e(s) " S(s) =eS(s) %ontain the same number of particles /n'icator pEin' p* range *alf &ay colour 7itmus ;15 5-> .ark purple 9ethyl orange 41@ 41#-)1) ,range Phenolphthalein ?14 >14-#$ Pale pink

&itration73uantitative7volumetric analysis(analysing amount of substance present) B Folumes of both solutions an' concentration of one of them kno&n B %omplete reaction bet&een - substances( means concentration of the other solution can be foun' 2itration proce'ure6 B Rinse out the burette &ith 'istille' &ater follo&e' by a little of the solution to be use' in it Ensure that any &ater in the burette 'oes not 'ilute the solution( if not then the titration &oul' be too lar*e !,2 P&rongQ first titration must only be consi'ere' Rrough B =ill the burette(so theres no air bubbles an' readin* at eye8level 0hereby the bottom of the meniscus is level 0ith the 9ero mar' ) B 8ash out the conical titration flask &ith 'istille' &ater B Rinse out the pipette &ith 'istille' &ater follo&e' by a little of the solution to be use' in it B Mse the pipette to measure out the re uire' volume of solution into the conical flask I +voi'ing air bubbles I Rea'ing pipette at eye-level &hereby the bottom of the meniscus is level &ith the mark I 2ouching the si'e of the flask &ith the tip of the pipette( leaving a 'rop in the tip of the pipette B +'' # or - 'rops of in'icator to the solution in the conical flask1 Place the flask on the &hite tile un'er the burette B +'' aci' to alkali( by s0irlin* the conical flask( then drop80ise to&ar's the en' point &hereby the in'icator colour changes by the a''ition of one 'rop B %arry out a rough titration( then - accurate titrations &hich agree to 0ithin :%)cm1 of each other B Recor' results as a statement an' table Molar solution of a substance(mol'mI4( g'mI4),ne mole of a substance has &ater a''e' until the volume of the solution is #'m4 Acid7base titrations(+ci' 0 base reacte' &ith a suitable in'icator)fin's the purity of a substance or pro'uces a stan'ar' solution for use in another titration Standard solution ,ne &hich can be ma'e of kno&n concentration by &eighing out the primary stan'ar'(solute) Primary stan'ar'(solute)must6 # De available commercially in a high state of purity - De stable over long perio's of time 4 !ot be volatile(so losses 'ue to evaporation 'uring &eighing 'ont occur) ) !ot 'ecompose &hen 'issolve' in &ater 5 !ot absorb &ater or %,- from the atmosphere 9aking a stan'ar' solution of !a-%,4(a ) of kno&n concentration6 # #1-5g of pure anhy'rous !a-%,4 is 'issolve' in a beaker &ith 'istille' &ater - Msing a funnel an' a glass ro'( the solution is transferre' to a -5$cm4 gra'uate' flask 4 2he beaker is &ashe' a couple of times &ith 'istille' &ater an' the 0ashin*s are added to the *raduated flas' ) 9ake the mi!ture up to 5the mar'/ 0ith distilled 0ater 5 Stopper the flas' and sha'e to ensure that the solution is homo*enous (#)!a-%,4(s) " -*%l(a ) -!a%l(a ) " *-,(l) " %,-(g) #-15g of !a-%,4 in #'m4 solution( -5cm4 of this titrate' &ith *%l( -41)5cm4 of *%l &as re uire'( concentration of the aci'J (#)!a-%,4= #$;gmolI# #-15g'mI43#$;gmolI# = $1##>mol'mI4(concentration) $1$-5'm4x $1##>mol'mI4 = $1$$-?5mol(+mount of !a-%,4) # mol of !a-%,4 re uires -mol *%l +mount of *%l= $1$$-?5mol x-= $1$$5?mol $1$$5?mol3$1$-45'm4= $1-5#mol'mI4 (-)#g !a-%,4 'issolve' in &ater an' volume ma'e to -$$cm4 Portions of -5cm4 of this solution &ere titrate' &ith $1#-mol'mI4*%l solution 8hat volume &as re uire'J (-)Folume re uire' 'epen's on in'icator use'( assuming methyl orange use' !a-%,4 " -*%l -!a%l " *-, " %,+mount of !a-%,4 = #g3#$;gmolI# = ?1)4) x#$I4mol +mount of *%l = - x ?1)4) x#$I4mol = #1>>@ x#$I-mol II4 Folume of *%l re uire' = #1>>@x#$ mol3$1#-mol'm = $1#5@'m4 (1"#cm4 of (conc)*-S,) in a 5$$cm4 gra'uate' flask ma'e up to the mark &ith pure &ater -5cm4 portions titrate' &ith $1#mol'mI4 !a,*(a )( #?1>cm4 of !a,* nee'e'1 %oncentration of original aci'J (1"*-S,)(a ) " -!a,*(a ) !a-S,)(a ) " -*-,(l) +mount of !a,* = $1$#?>'m4 x $1#mol'mI4 = #1?> x#$I4mol Since # mol *-S,) re uires - mol !a,* +mount of *-S,) = #1?> x#$I4mol3- = ?1? x#$I)mol I) 4 I) ?1? x#$ mol in -5cm ( ?1?x#$ x 5$$3-5( $1$#?>mols in #cm4 of (conc)*-S,) #?1>mols in #'m4 conc = #?1>mol'mI4 ())(ac'8titration(concerning substances &hich are insoluble)use' to fin' purity of sample of chalk &hich is insoluble in &ater + solution cant be use' so its reacte' &ith a kno&n amount of excess aci'( aci' remaining then titrate' &ith stan'ar' alkali #15g of chalk reacte' &ith (excess)5$cm4 of #mol'mI4 *%l 8hen reaction cease'( solution transferre' to a -5$cm4 gra'uate' flask an' ma'e to the mark &ith pure &ater -5cm4 of the solution titrate' &ith $1#mol'mI4 !a,*(a ) -)15cm4 re uire'( < purity of the chalkJ ())%a%,4(s) " -*%l(a ) %a%l-(a ) " *-,(l) " %,-(g) *%l(a ) " !a,*(a ) !a%l(a ) " *-,(l) %a%,4 = #$$gmolI# 4 +mount of !a,* = amount of *%l unreacte' = $1$-)5'm x $1#mol'mI4 = -1)5 x#$I4mol in -5cm4 2otal amount of *%l unreacte' = -1)5 x#$I4mol x -5$3-5 = $1$-)5mol ,riginal amount of *%l taken = $1$5'm4 x #mol'mI4 = $1$5mol +mount of *%l use' to react &ith the %a%,4 = ($1$5 I $1$-)5)mol = $1$-55mol +mount of %a%,4 = $1$-55mol3- = $1$#->mol9ass of %a%,4 = $1$#->mol x #$$gmolI# = #1->$g < purity of %a%,4 =#1->g3#15g x #$$ = >514<

(#)9arble reacte' &ith *%l aci'( mass loss &as -144g( &hat volume of %,- &as evolve'J (#)%a%,4(s) " -*%l(a ) %a%l-(a ) " %,-(g) " *-,(l) %a%,4 = -144g3#$$gmolI# = $1$-44mol( $1$-44mol %,- pro'uce' Folume of %,- = $1$-44mol x -)'m4molI# = $15;'m4 (-)#$cm4 of a hy'rocarbon %)*x reacts &ith an excess of oxygen at #5$S%( # atm1 2he pro'ucts occupy a volume #$cm4 greater than the reactants at this temperature an' pressure1 =in' x (-)%)*x(g) " () " x3)),-(g) )%,-(g) " x3-*-,(g) ;han*e in volume = (volume of products + volume of reactants" +voga'ros rule6 # volume " () " x3))volumes ) volumes " x3- volumes #$cm4 " () " x3))#$cm4 )$cm4 " 5xcm4 ()$cm4 " 5xcm4) I (5$cm4 " -15x cm4) = #$cm4 -15x = -$ hence x = > !a-%,4(s) &as 'issolve' in 'istille' &ater an' this solution &as put into a conical flask an' three 'rops of methyl orange in'icator a''e'( titrate' against *%l aci' until the en' point &as reache' !a-%,4 " -*%l -!a%l " *-, " %,(4).escribe the colour change that tells &hen the en' point has been reache' (4)Solution &ill go from yello& orange /ron metal reacts &ith copper(//)sulphate solution to form copper metal an' iron ions +n experiment &as performe' to fin' &hich of the t&o e uations is correct %u-"(a ) " =e(s) %u(s) " =e-"(a ) 4%u-"(a ) " -=e(s) 4%u(s) " -=e4"(a ) B Po&'ere' iron of mass #1)g &as place' in a beaker an' excess copper(//)sulphate solution &as a''e' B 9ixture stirre' for 5 minutes B 2he contents of the beaker &ere then poure' into a funnel containing a &eighe' piece of filter paper B 2he beaker an' the resi'ue &ere &ashe' &ith col' &ater( an' the copper an' the filter paper &ere left overnight to 'ry B !ext 'ay they &ere &eighe'( an' the copper &as foun' to have a mass of #1;5g (a)%alculate the mass of copper that shoul' be pro'uce' from #1)g of iron if6 (i)E uation / is correct (ii)E uation // is correct (a)(i)+mount of iron = #1)35;= $1$-5mol( $1$-5N;415= #15?g (ii)+mount of copper = $1$-5N43-=$1$4@5mol( $1$4@5N;415= -14>g (b)8hich iron ion &as pro'uce' in the reactionJ (b)=e-" (c)(i)Suggest &hy the experimental value of the mass of copper &as slightly 'ifferent from the value you calculate' in (a) (c)(i)copper3filter paper &as still &et (ii)Suggest one &ay in &hich the accuracy of this experiment coul' have been improve' (ii)Improved dryin*. 0ash 0ith suitable solvent(propanone or ethanol". suction filtration (')8hy is it essential to use excess copper(//) sulphate solutionJ (')So that all the iron reacts !,2 Pthe reaction is completeQ (a)$1-5g of sulphamic aci' !*-S,4*(s) &as 'issolve' in 'istille' &ater in a conical flask -41)5cm4 !a,*(a ) re uire' to react &ith sulphamic aci' solution !*-S,4*(a ) " !a,*(a ) !*-S,4!a(a ) " *-,(l) (i)%alculate the amount of sulphamic aci' in $1-5g Mr(!*-S,4*) = ?@ (i)$1-53?@ = $1$$-5>mols (ii)%alculate concentration of !a,* (ii)$1$$-5>mols N #$$$3-41)5 = $1##$mol'mI4 (b)Dalance use' to &eigh the sulphamic aci' is accurate to T$1$#g %alculate < error in mass of sulphamic aci' &eighe'
#$$ (b) - $1$# = >< $1-5

allow

0.01 0.25

100 = 4

- Properties 'epen' on the nature of bon's an' ho& these bon's are 'istribute' throughout the material - Don's are forme' to attain greater stability( atoms3molecules rearrange their electrons to give lo&er energy arrangements (by electron loss( gain or sharing) - /f a soli' has a regular structure( its a crystal( the structure is a crystal lattice ;hemical bond + force of attraction bet&een atoms( ions or molecules Ionic bond 2he electrostatic attraction bet&een " an' I ions( forme' by complete transfer of electron 2ositive ions(cations)are attracte' to the (-)catho'e 'uring electrolysis(metal atoms &hich have lost one or more electrons(E "( %a") Ne*ative ions(anions)are attracte' to the positive ano'e 'uring electrolysis ;ovalent bond Sharing a pair of electrons( one pair to a bon' (rather than complete transfer) - %ovalent bon's are non-'ative bon's( - one-electron orbitals overlapping giving a - electron bon'ing orbital(electron 'ensity increases bet&een the bon'e' atoms) Double covalent bond Sharing of - pairs of electrons in a bon' Dative covalent bond Doth electrons in a covalent bon' are 'onate' from the same atom to an accepting atom(a - electron orbital 'onating electron 'ensity into an empty orbital on the accepting atom) - !o 'ifference in length( strength( bet&een a normal covalent bon' an' a 'ative covalent bon' Molecular orbitals ,verlapping orbitals &here electron 'ensity exten's over at least - atoms 54ctet rule/ *y'rogen obtains - electrons in its outer shell an' other atoms obtain > /ntramolecular bon's B %ovalent /ntermolecular bon's B Fan 'er 8aals forces char*e B /onic B .ipole 'ipole attraction char*e density = volume B 9etallic B *y'rogen bon's strongest

Electrone*ativity(E!) Po&er(of an atom)to attract(the pair of)electrons in a covalent bon' - E! affects bon' length &ith larger 'ifferences giving shorter bon's - 9ore electronegative atoms attract share' electrons more to&ar's( itself an' ac uire a partial negative charge B Electronegativity 'ecreases going 'o&n a group(most electronegative element is fluorine) B Electronegativity increases across perio' 4( elements on the 7*S lose electrons an' elements on the R*S gain electrons to achieve a stable structure U /onic bon's are partially covalent &hen E! is small U %ovalent bon's are partially ionic(creation of 'ipoles)&hen E! is large 2olarisability 2he ease &ith &hich the electron clou' of an anion is 'istorte' by a cation so theres electron sharing B Smaller an' higher the charge(higher the charge 'ensity)on the cation( the more polarising it is B 7arger an' higher the charge on the anion( the more easily it is polarise' =eatures favouring ionic bon'ing6 B 7arge cation metal( of lo& charge( having a lo& /E B 7arge anion non metal( of lo& charge( having a high E+ - 7arge anions most stable &ith large cations Small cations most stable &ith small anions - + covalent bon' is polar if electrons in the bon' are une ually share' <attice Enthalpy Hlatt Energy change per mole for exothermic process M#(*" # -+(*" M-(s" B Enthalpy3heat energy release' &hen gaseous ions come together to form # mole of soli' - 7attice enthalpy is a measure of strength of bon'ing in an ionic substance(relevant &hen consi'ering solubility of an ionic compoun') %alculate' value assumes no polarisation( presence of covalence increases lattice enthalpy ;omple! ion + metal ion associate' &ith a !o of anions or neutral molecules(ligan's) (*-, !*4 %l- %!-) <i*and +nions3molecules firmly bon'e' to the central cation1 Each ligan' contains at least one atom &ith a lone pair of electrons1 2hese can be 'onate' to the central cation forming a co-or'inate ('ative)bon'1 2he ligan' is sai' to be co-or'inate' to the central ion1

Hydration of metal ions /n solution metal ions attract &ater molecules forming complex ions(V9(* -,);Wx") 2he metal ion is :oine' to ; &ater ligan's by 'ative covalent bon's1 2he &ater molecules 'onate a lone pair of electrons to empty orbitals on the metal ion an' an octahe'ral complex forms ( V%u(*-,);W-"(pale blue) /ons forme' by transition metals are usually coloure') Simple anions !on metals (%lI( ,-I) ;omple! anions 8here groups aroun' the central metal ion are negative(V=e(%!) ;W)I) 2olyatomic cations Several atoms bon'e' covalently( the &hole structure having a positive charge (!*)") 2olyatomic anions Several atoms bon'e' covalently( the &hole structure having a negative charge(S, )-I( !,4I( %*%,,I( 9n,)I) 'erive' from aci's by the loss of one or more hy'rogen ions B %ation increases in siAe Group (//) %ation *latt kHmol I# B %harge 'ensity 'ecreases %hlori'es Ra'ius Experimental %alculate' .ifference B 7ess polarising 9g%l@I -5-; I -4-; -$$ B %ovalence 'ecreases %a%l#$$ I --5> I ---4 45 Sr%l##4 I -#5; I -#-@ -? Da%l#4; I -$5; I -$44 -4 B +nion increases in siAe 9agnesium +nion *latt kHmol I# B 9ore polarisable *ali'es Ra'ius Experimental %alculate' .ifference (outer electrons further from the nucleus( less tightly hel'( 9g=#44 I -?5@ I -?#4 )) more prone to 'istortion) 9g%l#>$ I -5-; I -4-; -$$ B %ovalence increases 9gDr#?5 I -))$ I -$?@ 4)4 9g/-#5 I -4-? I #?)) 4>5 B Don's in soli's vibrate about a mean position in the crystal lattice &hich arise because the crystal isnt at absolute Aero( amplitu'e of vibrations increase &ith temperature B =orces bet&een molecules in li ui's are no 'ifferent in type from those in soli's( 'ifference is that the particles in li ui's are more energetic than those in soli's so bon's arent particularly 'irectional an' li ui's have no particular shape B +t 2m vibrations in soli' become sufficient to overcome forces hol'ing the crystal together B +t 2b vapour pressure of the li ui' is the same as the external pressure an' bubbles of vapour pro'uce' throughout the li ui'( heat being put into the li ui' is being use' by particles to overcome the interparticle forces to separate from each other an' escape the li ui'(evaporation) so temp remains constant (t of li3uids depends on B 9agnitu'e of interparticle forces B 9asses of particles

,bp linear s!ape

1bp trigonal planar s!ape (molecule is flat)

=bp tetra!e"ral s!ape

>bp #rigonal $ip%rami" s!ape

?bp octa!e"ron s!ape

,bp ,lp $ent s!ape

1bp )lp p%rami"al s!ape

1bp ,lp # s!ape"

P * * *
Electron lone pairs Electron pairs not involve' in bon'ing # Electron pairs in the valence shell(bp or lp)are as far apart as possible to minimise repulsion3reach lo&est energy state - ,r'er of repulsion bet&een electron pairs is6 bpIbp less than bpIlp less than lpIlp 4 9ultiple bon's behave as single bon's(no 'ifference bet&een 'ative an' single bon's) - + molecule &ill not be polar if its symmetrical an' 'ipoles of molecule cancel Hybrid orbital + type of atomic orbital that results &hen - or more atomic orbitals of an isolate' atom mix( 'escribes orbitals in covalently bon'e' atoms(hybri' orbitals 'ont exist in isolate' atoms)( in a set are e uivalent( an' form i'entical bon's Hybridisation + mo'el that 'escribes the changes in the atomic orbitals of an atom &hen it forms a covalent compoun' (Excite' % atoms( ) orbitals rearrange' into ) i'entical hybri' orbitals(sp 4 hybri' orbitals)) bon's arent i'entical unless you start from ) i'entical orbitals) sp !%$ri" or$ital ,ne of the - hybri' orbitals forme' by hybri'isation of an s orbital an' p orbital sp2 !%$ri" or$ital ,ne of the 4 hybri' orbitals forme' by hybri'isation of an s orbital an' -p orbitals( same shape as sp4 but lies in one plane at #-$ @ sp& !%$ri" or$ital ,ne of the ) hybri' orbitals forme' by hybri'isation of an s orbital an' 4p orbital

Si*ma bond A .irect overlap of orbitals Double bond %ontains #X an' # bon' &riple bond %ontains #X an' - bon's - Ethene( only 4 orbitals hybri'ise' rather than all )( one -s electron( t&o -p electrons( other -p electron unchange'(sp - hybri' orbitals) - +ll 'ouble bon's &ill consist of a pi bon' an' a X bon' - /n 4r' 'iagram X bon's sho&n using lines( each line representing one pair of share' electrons - - % atoms linke' by overlap of sp- hybri' orbitals( making a X bon' an' a pi bon' forme' by si'e&ays overlap of the non-hybri'ise' p atomic orbitals1 - 2i bond B si'e&ays overlap of t&o p-orbitals B to give a t&o part orbit above an' belo& a bon' (likely to be attacke' by electrophiles( they are &eaker than X bon's)

Pi bon' forme' by si'e&ays overlap of the non hybri'ise' p atomic orbitals

- s atomic orbitals overlap X bon' Hydro*en bond Electrostatic attraction bet&een a strongly " * atom attache' covalently to a highly electronegative element =3!3, an' a strongly I =3!3, atom on another molecule( * bon's are longer than covalent bon's

- +s &ater cools( (long)* bon's form in greater uantity( the open 0 or'ere' structure of ice gives it a lo&er 'ensity than li ui' &ater - %ompoun's &hich can * bon' &ith &ater are very soluble (glucose( has ,* groups that * bon' &ith &ater) - Extensive * bon's &ith =3!3, cause higher Dts

Dipole8Dipole forces(permanently polar molecules) " an' I parts of the molecules attract electrostatically giving Dts higher than those of non polar molecules of similar siAe1 =or large molecules 'ispersion forces can excee' 'ipole-'ipole attraction Dispersion7Ban der 0aals forces(non polar molecules)2emporary 'ipoles form bet&een molecules because of mobile electron 'ensity &ithin the molecule1 " on one molecule &ill in'uce a I on a nearby one an' so on( tho theres a net attraction bet&een molecules *igher forces6 B 9ore electrons B 7arger area of contact(larger molecules3atoms) B 7inear instea' of branche' chains - .escen'ing noble gases or hy'ri'es( bigger van 'er &aals forces as B +tomic3molecular siAe increases B 9ore shells of electrons Ciant molecular substances Diamon"' B Hi*h Mt. hard. stiff as have to break strong covalent bon'ing throughout &hole structure B Cood thermal conductor as it rea'ily transmits vibration B 2oor electrical conductor as no ions or free electrons as they are hel' tightly bet&een atoms B Insoluble in 0ater( or*anic solvents as attractions bet&een solvent molecules an' carbon atoms &ill never be strong enough to overcome the strong covalent bon's (ilica 7o&er 9t as has longer(therefore &eaker)bon's across &hole structure )rap!ite B <o0er density than 'iamon' because of space bet&een the sheets B Hi*h Mt as have to break strong covalent bon'ing throughout &hole layere' structures B Electrical conductivity along layers( but not at right angles Graphite Electrons arent localise' bet&een carbon atoms an' are free to move along but not bet&een layers( van 'er &aals forces attract the layers together B Insoluble in 0ater. or*anic solvents as attractions bet&een solvent molecules an' carbon atoms &ill never be strong enough to overcome the strong covalent bon's .iamon' 9t)$$$S% Si,- 9t#@$$S% B Soft. slippery as layers of giant molecules can sli'e over one another - Mse' in pencils Ionic substances B Hi*h Mt as have to break strong electrostatic bon's throughout lattice of oppositely charge' ions B Hard. brittle as layers of crystal may sli'e so ions of same charge come next to one another an' repel B Solid doesn/t conduct electricity as no charge carriers available to move B Molten does conduct electricity as mobile ions can move B Soluble in 0ater /ce Molecular covalent substances B Don'e' strongly &ithin the molecule but &eakly bet&een molecules B Properties 'epen' on intermolecular forces B !on-con'uctors of electricity (no free electrons( all use' in bon'ing) Metallic bondin* B Malleability from non-'irectional nature of bon's B Electrical conductivity(outer electrons in metals arent localise' in bon's but free to move aroun' &hole lattice forme' from " ions) 2olymers +ll long chains &hich maybe cross-linke' by covalent bon's or hel' by * bon's or 'ispersion forces(or in silicates forces of

ionic attraction bet&een the negatively charge' chains of silicate an' positive metal ions) - 9echanical properties of the polymer 'epen' on B extent of cross-linking B &hether crystallites can form - Pure substances have sharp 9ts but polymers 'ont(usually impure substances)( melting over a range of temperatures instea' as varying chain lengths of molecules means that they &ill have a melting range Synthetic or*anic polymers B 9a'e from alkenes by a''ition reactions or from reactions bet&een organic molecules &hich have functional groups &hich can un'ergo con'ensation reactions B 2hey are mixtures since chain lengths vary(no sharp 9t) Polymers forme' by ra'ical polymerisation B 7.PE is branche'( cross-linke' B =e& crystallites( flexible( translucent Polymers forme' by highly controlle' type of polymerisation B *.PE( Aiegler natta catalyst B 9ore crystallites( stiffer( opa ue Natural polymers(organic)polysacchari'es(cellulose( glycogen)( nucleic aci's( proteins( all pro'uce' by con'ensation reactions /norganic polymers Silicates( phosphoric aci' on heating (#)8hy 0 &hich elements lose electronsJ (#)9etals because B Msually they have #( -( 4 electrons B Dy losing these electrons they achieve full outer shells an' become more stable B /n energy terms( its easier to lose these electrons than gain more electrons (-)8hy 0 &hich elements gain electronsJ (-)!on metals because B Msually they have 5( ;( @ electrons B Dy gaining electrons they achieve full outer shells an' become more stable B /n energy terms( its easier to gain these electrons than lose the outer electrons (4)Suggest reasons &hy !a%l vapour is regar'e' as a collection of ion pairs rather than as !a%l molecules (4)/f ion pairs colli'e theres nothing to stop them Pchanging partnersQ &hereas if covalent molecules colli'e( its improbable ())8hat happens to an electrostatically charge' ro' next to a polar li ui' like &aterJ ())/tll move to&ar's the ro'( because polar li ui's contain molecules &ith permanent 'ipoles1 .oesnt matter if the ro' is positively or negatively charge'1 Polar molecules in the li ui' can turn aroun' so the oppositely charge' en' is attracte' to&ar's the ro' (5)8hy 'oes &ater have a partial chargeJ (5),xygen has a higher electronegativity than hy'rogen (;)(a)State the 'ifference in 'ensity bet&een soli' ice an' li ui' &ater an' 'escribe ho& the presence of * bon's accounts for this (a)B 8ater is more 'ense than soli' ice B 2he * bon's in soli' ice &hich hol's the molecules together are in fixe' positions an' lea' to an open structure B /n &ater the * bon's are constantly being broken an' ma'e (b)Explain the structure of ice( inclu'e a 'iagram (b)B %ovalent in &ater molecules B * bon's bet&een molecules B each &ater &ith four &aters aroun' I tetrahe'ral (@).escribe in terms of the position an' motion of particles( &hat happens &hen some 9g%l -(s) is heate' from R2 to :ust above 9t (@)B +t R2 the ions are in a fixe' positions in a lattice B +s heat is applie' the ions vibrate more B Eventually ions have enough energy to overcome electrostatic attraction B /ons break free an' are able to move as soli' melts (?)Sketch a graph of temp vs time as a (#)(a)8hat part of the !*4 molecule enables it to form a 'ative covalent bon'J substance is heate' from (a)7one pair on the nitrogen :ust belo& 9t to :ust above Dt (b)7ist intermolecular forces bet&een molecules of ammonia (b)* bon's an' 'ispersion forces (-)!ame - elements in V9g(*-,);W-" &hich are :oine' by a covalent bon' (-)* an' , (4)!ame - elements in V9g(*-,);W-" &hich are :oine' by a 'ative covalent bon' (4), an' 9g (#)8hy is 9g/- more covalent than 9g%l-J (#)Decause /I ion is larger than %lI ion so more easily polarise' lea'ing to covalency (-)9etal3!on-metal compoun's usually ionic yet soli' aluminium chlori'e has many covalent characteristics becauseJ (-)Small ra'ius( large " charge of +l4"( means high polarising ability giving covalent character pulling electron 'ensity a&ay from %lI creating a mostly covalent bon'

(#)Explain &hy the 9t of 9g is higher than that of !a (#)B 9g ions have larger charge('ensity) than !a( 9g contributes - electrons per atom to the Rsea of electrons( !a has fe&er 'elocalise' electrons( !a is a larger atom B *ence 9g ions have greater attraction for the Rsea of electrons than !a B 9elting re uires energy to overcome this attraction( meaning a higher 9t (4)Explain &hy Dt of phosphine is lo&er than that for ammonia (4)B Phosphine 'oesnt have * bon's B 7ack of * bon's not compensate' by increase' in'uce' 'ipole-'ipole forces ())State the strongest type of intermolecular force present in samples of %*) ())Fan 'er &aals forces (#)Explain ho& covalent structure of io'ine lea's to it having a lo& 9t (4)8eak intermolecular forces re uire little energy to break (-)Glucose( poly(ethene)( =orcesJ Properties as a conse uenceJ (-)Glucose( covalent( * bon'ing( 'ipole-'ipole B Mnusually high 9t for its siAe B * bon's bet&een polar ,* groups an' &ater makes it &ater soluble Poly(ethene)( covalent( 'ispersion B 9olecules of 'ifferent siAes lea' to a 9t range B !on-con'uctor of electricity B 7arge covalent molecules insoluble in any solvent because( solventIsolute interactions arent strong enough to overcome the large 'ispersion forces bet&een such large molecules (#)State an' explain the shape of the ammonia ion !*)" (#)B 2etrahe'ral B *as ) pairs of bon'ing electrons B Repel as far a&ay from each other as possible

B Dt increases B Relative atomic mass an' siAe increases

!oble Relative atomic 2b3E Group ) Relative 2b3E gases mass *y'ri'es atomic mass *e )1$ ) %*) #;1$ >#1; !e -$1-@ Si*) 4-1# #;# +r 4?1? >@ Ge*) @;1; #>5 Er >41> #-# Sn*) #--1@ --# Ke #4#14 #;; Pb*) probably 'oesnt exist 2eriodicity Regular perio'ic variations of properties of elements &ith atomic number 2eriodic <a0 Elements are arrange' in or'er of increasing atomic number in the perio'ic table - +ll elements &ithin a perio'(ro&) have the same number of electron shells - +ll elements &ithin a group(column)have the same number of electrons in their outer shell in'icate' by the group number Perio' 4 !a 9g +l Si P S %l +r 2m3E 4@# ?-?44 #;>4 4#@ 4?#@- >) 2b3E ##5; #4>$ -@)$ -4-> 554 @#> -4# >@ %on'uctivity $145 $14; $1;# #$I#> #$I#@ #$I-4 relative to +g =# #$@ #)> 4-; *a kHmol I# Structure 9etallic Giant covalent P) S> %l9onatomic (gives monatomic vapours) (gives monatomic 9olecular covalent vapour) Atoms *et smaller D hi*her Mt across period B !umber of protons increasing meaning stronger nuclear attraction B Extra electrons are at roughly the same energy level even if the outer electrons are in 'ifferent orbital types B 7ittle extra shiel'ing effect( little extra 'istance to lessen the attraction from the nucleus B Smaller atoms can pack more closely &hich means better orbital overlap B 9ore electrons in the valence shell to 'elocalise aroun' the metal lattice Sharp rise in Mt bet0een M* D Na and only small rise bet0een M* D Al B +lkali metals are bo'y centre' cubic packing that 'oesnt bring atoms as close as possible B 9g 0 +l hexagonal close packing 9ts 'epen' on 'ispersion forces 2hosphorus 8eak van 'er &aals forces so 9t is lo& Sulphur *ighest 9t( largest van 'er &aals forces( largest molecule ;hlorine 7o&est 9t( &eakest van 'er &aals forces( smallest molecule( simple 'iatomic molecules &ith no permanent 'ipoles Ar*on +rgon( monatomic( stable electron arrangement( small intermolecular 'ispersion van 'er &aals forces so 9t is lo& Grp #(alkali metals) Grp -(alkaline earth metals)S block metal compoun's ionic( ,x !os("# 0 "- respectively)only because going above these entails an /E input &hich coul'nt be recovere' from 7E of resulting soli' - Fery reactive( lo& 'ensity( lo& 9t( lo& E!( soft because of &eak metallic bon'ing( compoun's usually colourless unless transition metal is present in the anion - /onic ra'ius smaller than atomic ra'ius for s block elements because loss of outer electrons results in loss of outer shell Grp # +tomic ra'ius /onic .ensity 9t S% Dt S% +bun'ance #st /E -n' /E =lame 4 I# pm ra'ius gcm ppm kHmol kHmol I# colours pm 7i #44 ;$ $154 #># #44$ ;5 5-$ @-?> %armine re' !a #5@ ?5 $1?@ ?> >?$ ->4$$ )?; )5;4 Yello& E -$4 #44 $1>; ;4 @@) -5?$$ )#? 4$5# 7ilac /ncrease .ecrease %olourless Rb -#; #)> #154 4? ;>> 4#$ )$4 -;4%s -45 #;? #1>> -? ;?$ @ 4@; -)-$ %olourless Grp 4r' /E kHmol I# De >? 4# #1>5 #-@> -)@@ ; ?$$ #@5@ #)>$$ %olourless 9g #4; ;5 #1@) ;)? ###$ -$?$$ @4> #)5# @@)$ 8hite %a #@) ?@ #15) >4? #)>@ 4;4$$ 5?$ ##)5 )?)$ Drick re' .ecrease %rimson re' Sr #?# ##4 -1; 55$ #$;) )#-$ /ncrease @;? #4>$ #5$ Da #?> #45 415 @-5 #;)$ )4$ 5$4 ?;5 44?$ +pple green Croup ) Croup , .ensitiy( har'ness( 9ts higher than Group # because B +toms the largest of the perio' B +tomic ra'ius smaller in Group B (ody centred cubic pac'in* B He!a*onal close pac'in*(except Da) B -n' /Es a lot larger than #st because removing -n' electron B - electrons per atom for metallic bon'ing re uires breaking into inert gas structure( &hich has less B Extra proton shiel'ing( shell is closer to the nucleus( so nuclear attraction is much larger B Grp # more reactive than Grp - because( # less proton 0 only nee's to lose # electon to lose to achieve a full outer shell Do'y centre' cubic *exagonal close packe' arrangement

3face centre' cubic lattice

arrangement

Descendin* Croup ) D , B .ensity rises because mass of the atom increases more rapi'ly than its siAe - 9t 0 har'ness 'ecreases( reactivity increases B +tomic ra'ius increases( smaller charge 'ensity( 'elocalise' electrons more sprea' out B Re'uce' attraction of " ions to Rsea of 'elocalise' electrons( less energy to break bon's - /E 0 E! 'ecreases B Extra electron shells shiel'ing outer electrons from nuclear charge B ,uter electrons further a&ay from the nucleus an' less attracte' B ,verall( out&eighs increase in protons( re'ucing nuclear attraction Acids proton 'onors +ci's mixe' &ith &ater release *"(never alone in &ater)&hich combine &ith *-,(hy'rate')to form hy'roxonium ions *4," *%l(g) " *-,(l) *"(a ) " %lI(a ) *%l(g) 'oesnt release hy'rogen ions until it meets &ater so *%l(g) isnt an aci' (trong aci"s H;l # 0ater H# # ;l+ /onise('issociate)almost completely( nearly every * atom release' to become a hy'rate' proton( lots of * "(a ) ions *ea+ aci"s H,;41 # 0ater H# # H;41+ &eak aci' e uilibrium lies to the left so most of the aci' &ont be ionise' /onise('issociate)slightly( little * atoms release'( little * "(a )ions Stron* acids and concentrated acids 4R 0ea' acids and dilute acids aren/t the same B RStrong R&eak refers to ho& much the aci' has ionise' B R%oncentrate' R'ilute refers to molcmI4of the aci' (ases proton acceptors( make ,*I hy'roxyl ions &hen 'issolve' in &ater Salt + compoun' forme' by replacing hy'rogen in an aci' by a metal Metal # Acid Salt # H, Metal carbonate # Acid Salt # ;4, # H,4 9g(s) " *-S,)(a ) 9gS,)(a ) " *-(g) !a-%,4(s) " -*%l(a ) -!a%l(a ) " %,-(g) " *-,(l) 9g(s) " -*%l(a ) 9g%l-(a ) " *-(g) !a-%,4(s) " -*"(a ) -!a"(a ) " %,-(g) " *-,(l) %a%,4(s) " -*%l(a ) %a%l-(a ) " %,-(g) " *-,(l) 9g(s) " -*"(a ) 9g-"(a ) " *-(g) Acid7(ase neutralisation reaction /onic e uation for neutralisation *"(a ) " ,*I(a ) *-,(l) Metal 4!ide(al'ali" # Acid Salt # H,4 Metal hydro!ide(al'ali" # Acid Salt # H,4 Grp # 9-,(s) " -*%l(a ) -9%l(a ) " *-,(l) Grp # 9,*(a ) " *%l(a ) 9%l(a ) " *-,(l) Grp - 9,(s) " -*%l(a ) 9%l-(a ) " *-,(l) Grp - 9(,*)-(a ) " -*%l(a ) 9%l-(a ) " -*-,(l) S bloc' metals and o!y*en +ll oxi'es are basic except De is amphoteric Radicals +toms3ions &ith a lone unpaire' electron( very reactive )ro,p 1 reacts &ith oxygen in air at R2( silvery &hen cut they rapi'ly tarnish an' become 'ull 'ue to oxi'e coating 7i( !a( E store' in paraffin oil( &hile Rb( %s &hich are more reactive are store' in seale' containers 7i reacts &ith nitrogen in the air ?<i(l" # N,(*" ,<i1N(s" *eat Remaining alkali metals form superoxi'es =<i(s" # 4,(*" ,<i,4(s"&hite ,Na(s" # 4,(*" Na,4,(s"pale yello& ,E(s" # 4,(*" E4,(s"yello& ,-I lithium oxi'e ,--I so'ium peroxi'e ,-I potassium superoxi'e(ra'ical) )ro,p 2 heat heat ,M*(s" # 4,(*" ,M*4(s" (except for Da) =(a(s" # ,4,(*" ,(a4(s" # (a4,(s" /n reaction &ith oxygen( 7i behaves more Grp - than Grp # behaving like 9g( 'iagonal relationship(De, 0 +l -,4 amphoteric) S bloc' metals and 0ater )ro,p 1 7i Dubbles( floats( melts( gets smaller 9etal hy'roxi'es 'issolve to form colourless solutions that !a Dubbles( floats( melts( gets smaller are strongly alkaline(hence alkali metals) E Dubbles( floats( melts( gets smaller Rb Explo'es violently &ith &ater ,Na(s" # ,H,4(l" ,Na4H(a3" # H,(*" )ro,p 2 9etal hy'roxi'es less soluble( ppt &hite suspension( metals 'ont float ;a(s" # ,H,4(l" ;a(4H",(s" # H,(*" - De 'oesnt react at all &ith &ater or steam - 9g reacts slightly &ith col' &ater( uicker &ith hot &ater3steam ( reaction stops uickly because 9g(,*) - barrier forme' on 9g preventing further reaction M*(s" # ,H,4(l" M*(4H",(s" # H,(*" M*(s" # H,4(*" M*4(s" # H,(*" - 9g, rather than 9g(,*)- forme' because 9g(,*)- is thermo'ynamically unstable &ith regar' to 9g, " *-(g) /f forme' it &oul' 'ecompose to 9g, " *-(g) &ransition Metal +luminium reacts &ith &ater( appears not to 'ue to protective surface oxi'e layer -+l(s) " ;*-,(l) -+l(,*)4 " 4*-(g) S bloc' metals and chlorine +ll metal chlori'es ionic(except De because of high electronegativity( forms a polymer &ith 'ative covalent bon's) )ro,p 1 ,Na(s" # ;l,(*" ,Na;l(s" )ro,p 2 M*(s" # ;l,(*" M*;l,(s" 9g%l-(s) " *-,(l) 9g(,*)%l(s) " *%l(a ) hy'rolysis +ll ionic chlori'es soluble in &ater1 9g%l- has some covalent character sho&n by 'ifference bet&een Dorn *aber cycle value for the 7E an' the calculate' value S bloc' o!ides 0ith 0ater +ll solutions alkaline o&ing to ,*I Reactions of the anion in'epen'ent of the cation therefore reactions same for Grps # 0 4!ides ,-I(s) " *-,(l) -,*I(a ) -7i"(a ) " -,*I(a ) <i,4(s" # H,4(l" ,<i4H(a3"

2ero!ides ,--I(s) " -*-,(l) -,*I(a ) " *-,-(a ) Na,4,(s" # ,H,4(l" ,Na4H(a3" # H,4,(a3" Supero!ides -,-I(s) " -*-,(l) -,*I(a ) " *-,-(a ) " ,-(g) ,E4,(s" # ,H,4(l" ,E4H(a3" # H,4,(a3" # 4,(*"

Group -

%ation *y'roxi'e solubility Sulphate solubility ra'ius3pm mol per #$$g &ater mol per #$$g &ater 9g-" ;5 -1$$ x#$I5 #1>4 x#$I# -" I4 %a ?? #154 x#$ )1;; x#$I4 -" I4 Sr ##4 414@ x#$ @1## x#$I5 -" II@ .ecrease Da #45 #15$ x#$ /ncrease ?1)4 x#$ &hermal stability +bility of a material to 'ecompose un'er heat stress1 9ore ionic( more thermally stable( more heat before 'ecomposition - 2hermal stability of a carbonate &ill 'epen' on the stability of the carbonate lattice compare' &ith the oxi'e lattice at the same temperature( as cation siAe changes 7Es(strength of bon'ing in an ionic substance)of carbonates 0 oxi'es change by 'ifferent factor - &hermal stability increases do0n the *roup as cations have a larger ionic ra'ius so charge 'ensity 'ecreases( so lo&er polarising po&er 'istorting carbonate3nitrate anion less Croup ) - Group # cations larger( less charge( compoun's more thermally stable than Group - so 'ifferences in 7E bet&een the carbonate 0 oxi'e arent sufficient to allo& 'ecomposition of the carbonates at Dunsen temperatures(except 7i &hich has the smallest cation) <i,;41(s" <i,4(s" # ;4,(*" - !itrates all 'ecompose ,NaN41(s" ,NaN4,(s" # 4,(*" (except 7i) =<iN41(s" ,<i,4(s" # =N4,(*" # 4,(*" (0hite" Nitrite (pale yello0" 7arger cations give nitrites(smaller anions than nitrates( &ith higher 7E( but not too small like the oxi'e) Croup , 7imestone *eat - %arbonates all 'ecompose ;a;41(s" ;a4(s" # ;4,(*" Reaction use' in cement manufacture an' extraction of iron - !itrates all 'ecompose ,;a(N41",(s" ,;a4(s" # =N4,(*" # 4,(*" (0hite" (bro0n" Small cations form stronger lattices &ith oxi'e than &ith the larger nitrate ,A*N41 ,A* # ,N4, # 4, &est of ease of decomposition of nitrates *o& long it takes until ,- or !,- (toxic bro&n gas(fume cupboar'))is pro'uce' &est of ease of decomposition of carbonates *o& long it takes until %,- is pro'uce' S block metals are far too reactive to occur native(as the uncombine' metal) all are extracte' by electrolysis of their molten chlori'es so conversion to the chlori'es necessary for extraction(except !a( E) - !a%l obtaine' by solution mining(&ater pumpe' into un'erlying salt strata an' brine obtaine'( can lea' to lan' subsi'ence) !a%l in sea&ater is at a lo& concentration E obtaine' from soluble mineral carnallite 7i( Rb( %s in insoluble aluminosilicate minerals - De in beryl(pale green insoluble aluminosilicate)use' as a semi-precious stone 9g in sea&ater 0 in carnallite 0 'olomite %a in limestone( marble( chalk( Sr( Da in their insoluble sulphates Flame test # %lean en' of platinum3nichrome &ire by 'ipping it into (conc)*%l an' burning off impurities in a roaring bunsen flame until theres no persistent flame colouration - 9oisten the en' of the clean &ire &ith (conc)*%l an' then 'ip into the sample to be teste' 4 *ol' the sample at the e'ge of a roaring bunsen flame 7ithium %armine re' %alcium Drick re' So'ium Yello& Strontium %rimson Potassium 7ilac Darium +pple green - *eat energy absorbe' from the flame causes electrons to be excite' &ithin the metal(move to higher energy levels) 8hen these return to lo&er energy levels they emit light of characteristic fre uencies an' colour can be observe'( or analyse' in a spectrometer(sho&s a spectrum)&hich gives a line emission spectrum( light appears as a series of coloure' lines( each line of light is a particular level an' &avelength( &hich is evi'ence that electrons can only be foun' at particular energy levels(shells an' subshells) &ithin an atom( !a light is virtually monochromatic - B /n astronomy spectra can be use' to analyse the atmosphere of other planets B So'ium vapour use' in yello& street lamps B !a%l use' as foo' flavouring an' preservative B So'ium carbonate use' in manufacture of glass B !a,* use' in manufacture of soaps( 'etergents( bleaches B Potassium nitrate use' in fertilisers B 9agnesium hy'roxi'e use' in antaci' in'igestion po&'ers to neutraliAe excess stomach aci' B %alcium carbonate an' calcium oxi'e use' in agriculture to re'uce aci'ity of soil an' improve fertility B Darium sulphate use' in K-ray scans

m e ltin g t e m p e r a tu r e / K

(#)+r insulator becauseJ (#)B 9onatomic B =ull outer shells of electrons tightly hel' in place so completely unintereste' in bon'ing (-)8hy 'oes calcium stop reacting &ith ('il)*-S,) after a fe& secon's even though it 'i'nt react initially (-)B %alcium sulphate B =orms an insoluble3protective layer (#)State relative thermal stability of potassium nitrate an' calcium nitrate an' explain ho& its relate' to the siAes an' charges of the ions involve' (#) B %alcium nitrate less thermally stable3'ecomposes more easily than potassium nitrate B %a cation smaller B &ith 'ouble charge B polarises nitrate more B bon's in nitrate more easily broken3oxygen atom more attracte' (#).escribe a test to 'istinguish bet&een 7i%l(s) an' !a%l(s) (#)=lame test (-)State ho& a flame test &oul' 'istinguish bet&een %a(!,4)- an' Da(!,4)- (-)%a brick re'( Da (apple)green (#)(a)(i)/'entify one of the elements that is compose' of simple molecules at R2 (i)P or S or %l 1800 (-)!ame the type of bon'ing in (i)%a%l- (ii)*%l(g) (-)(i)/onic (ii)%ovalent 1600 (4)(i)- factors &hich affect the polarising po&er of cationsJ (i)ionic ra'ius( charge 1400 (#)(a)- bottles are clearly labele' Rsulphate1 2he soli' in bottle + 'issolves easily in &ater but none of the soli' in bottle D appears to 'issolve &hen a''e' to &ater 8hich of these t&o bottles contains barium sulphateJ (a)D (b)Dottle %( labele' Rmagnesium carbonate 8hen a sample is heate' a colourless gas is pro'uce' that turns lime&ater clou'y1 State &hether this label is correct an' explain (b)7ime&atermilky %,- 9g%,4 'ecomposes on heating to %,- label correct
1200 1000 800 600 400 200 0 Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar

e le m e n t

4!idation Is <oss Reduction Is Cain ,xi'ation an' re'uction occur together in re'ox reactions( each element in a compoun' is treate' as an ion Synthesis reactions - or more simple substances combine to form a more complex substance -*- " ,- -*-, Decomposition reaction %omplex substance breaks 'o&n into its more simple parts -*-, -*- " ,4!idation %hemical process in &hich electrons are remove' from an atom( ion or compoun' ,xygen is a''e'3hy'grogen is lost from a substance 4!idisin* a*ent +cceptor of electrons in a re'ox reaction( the best being fluorine Reducin* a*ent 2he reactant that gives up electrons in a re'ox reaction 4!idation number(state" %harge on an atom if the element3compoun' &ere ionic Disproportionation + reaction in &hich an element3compoun' simultaneously un'ergoes both oxi'ation an' re'uction # Elements have ,x !o Aero(*-( Dr-( !a( De( E) - 9onatomic ions ,x !o same as charge 4 ,x !o of = is al&ays (-#)( * is ("#) in most compoun's( ,(I-) B Sum of ,x !os in a neutral molecule must a'' up to Aero or the charge on the ion B ,x !os usually integers (,-I (,x !o = IZ)) B 2he more electronegative atom has the (-),x !o( % in %,- is ("))( in %*) is (I))( because carbon more electronegative than hy'rogen S,)-I overall oxi'ation = I,x state of , = Itotal = I> ,x state of S = "; =e),) overall oxi'ation = $ ,x state of , = Itotal = I; ,x state of =e = "4 8hen half reactions combine number of electrons in each must be the same(one or both half reactions may nee' to be multiplie') !,-I becomes !,4I &ith oxi'ising agent potassium manganate(F//) &ith *-S,) (electrons an' * ions 'ont combine to form hy'rogen since electrons arent free but given to an oxi'ising agent) - half reactions6 9n,)I " >*" " 5eI 9n-" " )*-, !,-I " *-, !,4I " -eI " -*" I " I -" Dalancing e uations6 (x-) -9n,) " #;* " #$e -9n " >*-, (x5) 5!,-I " 5*-, 5!,4I " #$eI " #$*" I I " -" I ,verall6 -9n,) " 5!,- " ;* -9n " 5!,4 " 4*-, (#)(i) 8rite ionic half e uation for re'uction of bromine to bromi'e ions (i)Dr- " -eI -DrI (ii) 8rite ionic half e uation for oxi'ation of =e-" ions to =e4" ions (ii)=e-" =e4" " eI -" (iii) *ence &rite overall ionic e uation for reaction of =e ions &ith bromine (iii)Dr- " -=e-" -DrI " -=e4"

5Halo*en/ 9eans salt former( because of large number of ionic( salt compoun's Group @ forms Enthalpy of dissociation Enthalpy change &hen # mole of a gaseous substance is broken up into free gaseous atoms(measure of strength of covalent bon's( bon' enthalpy("ve)) State at R2 9t S% Dt S% +tomic /onic #st /E E+ Don' %olour in %olour in ra'ius ra'ius kHmol I# kHmol I# 'issociation &ater hexane ppm ppm enthalpy = Pale yello& gas ---$ -#>> @#4; #;>$ -340 58 %l Green gas -#$# -4)1@ ?? #># #-;$ -4;) -)%olourless %olourless Dr Dro&n li ui' -@1- 5>1> ##) #?5 ##)$ -4)Dro&n .ecrease ,range /ncrease #?4 / .ark grey soli' ##) #>) #44 -#; #$#$ -4#) #5# Dro&n Purple *ighly reactive non-metals( strong oxi'ising agents( natural state is covalent 'iatomic molecules(%l -)( F'& forces bet&een molecules - %ovalency means lo& solubility in &ater( but 'issolves easily in organic compoun's(hexane) - *alogens in ("),x states 'ont form (")ions but are bon'e' covalently to more electronegative atoms as oxyanions ,%l I 0 %l,4I - E+ 0 bon' 'issociation enthalpies peak at %l( normally the shorter a bon' the stronger it is( but &ith = the non bon'ing electrons are brought so close that they repel( &eakening the bon'(partly &hy = is very reactive) EN D o!idisin* po0er descendin* *roup E3!a%l(a ) E3!aDr(a ) E3!a/(a )(colourless) ,xi'ising strengths seen by 'isplacement reactions %l-(a )%olourless K ,range Dr-(a )forme' Dro&n /-(a ) forme' &ith hali'e ions Dr-(a ),range K K Dro&n /-(a ) forme' /-(a )Dro&n %l-(g) " -!a/(a ) -!a%l(a ) " /-(a ) K K K *alogens un'ergo 'isproportionation &ith alkalis %,7. *,2 -, # ,Na4H(a3" Na-4 # Na- # H,4 1-, # ?Na4H Na-41 # >Na- # 1H,4 K- " -,*I K,I " KI " *-, 4K- " ;,*I K,4I " 5!KI " 4*-, ,x State of K $ "# I# $ "5 I# ;hlorine test B S&imming pool smell( moist litmus paper blue re' bleache' B 9oist starch io'i'e paper( io'i'e ions oxi'ise' to io'ine( so turns blue-black B %l- &ill oxi'ise DrI to Dr- an' /I to /-( solutions turn orange3bro&n( excess %l- use' then /-(s)ppts ;l,(a3" # ,(r+(a3" (r,(a3" # ,;l+(a3" obtains bromine from sea &ater( use' for lea'e' petrol( antifreeAe %l- " -eI -%lI -DrI Dr- " -eI (romine test B Slo&er than chlorine( moist litmus paper blue re' bleache' B 9oist starch io'i'e paper( io'i'e ions oxi'ise' to io'ine( so turns blue-black B Dr- &ill oxi'ise /I to /-( solution 'arkens( immiscible organic solvent(hexane) can sho& presence of io'ine( turning solution purple B Dromine &ill react &ith paper moistene' &ith fluorescein 'ye turning it scarlet( pro'uct is eosin(ingre'ient of re' ink) Iodine test B !o effect on litmus B 9oist starch io'i'e paper an' starch solution turns blue-black &hich neither chlorine or bromine &ill 'o B /o'ine is purple in immiscible organic solvents(hexane( methylbenAene) &hich have no oxygen1 Presence an' test of oxygen in a solvent gives a bro&ner cast - *ali'es are compoun's &ith a halogen ion(E/( *%l( !aDr) - *y'rogen hali'es(covalent hy'ri'es *IK)aci'ic colourless gases( &hite misty fumes in moist air( giving &hite fumes &ith !*4(g) Polar molecules( high solubility( strong aci's 'ue to high *hy' of the *" ions an' relatively small hali'e ions &hich compensate for the bon' 'issociation energy of the molecule( extent to &hich 'issociation occurs 'epen'ent on *IK H-(a3" # H,4(l" H14#(a3" # -+(a3" *%l(g) " *-,(l) *"(a ) " %lI(a ) H;l. H(r. HI all stron* acids. stron*er do0n the *roup B Re'ucing po&er of hali'e increases 'escen'ing B 7arger atomic ra'ius( electrons further a&ay from the nucleus B Extra shiel'ing (ond enthalpy Strength of the bon'( energy nee'e' to make the bon'(+verage of bon' 'issociation enthalpies of a bon') Don' enthalpy for %I* bon' is average value from breaking all ) %I* bon's %*)(I)#;kHmol I#) Falue taken from *a(%*)) *I= *I%l *IDr *I/ Don' enthalpy (kHmol I#) 5;)4# 4;; -?? B *= aci' o''ly behaves as a &eak aci'( *I= bon' is the strongest( but not enough to explain the 'ifference in aci' strength 2his reaction prevents *I= molecules from 'issociating( =I ions form * bon's &ith un'issociate' *= molecules H+F(a3" # F+(a3" GF88888 H+FH + (a3" B *= not normally corrosive but 'issolves glass an' gives burns( from formation of Si=;-I ion &hich is &ater soluble( other hali'e ions are too large to fit aroun' the Si atom( *= solutions kept in poly(ethane)bottles Halide ion test(Not F" (Since +g= is &ater soluble) B +ci'ify &ith ('il)*!,4(a ) to ensure removal of ions &hich &oul' give a spurious ppt B +'' +g!,4(a )( silver hali'e ppt forme' -+(a3" # A*#(a3" A*-(s" B +'' ('il)3(conc)!*4 to ppt Reaction re'uces concentration of +g" ions A*#(a3" # ,NH1(a3" GA*(NH1",H#(a3" %l I +g!,4(a ) ('il)!*4 to ppt ,R B ,xi'ise to respective halogen 8hite ppt +g%l forms Ppt 'issolves leaving colourless solution B +ci'ify &ith ('il)*!,4(a ) to ensure removal of ions &hich &oul' give a spurious ppt Dr I +g!,4(a ) (conc)!*4 to ppt %ream ppt +gDr forms Ppt 'issolves leaving colourless solution B +'' immiscible organic solvent(hexane) B +'' so'ium chlorate(/) solution an' shake / I +g!,4(a ) (conc)!*4 to ppt B DrI = bro&n organic layer( /I = purple organic layer Yello& ppt +gDr forms Ppt insoluble

Halide salt 0ith (conc"H,S4= at R2 B <i7Na;l(s" # H,S4=(l" H;l(*" # <i7NaHS4=(s"so'ium hy'rogen sulphate %l- not pro'uce'( =lI an' %lI ions too &eak re'ucing agents to re'uce (conc)*-S,) B Dromi'e ions6 Na(r(s" # H,S4=(l" H(r(*" # NaHS4=(s" ,H(r(*" # H,S4=(l" (r,(*" # S4,(*" # ,H,4(l" /onic e uations -DrI Dr- " -eI *-S,) " -*" " -eI S,- " -*-, -DrI" -*" " *-S,) Dr- " S,- " -*-, B /o'i'e ions6 .ark grey soli' io'ine pro'uce'( mixture is bro&n( &ith purple io'ine vapour Dro&n colour 'ue to pro'uction of /4I I, # I + I1+ NaI(s" # H,S4=(l" HI(*" # NaHS4=(s" =irstly ,HI(*" # H,S4=(l" I,(s" # S4,(*" # ,H,4(l" 2hen ?HI(*" # H,S4=(l" 1I,(s" # S(s" # =H,4(l" =inally IHI(*" # H,S4=(l" =I,(s" # H,S(*" # =H,4(l" *-S(g) has Rba' egg smell ;hlorine 0ith 0ater ;l,(*" # H,4(l" H;l(a3" # H;l4 (a3" %l-(g) " *-,(l) -*"(a ) " %l,I(a ) " %lI(a ) *%l,(a ) " *-,(l) %l,I(a ) " *4,"(a ) *eat 1Na;l4 Na;l41 # ,Na;l(a3" 4%l,I(a ) -%lI(a ) " %l,4I(a ) !a%l in bleach 'oesnt matter( ho&ever bleach shoul'nt be mixe' &ith other materials as so'ium chlorate(/) &ill oxi'ise %l I to %l;l4+ # ,H# # ;l ;l, # H,4 So'ium chlorate(/) use' as 'isinfectant3&ater treatment( bleach B ,xyaci's(*%l, an' *%l,4) oxyanions are oxi'ising agents in aci'ic solution %l,I(a ) " -*"(a ) " -eI %lI(a ) " *-,(l) %l,4I(a ) " ;*"(a ) " ;eI %lI(a ) " 4*-,(l) Electrolysis of (conc"Na;l(a3"(brine" (sea &ater cant be use' because concentrations of !a%l too lo&) %ell &ith - compartments separate' by a membrane1 Solution contains !a " ions %lI ions *" ions ,*I ions #itani,m ano"e-./ oxi'ation ,;l+(a3" ;l,(*" # ,e+ (teel cat!o"e-0/ re'uction ,H#(a3" # ,e+ H,(*" " I r' !a an' ,* ions remain so 4 pro'uct is !a,*(a ) contaminate' by !a%l &hich must be separate' ,verall ,Na;l(a3" # ,H,4(l" ,Na4H(a3" # H,(*" # ;l,(*" Jses of chlorine 8ater3se&age treatment3sterilisation( PF%3*%l manufacture ,rganochlorine manufacture( chlorine reacts &ith many organic compoun's( can give pestici'es( though organochlorine causes problems such as toxicity an' oAone layer 'epletion from %=%s (#)Explain &hy *%l(g) is soluble in *-,(l) (#)*%l reacts &ith *-,(l) an' *" ions forme' (-)8hich of the elements %l or Dr is the stronger oxi'ising agentJ Explain the importance of this in the extraction of bromine from sea&ater (-)B %hlorine B %an except electrons from DrI (4)Dr-(a ) &ill oxi'ise =e-" ions to =e4" ions (i)8rite the ionic half-e uation for the re'uction of bromine to bromi'e ions (i)Dr- " -e -DrI (ii)8rite the ionic half-e uation for the oxi'ation of =e-" ions to =e4" ions (iii)*ence &rite the overall ionic e uation (')%hlorine an' bromine react &ith !a,*(a ) in a similar &ay at R2 (i)8rite e uation for bromine reaction &ith !a,*(a ) (i)Dr- " -!a,* !aDr " !aDr, " *-, (ii)8hat type of reaction is thisJ (ii).isproportionation *-S is pro'uce' &hen (conc)*-S,) is a''e' to !a/(s)( but S,- is pro'uce' &hen (conc)*-S,) is a''e' to !aDr(s) (#)(i)8rite an ionic half-e uation for oxi'ation of %lI to %l- (i)-%l %l- " -eI (ii)8rite an ionic half-e uation for re'uction of ,%lI to %lI in aci'ic con'itions (iii)%ombine the t&o ionic half-e uations to sho& the effect of a''ing aci' to bleach (#)(a)8hat &oul' happen &hen (i)E%l "(conc)*-S,) (i) B Reaction occurs B 9isty fumes B *%l 'oesnt re'uce sulphur in *-S,) aci' (ii)E/ " (conc)*-S,) (ii) B Reaction takes place B /o'ine pro'uce' black soli'3purple vapour B smell of sulphur or hy'rogen sulphi'e B !o */ pro'uce' an" 1 hy'rogen io'i'e re'uces sulphur in sulphuric aci' ,R sulphuric aci' can oxi'ise hy'rogen sulphi'e (b)2est to sho& that *%l(g) not */(g) &as given offJ (b) B .issolve in &ater B +'' +g!,4(a ) B 8hite ppt soluble in ('il)!*4 if chlori'e B Yello& ppt insoluble in (conc)!*4 if io'i'e (-)(i),bservations &hen (conc)*-S,) is a''e' to B 7ithium chlori'e(s) B So'ium bromi'e(s) B Potassium io'i'e(s) (-)(i) 8hite3steamy fumes (ii) Dro&n3orange li ui' (iii) Purple vapour3'ark soli' (4)(a),bservations &hen Dr-(a )is a''e' to a solution of E/ (4)(a)Solution from colourless to 'ark bro&n3black soli' pro'uce' ()) ,bservations &hen %l- " -/I /- " -%lI ())%olourless solution turns bro&n (5)E uation for reaction bet&een 7i%l(s) an' (conc)*-S,) (5)7i%l(s) " *-S,4(l) 7i*S,)(s) " *%l(g) 23 -7i%l(s) " *-S,)(l) 7i-S,)(s) " -*%l(g) (#)*y'raAine is manufacture' by reacting ammonia &ith so'ium chlorate(/) -!*4 " !a,%l !-*) " !a%l " *-, 2he reaction is a t&o stage process 2he #st stage is !*4 " !a,%l !a,* "!*-%7 8rite the e uation for the secon' stage (#)!*4 " !*-%l" !a,* !-*) " !a%l " *-, (ii),%lI " -*" " -e %lI " *-, (iii),%lI " -*" " %l %l- " *-, (ii)=e-" =e4" " e (iii)Dr- " -=e-" -Dr " -=e4"