Equations of Aircraft Motion Force Diagram Conventions

line Chord T V T ght path li F

M D

Horizontal

Definitions

V W L D M T

flight speed angle between horizontal & flight path angle of attack (angle between flight path and chord line) aircraft weight lift, force normal to flight path generated by air acting on aircraft drag, force along flight path generated by air acting on aircraft pitching moment propulsive force supplied by aircraft engine/propeller angle between thrust and flight path

To derive the equations of motion, we apply (1) F = ma Note: we will not be including the potential for a yaw force. Applying (1) in flight path direction: dV F = ma = m dt and examining the force diagram

= T cos T D W sin

T cos T D W sin = m

dV dt

(2)

Equations of Aircraft Motion

Now applying (1) in direction to flight path

F = ma = m

V2 rc

where rc radius of curvature of flight path

= L + T sin T W cos

L + T sin T W cos = m

V2 rc

(3)

Equations (2) & (3) give the equations of motion for an aircraft (neglecting yawing motions) and are quite general. One important specific case of these equations is level, steady flight with the thrust aligned w/ the flight path. dV = 0, rc , T = 0, = 0 dt

T =D L =W

Level, steady flight

Moment definitions The pitching moment must be defined relative to a specific location. The two typical locations are: leading edge 1 c , quarter of mean chord 4

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Equations of Aircraft Motion

Force & Moment Coefficients Typically, aerodynamicists use non-dimensional force & Moment coefficients.

CL

1 V2 S 2 3D Drag/Lift coefficients D CD 1 2 V S 2 L

where is freestream density

V is freestream velocity (flight speed)

S is a reference area (problem dependent)

1 V2 Freestream dynamic pressure 2

The moment coefficient requires another length scale:

CM

ref

1 V2 S ref 2 reference length scale (problem dependent)

For 2-D problems, such as an airfoil, the forces are actually forces/length. So, for example
3D force L D 2D force/length L D

Similarly, M M . The non-dimensional coefficients for 2-D are defined:

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Equations of Aircraft Motion

1 V2cref 2 D Cd 1 V2cref 2 M Cm 1 2 V2cref 2

where cref is a reference length such as the chord of an airfoil. Forces on Airfoils The forces & moments on airfoils are normalized by the chord length. So,

Cl

Cl

L
1 V2c 2

, Cd

D
1 V2c 2

, Cm

M
1 V2c 2 2

Force coefficients data is generally plotted in 2 forms: Lift curve

Cl Cl
max

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Equations of Aircraft Motion

Drag polar

Cd

Cl

Cd

min

Cl
Forces on Wings x

Cd

min

Cd

Wing planform

c(y)

c( y ) b
S

chord distribution wing span planform area =

b 2

cdy

b 2

b2 S We can think of the 3-D or total lift on the wing as being the sum (i.e. integral) of the 2-D lift acting on the wing. A aspect ratio

L=

b 2

L ( y ) dy

b 2

where L( y ) = lift distribution

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Equations of Aircraft Motion

The average 2-D lift on the wing L can be defined:

b

1 2 L L Ldy = b b b
2

Plugging that into CL :

CL

L 1 V2 S 2

Ldy
=

b 2

1 V2 S 2

b 2

Lb 1 V2 S 2

But, the average chord or mean chord can be defined as:

1 S cdy = b b b
2

b 2

CL

L L = 1 1 V2 S V2c 2 2

In other words, we can think of the 3-D lift coefficient as the mean value of the 2D lift coefficient on the wing. The same is true for drag and moment:

CD

1 1 V2 S V2c 2 2 M M = CM 1 1 V2 S ref V2c 2 2 2

where ref = c is used. A Closer Look at Drag The drag coefficient can be broken into 2 parts:
C2 C D = C D ,e + L eA parasite
drag induced drag

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Equations of Aircraft Motion

where e = span efficiency factor (more on this when we get to lifting line). The parasite drag contains everything except for induced drag including: skin friction drag wave drag pressure drag (due to separation) It is a function of , thus, we can also think of CD ,e as being a function of CL . The parasitic drag can be well-approximated by:
2 CD ,e = CD0 + rCL

where CD0 drag at CL = 0 , r = empirically determined constant.

1 2 CD = CD0 + r + CL eA
Finally, we can re-define e to include r :

CD = CD0 +
where e

1 2 CL eA

e . 1 + reA

This re-defined e is known as the Oswald efficiency factor. We will refer to CD0 as the parasite drag coefficient from now on.

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